INDEX

Sr.no Topic Page.no

1. Statement Of Purpose 0

1. Introduction 1
➦How are Electromagnetic Waves formed 1
➦Mathematical Representation of Electromagnetic Waves 2
2
➦Electromagnetic Wave Equation

2. Electromagnetic Spectrum 3

3. History and Discovery of Electromagnetic Spectrum 4

4. Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves 6

5. Electromagnetic Waves and Heinrich Hertz 7

6. Applications of Different Electromagnetic Waves 8

➦Radiowaves
➦Microwaves 8
9
➦Infrared radiation
10
➦Visible Light 10
➦Ultraviolet Rays 11
➦X Rays 11
➦Gamma Rays 12

7. Maxwell’s Equations 13

8. Wave Particle Duality

➦Wave Particle Duality 15

➦What is Photoelectric effect 16

9. Electromagnetic Radiations and Health Hazards 17

10. Conclusion 22

11. Bibliography 23

12. Acknowledgement 24
 STATEMENT OF PURPOSE
Electromagnetic Waves and their usage all around us has always intrigued me ever since I
first studied about it in 7th grade. Their vast application in almost every field and how
dependant we are on it for our daily activities lead me to choose this topic. I have thoroughly
enjoyed studying about this topic whenever it came in our physics textbooks and I am glad I
could make a project and know a lot more about it.
 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever marvelled at the sight of a stunning sunset, with hues of orange and pink
splashed across the horizon? Have you ever wondered how your smartphone wirelessly
connects you to the world, enabling seamless communication at the touch of a button? These
captivating experiences, and countless others, owe their existence to a phenomenon that
surrounds us, yet remains invisible to the naked eye: electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic waves are also known as EM waves. Electromagnetic radiations are

composed of electromagnetic waves that are produced when an electric field comes in contact
with the magnetic field. It can also be said that electromagnetic waves are the composition of
oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Electromagnetic waves are solutions of Maxwell’s
equations, which are the fundamental equations of electrodynamics.

EM waves travel with a constant velocity of 3.00 x 108 ms-1 in vacuum. They are deflected
neither by the electric field, nor by the magnetic field. However, they are capable of showing
interference or diffraction. An electromagnetic wave can travel through anything - be it air, a
solid material or vacuum. It does not need a medium to propagate or travel from one place to
another. Mechanical waves (like sound waves or water waves), on the other hand, need a
medium to travel. EM waves are 'transverse' waves. This means that they are measured by
their amplitude (height) and wavelength (distance between the highest/lowest points of two
consecutive waves).The highest point of a wave is known as 'crest', whereas the lowest point
is known as 'trough'.

How Are Electromagnetic Waves Formed?

• Generally, an electric field is produced by a charged particle. A force is exerted by
this electric field on other charged particles. Positive charges accelerate in the
direction of the field and negative charges accelerate in a direction opposite to the
direction of the field.

• The Magnetic field is produced by a moving charged particle. A force is exerted by

this magnetic field on other moving particles. The force on these charges is always
perpendicular to the direction of their velocity and therefore only changes the
direction of the velocity, not the speed.

• So, the electromagnetic field is produced by an accelerating charged particle.

Electromagnetic waves are nothing but electric and magnetic fields travelling through
free space with the speed of light c. An accelerating charged particle is when the
charged particle oscillates about an equilibrium position. If the frequency of
oscillation of the charged particle is f, then it produces an electromagnetic wave with
frequency f. The wavelength λ of this wave is given by λ = c/f. Electromagnetic
waves transfer energy through space.
Mathematical Representation of Electromagnetic Waves
A plane Electromagnetic wave travelling in the x-direction is of the form

In the electromagnetic wave, E is the electric field vector and B is the magnetic field vector.
Maxwell gave the basic idea of Electromagnetic radiations, while Hertz experimentally
confirmed the existence of an electromagnetic wave.

The direction of propagation of the electromagnetic wave is given by the vector cross product
of the electric field and magnetic field. It is given as:

Electromagnetic Wave Equation

• The electromagnetic wave equation describes the propagation of electromagnetic
waves in a vacuum or through a medium.

• The electromagnetic wave equation is a second-order partial differential equation.

• It is a 3D form of the wave equation.

• The homogeneous form of the equation is written as

Where,

Speed Of Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space

It is given by,

Where, is called absolute permeability. Its value is:

Ε is called absolute permeability. Its value is:

0

.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum) of electromagnetic
radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon energies.
The electromagnetic spectrum covers electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from
below one hertz to above 10 hertz, corresponding to wavelengths from thousands of
25

kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus.

This frequency range is divided into separate bands, and the electromagnetic waves within
each frequency band are called by different names; beginning at the low-frequency (long-
wavelength) end of the spectrum these are:

➣ Radio waves
➣Microwaves
➣ Infrared
➣Visible light
➣Ultraviolet
➣ X-rays
➣Gamma rays at the high-frequency (short wavelength) end.

The electromagnetic waves in each of these bands have different characteristics, such as how
they are produced, how they interact with matter, and their practical applications. There is no
known limit for long and short wavelengths. Extreme ultraviolet, soft X-rays, hard X-rays
and gamma rays are classified as ionising radiation because their photons have enough
energy to ionise atoms, causing chemical reactions. Radiation of visible light and longer
wavelengths are classified as non ionising radiation because they have insufficient energy to
cause these effects.

.
 HISTORY AND DISCOVERY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Humans have always been aware of visible light and radiant heat but for most of history it
was not known that these phenomena were connected or were representatives of a more
extensive principle. The ancient Greeks recognized that light traveled in straight lines and
studied some of its properties, including reflection and refraction.

Light was intensively studied from the beginning of the 17th century leading to the invention
of important instruments like the telescope and microscope. Isaac Newton was the first to use
the term spectrum for the range of colours that white light could be split into with a prism.
Starting in 1666, Newton showed that these colours were intrinsic to light and could be
recombined into white light. A debate arose over whether light had a wave nature or a
particle nature with René Descartes, Robert Hooke and Christiaan Huygens favouring a wave
description and Newton favouring a particle description.

Huygens in particular had a well developed theory from which he was able to derive the laws
of reflection and refraction. Around 1801, Thomas Young measured the wavelength of a light
beam with his two-slit experiment thus conclusively demonstrating that light was a wave.

In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation. He was studying the temperature of
different colours by moving a thermometer through light split by a prism. He noticed that the
highest temperature was beyond red. He theorized that this temperature change was due to
"calorific rays", a type of light ray that could not be seen. The next year, Johann Ritter,
working at the other end of the spectrum, noticed what he called "chemical rays" (invisible
light rays that induced certain chemical reactions). These behaved similarly to visible violet
light rays, but were beyond them in the spectrum. They were later renamed ultraviolet
[6]

radiation.

The study of electromagnetism began in 1820 when Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that
electric currents produce magnetic fields (Oersted's law). Light was first linked to
electromagnetism in 1845, when Michael Faraday noticed that the polarisation of light
travelling through a transparent material responded to a magnetic field (see Faraday effect).
During the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell developed four partial differential equations
(Maxwell's equations) for the electromagnetic field. Two of these equations predicted the
possibility and behaviour of waves in the field.

Analysing the speed of these theoretical waves, Maxwell realised that they must travel at a
speed that was about the known speed of light. This startling coincidence in value led
Maxwell to make the inference that light itself is a type of electromagnetic wave. Maxwell's
equations predicted an infinite range of frequencies of electromagnetic waves, all travelling at
the speed of light. This was the first indication of the existence of the entire electromagnetic
spectrum.

Maxwell's predicted waves included waves at very low frequencies compared to infrared,
which in theory might be created by oscillating charges in an ordinary electrical circuit of a
certain type. Attempting to prove Maxwell's equations and detect such low frequency
electromagnetic radiation, in 1886, the physicist Heinrich Hertz built an apparatus to generate
and detect what are now called radio waves. Hertz found the waves and was able to infer (by
measuring their wavelength and multiplying it by their frequency) that they traveled at the
speed of light. Hertz also demonstrated that the new radiation could be both reflected and
refracted by various dielectric media, in the same manner as light. For example, Hertz was
able to focus the waves using a lens made of tree resin. In a later experiment, Hertz similarly
produced and measured the properties of microwaves. These new types of waves paved the
way for inventions such as the wireless telegraph and the radio.

In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen noticed a new type of radiation emitted during an experiment with
an evacuated tube subjected to a high voltage. He called this radiation "x-rays" and found that
they were able to travel through parts of the human body but were reflected or stopped by
denser matter such as bones. Before long, many uses were found for this radiography.

The last portion of the electromagnetic spectrum was filled in with the discovery of gamma
rays. In 1900, Paul Villard was studying the radioactive emissions of radium when he
identified a new type of radiation that he at first thought consisted of particles similar to
known alpha and beta particles, but with the power of being far more penetrating than either.
However, in 1910, British physicist William Henry Bragg demonstrated that gamma rays are
electromagnetic radiation, not particles, and in 1914, Ernest Rutherford (who had named
them gamma rays in 1903 when he realized that they were fundamentally different from
charged alpha and beta particles) and Edward Andrade measured their wavelengths, and
found that gamma rays were similar to X-rays, but with shorter wavelengths.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

➦Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves: They consist of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave propagation.

➦They do not require a medium for propagation: Unlike mechanical waves, such as sound
waves, electromagnetic waves can travel through vacuum, empty space, and various
mediums, including air and solids.

➦Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light: In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves
travel at a constant speed of approximately 3 x 10^8 meters per second (or about 300,000
kilometers per second).

➦They exhibit a wide range of wavelengths and frequencies: Electromagnetic waves span a
vast spectrum, ranging from long-wavelength radio waves to short-wavelength gamma rays.
Each wave in the spectrum has a unique wavelength and frequency.

➦ Electromagnetic waves obey the wave-particle duality: They can be described as both
waves and particles. In certain experiments, electromagnetic waves exhibit particle-like
behavior known as photons.

➦They can be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted: When electromagnetic waves encounter a

boundary or an object, they can be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted, depending on the
properties of the material or surface.

➦ The energy of electromagnetic waves is quantized: The energy carried by electromagnetic

waves is quantized into discrete packets called photons. The energy of a photon is directly
proportional to its frequency.

➦Electromagnetic waves can interfere and exhibit diffraction: Similar to other wave
phenomena, electromagnetic waves can interfere constructively or destructively when two or
more waves overlap. They can also undergo diffraction, which is the bending or spreading of
waves when they encounter an obstacle or pass through an opening.

➦They can be polarized: Electromagnetic waves can be polarized, which means the electric
and magnetic fields oscillate in a specific orientation. Polarization can be linear, circular, or
elliptical.

➦ Electromagnetic waves carry energy and information: Electromagnetic waves transport

energy from one place to another. They also carry information, enabling communication
through various technologies such as radio, television, and mobile devices.
 ELECTROMAGENTIC WAVES AND HEINRICH HERTZ
Heinrich Hertz was a brilliant German physicist and experimentalist who demonstrated that
the electromagnetic waves predicted by James Clerk Maxwell actually exist. Hertz is also the
man whose peers honoured him by attaching his name to the unit of frequency; a cycle per
second is one hertz.

The usual path of science is to go from phenomenon to theory. For instance, Darwin tried to
make sense out of the interrelationships he observed between species and thereby gave us the
theory of evolution and natural selection. But occasionally, events run the other way.

The amount of energy condensed into matter was inconceivable before Einstein's little
equation, e = mc2, and the atom bomb was proof of principle. Radio-waves pre-existed
Maxwell's theory, published in 1865, but nobody would have known to look for them.
Maxwell's equations united the fields of electricity and magnetism and comprised the first
field theory in physics. "It is impossible to study this wonderful theory without feeling as if
the mathematical equations had an independent life and intelligence of their own, as if they
were wiser than ourselves, indeed wiser than their discoverer, as if they gave forth more than
he put into them," said Hertz.

Of course they gave only to those that had the ability to interpret them, and fortunately Hertz
was a pretty fair mathematician. As he also observed, "There are many lovers of science who
are curious as to the nature of light and are interested in simple experiments, but to whom
Maxwell's theory is nevertheless a seven-sealed book."

Hertz used a simple homemade experimental apparatus, involving an induction coil and a
Leyden jar (the original capacitor) to create electromagnetic waves and a spark gap between
two brass spheres to detect them. The gaps were difficult to see, and required that the he
perform his investigations in a darkened room.

"For the sparks are microscopically short, scarcely a hundredth of a millimeter; they last only
about a millionth of a second. It almost seems absurd and impossible that they should be
visible; but in a perfectly dark room they are visible to an eye which has been well rested in
the dark. Upon this thin thread hangs the success of our undertaking," said Hertz.

In later experiments, he was able to calculate the speed of the radio waves he created, and
found it to be the same as the speed of light. A great number of subsequent developments,
like radio and television, not to mention Wi-Fi, were spun out of his simple demonstrations.
Hertz was well aware of the extent of his contribution.

"We perceive electricity in a thousand places where we had no proof of its existence before.
In every flame, in every luminous particle, we see an electric process. Even if a body is not
luminous, provided it radiates heat, it is a centre of electric disturbances. Thus the domain of
electricity extends over the whole of nature."
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENT ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

RADIO WAVES

The term radio waves refers to electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths greater than about
0.1 m. Radio waves are commonly used for audio communications (i.e., for radios), but the
term is used for electromagnetic waves in this range regardless of their application. Radio
waves typically result from an alternating current in the wires of a broadcast antenna. They
cover a very broad wavelength range and are divided into many subranges, including
microwaves, electromagnetic waves used for AM and FM radio, cellular telephones, and TV
signals.

There is no lowest frequency of radio waves, but ELF waves, or “extremely low frequency”
are among the lowest frequencies commonly encountered, from 3Hz to 3 kHz The
accelerating charge in the ac currents of electrical power lines produce electromagnetic waves
in this range. ELF waves are able to penetrate sea water, which strongly absorbs
electromagnetic waves of higher frequency, and therefore are useful for submarine
communications.

In order to use an electromagnetic wave to transmit information, the amplitude, frequency, or

phase of the wave is modulated, or varied in a controlled way that encodes the intended
information into the wave. In AM radio transmission, the amplitude of the wave is modulated
to mimic the vibrations of the sound being conveyed. Fourier’s theorem implies that the
modulated AM wave amounts to a superposition of waves covering some narrow frequency
range. Each AM station is assigned a specific carrier frequency that, by international
agreement, is allowed to vary by +/- 5kHz In FM radio transmission, the frequency of the
wave is modulated to carry this information and the frequency of each station is allowed to
use 100kHz on each side of its carrier frequency.

The electromagnetic wave produces a current in a receiving antenna, and the radio or
television processes the signal to produce the sound and any image. The higher the frequency
of the radio wave used to carry the data, the greater the detailed variation of the wave that can
be carried by modulating it over each time unit, and the more data that can be transmitted per
unit of time.

Radio waves are extremely widely used to transmit information across distances in television,
mobile phones, communication satellites, and wireless networking.Radio waves are also used
for navigation in systems like Global Positioning System (GPS) and navigational beacons,
and locating distant objects in radiolocation and radar. They are also used for remote control,
and for industrial heating.

The use of the radio spectrum is strictly regulated by governments, coordinated by the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) which allocates frequencies to different users
for different uses.
MICROWAVES
Microwaves are the highest-frequency electromagnetic waves that can be produced by
currents in macroscopic circuits and devices. Microwave frequencies range from about 10 Hz 9

to nearly 10 Hz. Their high frequencies correspond to short wavelengths compared with
12

other radio waves—hence the name “microwave.” Microwaves also occur naturally as the
cosmic background radiation left over from the origin of the universe. Along with other
ranges of electromagnetic waves, they are part of the radiation that any object above absolute
zero emits and absorbs because of thermal agitation, that is, from the thermal motion of its
atoms and molecules.

Most satellite-transmitted information is carried on microwaves. Radar is a common

application of microwaves. By detecting and timing microwave echoes, radar systems can
determine the distance to objects as diverse as clouds, aircraft, or even the surface of Venus.
Microwaves of 2.45 GHz are commonly used in microwave ovens. The electrons in a water
molecule tend to remain closer to the oxygen nucleus than the hydrogen nuclei. This creates
two separate centres of equal and opposite charges, giving the molecule a dipole moment.
The oscillating electric field of the microwaves inside the oven exerts a torque that tends to
align each molecule first in one direction and then in the other, with the motion of each
molecule coupled to others around it. This pumps energy into the continual thermal motion of
the water to heat the food. The plate under the food contains no water, and remains relatively
unheated.

The microwaves in a microwave oven reflect off the walls of the oven, so that the
superposition of waves produces standing waves, similar to the standing waves of a vibrating
guitar or violin string. A rotating fan acts as a stirrer by reflecting the microwaves in different
directions, and food turntables help spread out the hot spots.

Microwaves also provide the WiFi that enables owners of cell phones, laptop computers, and
similar devices to connect wirelessly to the Internet at home and at coffee shops and airports.
A wireless WiFi router is a device that exchanges data over the Internet through the cable or
another connection, and uses microwaves to exchange the data wirelessly with devices such
as cell phones and computers. The term WiFi itself refers to the standards followed in
modulating and analysing the microwaves so that wireless routers and devices from different
manufacturers work compatible with one another. The computer data in each direction
consist of sequences of binary zeros and ones, each corresponding to a binary bit. The
microwaves are in the 2.4 GHz to 5.0 GHz range.

Other wireless technologies also use microwaves to provide everyday communications

between devices. Bluetooth developed alongside WiFi as a standard for radio communication
in the 2.4GHz range between nearby devices, for example, to link headphones and audio
earpieces to devices such as radios, or a driver’s cell phone to a hands-free device to allow
answering phone calls without fumbling directly with the cell phone.

Microwaves find use also in radio tagging, using RFID (radio frequency identification)
technology. Examples are RFID tags attached to store merchandise, transponders for toll
booths used attached to the windshield of a car, or even a chip embedded into a pet’s skin.
The device responds to a microwave signal by emitting a signal of its own with encoded
information, allowing stores to quickly ring up items at their cash registers, drivers to charge
tolls to their account without stopping, and lost pets to be reunited with their owners. NFC
(near field communication) works similarly, except it is much shorter range. Its mechanism
of interaction is the induced magnetic field at microwave frequencies between two coils. Cell
phones that have NFC capability and the right software can supply information for purchases
using the cell phone instead of a physical credit card. The very short range of the data transfer
is a desired security feature in this case.

INFRARED RADIATION
The boundary between the microwave and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
is not well defined. Infrared radiation is generally produced by thermal motion, and the
vibration and rotation of atoms and molecules. Electronic transitions in atoms and molecules
can also produce infrared radiation. About half of the solar energy arriving at Earth is in the
infrared region, with most of the rest in the visible part of the spectrum. About 48% of the
solar energy is absorbed in the atmosphere, about 23% is absorbed at Earth’s surface, and
about 29% is reflected back into space.

The range of infrared frequencies extends up to the lower limit of visible light, just below red.
In fact, infrared means “below red.” Water molecules rotate and vibrate particularly well at
infrared frequencies. Reconnaissance satellites can detect buildings, vehicles, and even
individual humans by their infrared emissions, whose power radiation is proportional to the
fourth power of the absolute temperature. More mundanely, we use infrared lamps, including
those called quartz heaters, to preferentially warm us because we absorb infrared better than
our surroundings.

The familiar handheld “remotes” for changing channels and settings on television sets often
transmit their signal by modulating an infrared beam. If you try to use a TV remote without
the infrared emitter being in direct line of sight with the infrared detector, you may find the
television not responding.

VISIBLE LIGHT
Above infrared in frequency comes visible light. The Sun emits its peak power in the visible
region, although integrating the entire emission power spectrum through all wavelengths
shows that the Sun emits slightly more infrared than visible light. By definition, visible light
is the part of the EM spectrum the human eye is the most sensitive to. Visible light (and near-
infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in molecules and atoms that
move from one energy level to another. This action allows the chemical mechanisms that
underlie human vision and plant photosynthesis. The light that excites the human visual
system is a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A rainbow shows the optical
(visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if it could be seen) would be located
just beyond the red side of the rainbow whilst ultraviolet would appear just beyond the
opposite violet end.

Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 380 nm and 760 nm (400–790

terahertz) is detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths,
especially near infrared (longer than 760 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 380 nm) are also
sometimes referred to as light, especially when the visibility to humans is not relevant. White
light is a combination of lights of different wavelengths in the visible spectrum. Passing
white light through a prism splits it up into the several colours of light observed in the visible
spectrum between 400 nm and 780 nm.
If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum reflects off an object,
say, a bowl of fruit, and then strikes the eyes, this results in visual perception of the scene.
The brain's visual system processes the multitude of reflected frequencies into different
shades and hues, and through this insufficiently-understood psychophysical phenomenon,
most people perceive a bowl of fruit.

ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
Ultraviolet means “above violet.” The electromagnetic frequencies of ultraviolet radiation
(UV) extend upward from violet, the highest-frequency visible light. The highest-frequency
ultraviolet overlaps with the lowest-frequency X-rays. The wavelengths of ultraviolet extend
from 400nm down to about 10 nm at its highest frequencies. Ultraviolet is produced by
atomic and molecular motions and electronic transitions.

UV radiation from the Sun is broadly subdivided into three wavelength ranges: UV-A (320-
400 nm) is the lowest frequency, then UV-B (290-320 nm) and UV-C (220-290 nm). Most
UV-B and all UV-C are absorbed by ozone (0 ) molecules in the upper atmosphere.
3

Consequently, 99% of the solar UV radiation reaching Earth’s surface is UV-A.

Sunburn is caused by large exposures to UV-B and UV-C, and repeated exposure can
increase the likelihood of skin cancer. The tanning response is a defence mechanism in which
the body produces pigments in inert skin layers to reduce exposure of the living cells below.
As examined in a later chapter, the shorter the wavelength of light, the greater the energy
change of an atom or molecule that absorbs the light in an electronic transition. This makes
short-wavelength ultraviolet light damaging to living cells. It also explains why ultraviolet
radiation is better able than visible light to cause some materials to glow, or fluoresce.

Besides the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation, there are also benefits of exposure in
nature and uses in technology. Vitamin D production in the skin results from exposure to UV-
B radiation, generally from sunlight. Several studies suggest vitamin D deficiency is
associated with the development of a range of cancers (prostate, breast, colon), as well as
osteoporosis.

Low-intensity ultraviolet has applications such as providing the energy to cause certain dyes
to fluoresce and emit visible light, for example, in printed money to display hidden
watermarks as counterfeit protection.

X RAYS
X-rays have wavelengths from about 10 m to 10 m. They have shorter wavelengths, and
-8 -12

higher frequencies, than ultraviolet, so that the energy they transfer at an atomic level is
greater.

As a result, X-rays have adverse effects on living cells similar to those of ultraviolet
radiation, but they are more penetrating. Cancer and genetic defects can be induced by X-
rays. Because of their effect on rapidly dividing cells, X-rays can also be used to treat and
even cure cancer.
The widest use of X-rays is for imaging objects that are opaque to visible light, such as the
human body or aircraft parts. In humans, the risk of cell damage is weighed carefully against
the benefit of the diagnostic information obtained.

GAMMA RAYS

Soon after nuclear radioactivity was first detected in 1896, it was found that at least three
distinct types of radiation were being emitted, and these were designated as alpha, beta, and
gamma rays. The most penetrating nuclear radiation, the gamma ray (ɣ ray), was later found
to be an extremely high-frequency electromagnetic wave.

The lower end of the ɣ ray frequency range overlaps the upper end of the X-ray range.
Gamma rays have characteristics identical to X-rays of the same frequency—they differ only
in source. The name “gamma rays” is generally used for electromagnetic radiation emitted by
a nucleus, while X-rays are generally produced by bombarding a target with energetic
electrons in an X-ray tube.

At higher frequencies, ɣ rays are more penetrating and more damaging to living tissue. They
have many of the same uses as X-rays, including cancer therapy. Gamma radiation from
radioactive materials is used in nuclear medicine.
 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
Maxwell’s four equations describe the electric and magnetic fields arising from distributions
of electric charges and currents, and how those fields change in time. They were the
mathematical distillation of decades of experimental observations of the electric and
magnetic effects of charges and currents, plus the profound intuition of Michael
Faraday. Maxwell’s own contribution to these equations is just the last term of the last
equation—but the addition of that term had dramatic consequences.

It made evident for the first time that varying electric and magnetic fields could feed off each
other—these fields could propagate indefinitely through space, far from the varying charges
and currents where they originated. Previously these fields had been envisioned as tethered
to the charges and currents giving rise to them. Maxwell’s new term (called the
displacement current) freed them to move through space in a self-sustaining fashion, and
even predicted their velocity—it was the velocity of light!

Here are the equations:

1. Gauss’ Law for electric fields:

(The integral of the outgoing electric field over an area enclosing a volume equals the total
charge inside, in appropriate units.)

2. The corresponding formula for magnetic fields:

(No magnetic charge exists: no “monopoles”.)

3. Faraday’s Law of Magnetic Induction:

The first term is integrated around a closed line, usually a wire, and gives the total voltage
change around the circuit, which is generated by a varying magnetic field threading through
the circuit.
4. Ampere’s Law plus Maxwell’s displacement current:

This gives the total magnetic force around a circuit in terms of the current through the circuit,
plus any varying electric field through the circuit (that’s the “displacement current”).
The purpose of this lecture is to review the first three equations and the original Ampere’s
law fairly briefly, as they were covered earlier in the course, then to demonstrate why the
displacement current term must be added for consistency, and finally to show, without using
differential equations, how measured values of static electrical and magnetic attraction are
sufficient to determine the speed of light.
 WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY
. Wave-Particle Duality helps us to understand the particle and wave nature of light.
Based on the idea that light and all other electromagnetic radiation may be considered a
particle or a wave nature, in 1923 physicist Louis De Broglie suggested that the same kind of
duality must apply to the matter. He proposed that any particle of matter having momentum
(p) Has an associated wavelength (λ).

De Broglie Wavelength formula is given by λ= h/p

Where, h is the Planck constant

for a particle of momentum mv, the wavelength is given by λ=h/mv

This equation is also applicable for photons too.

Early in this century, De Broglie began to realise the extent to which both models describe
the same phenomena. Waves can be described as particles; particles, as waves. Diffraction
and interference phenomena reveal a wave-like character in light. Still, the photoelectric
effect, absorption and emission by atoms show light to have a particle-like character as well.
Electrons have mass but can be diffracted like caves. Nature reveals a particle duality and
ambiguity uncharacteristic of science. While the meaning of this wave-particle duality
remains a subject of intense debate, many physicists now accept the Bohr complement-yarn
principle. The two models exclude one another, yet both are necessary for a complete
description of nature.

According to Planck’s Hypothesis of the Quantum Theory, the energy is emitted in quanta,
which are little packets of energy. He states that energy emitted is related to the frequency of
the emitted light, and this can be considered a Wave-Particle Duality definition. According to
Planck’s hypothesis, the quantum energy is related to the frequency by the equation E = hν.
Observing a light is one of the easiest ways to prove the duality between a particle and a
wave. Since light is similar to waves, it can diffract, refract, interface, etc.

Albert Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect significantly contributed to De Broglie’s

Theory and acted as proof that particles and waves could overlap. Light can also be observed
in the form of a particle called a photon. When light is seen on certain objects, electrons are
released. A certain amount of energy is needed to eliminate an electron from the surface of an
object. So, an electron will be emitted when a photon of greater energy than an electron hits a
solid.

When the electrons are emitted, they also release kinetic energy. According to classical wave
theory, the greater the intensity, the greater the energy. Because the energy of a wave is
directly proportional to its amplitude, it was complex for scientists to find high-intensity
lights that did not affect its overall kinetic energy.

Researchers discovered that light frequency effectively changed the amount of kinetic energy.
Since some objects do not emit electrons at particular frequencies, a threshold value V0 is
applied. This threshold is used to describe the amount of kinetic energy required for a photon
to eject an electron. The scientists arrived at a linear relationship between frequency and
kinetic energy.which can be shown by the rough sketch below.
The slope of this line is known as Planck’s Constant, h = 6.63 x 10-34
Since the energy of waves and the energy of light do not coincide, we can say that light is a
particle that has the property of waves.

Some terms linked with the wave form of light:

Interference: Interference of light refers to the superimposition of waves to form a

resultant wave, which can be of the higher, lower, or the same amplitude. Amplitude is the
height of the wave. When two light waves form a superimposed wave of higher amplitude,
the phenomenon is called constructive interference. When two light waves form a
superimposed wave of lower amplitude, the phenomenon is called destructive interference.
Interference of light yields in the redistribution of energies of the source waves, which causes
the formation of an interference pattern on screens.

Reflection: When a ray of light approaches a smooth polished surface and the light ray
bounces back, it is called the reflection of light. The incident light ray that lands on the
surface is reflected off the surface. The ray that bounces back is called the reflected ray. If a
perpendicular were drawn on a reflecting surface, it would be called normal. The figure
below shows the reflection of an incident beam on a plane mirror.

Diffraction: Diffraction of light is defined as the bending of light around corners such that
it spreads out and illuminates areas where a shadow is expected. In general, it is hard to
separate diffraction from interference since both occur simultaneously. The silver lining
which we witness in the sky is caused due to diffraction of light. When the sunlight passes
through or encounters the cloud, a silver lining is seen in the sky

What is Photoelectric effect?:

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the surface of
a metal when light is incident on it. These ejected electrons are called photoelectrons. It is
important to note that the emission of photoelectrons and the kinetic energy of the ejected
photoelectrons is dependent on the frequency of the light that is incident on the metal’s
surface. The process through which photoelectrons are ejected from the surface of the metal
due to the action of light is commonly referred to as photoemission.

The photoelectric effect occurs because the electrons at the surface of the metal tend to
absorb energy from the incident light and use it to overcome the attractive forces that bind
them to the metallic nuclei
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS AND HEALTH HAZARDS
Electromagnetic radiation can be classified into two types: ionising radiation and non-
ionizing radiation, based on the capability of a single photon with more than 10 eV energy to
ionise atoms or break chemical bonds. Extreme ultraviolet and higher frequencies, such as X-
rays or gamma rays are ionising, and these pose their own special hazards: radiation
poisoning.

The most common health hazard of radiation is sunburn, which causes between
approximately 100,000 and 1 million new skin cancers annually in the United States. [2][3]

In 2011, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC) classified radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as possibly carcinogenic
to humans (Group 2B).

Dielectric heating from electromagnetic fields can create a biological hazard. For example,
touching or standing around an antenna while a high-power transmitter is in operation can
cause burns (the mechanism is the same as that used in a microwave oven).

The heating effect varies with the power and the frequency of the electromagnetic energy, as
well as the inverse square of distance to the source. The eyes and testes are particularly
susceptible to radio frequency heating due to the paucity of blood flow in these areas that
could otherwise dissipate the heat build up.

Radio frequency (RF) energy at power density levels of 1–10 mW/cm or higher can cause
2

measurable heating of tissues. Typical RF energy levels encountered by the general public are
well below the level needed to cause significant heating, but certain workplace environments
near high power RF sources may exceed safe exposure limits. A measure of the heating effect
is the specific absorption rate or SAR, which has units of watts per kilogram (W/kg). The
IEEE and many national governments have established safety limits for exposure to various
frequencies of electromagnetic energy based on SAR, mainly based on ICNIRP Guidelines,
which guard against thermal damage.

Effects by Frequency
While the most acute exposures to harmful levels of electromagnetic radiation are
immediately realised as burns, the health effects due to chronic or occupational exposure may
not manifest effects for months or years

Extremely low frequency

Extremely low frequency EM waves can span from 0 Hz to 3 kHz, though definitions vary
across disciplines. The maximum recommended exposure for the general public is 5 kV/m ]

ELF waves around 50 Hz to 60 Hz are emitted by power generators, transmission lines and
distribution lines, power cables, and electric appliances. Typical household exposure to ELF
waves ranges in intensity from 5 V/m for a light bulb to 180 V/m for a stereo, measured at 30
centimetres (12 in) and using 240V power. (120V power systems would be unable to reach
this intensity unless an appliance has an internal voltage transformer.) Overhead power lines
range from 1kV for local distribution to 1,150 kV for ultra high voltage lines. These can
produce electric fields up to 10kV/m on the ground directly underneath, but 50 m to 100 m
away these levels return to approximately ambient. Metal equipment must be maintained at a
safe distance from energised high-voltage lines.

Exposure to ELF waves can induce an electric current. Because the human body is
conductive, electric currents and resulting voltages differences typically accumulate on the
skin but do not reach interior tissues. People can start to perceive high-voltage charges as
tingling when hair or clothing in contact with the skin stands up or vibrates. In scientific tests,
only about 10% of people could detect a field intensity in the range of 2-5 kV/m. Such
]

voltage differences can also create electric sparks, similar to a discharge of static electricity
when nearly touching a grounded object. When receiving such a shock at 5 kV/m, it was
reported as painful by only 7% of test participants and by 50% of participants at 10 kV/m.

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) finds "inadequate evidence" for
human carcinogenicity.

Shortwave

Shortwave (1.6 to 30 MHz) diathermy (where EM waves are used to produce heat) can be
used as a therapeutic technique for its analgesic effect and deep muscle relaxation, but has
largely been replaced by ultrasound. Temperatures in muscles can increase by 4–6 °C, and
subcutaneous fat by 15 °C. The FCC has restricted the frequencies allowed for medical
treatment, and most machines in the US use 27.12 MHz. Shortwave diathermy can be applied
in either continuous or pulsed mode. The latter came to prominence because the continuous
mode produced too much heating too rapidly, making patients uncomfortable. The technique
only heats tissues that are good electrical conductors, such as blood vessels and muscle.
Adipose tissue (fat) receives little heating by induction fields because an electrical current is
not actually going through the tissues.

Studies have been performed on the use of shortwave radiation for cancer therapy and
promoting wound healing, with some success. However, at a sufficiently high energy level,
shortwave energy can be harmful to human health, potentially causing damage to biological
tissues, for example by overheating or inducing electrical currents. The FCC limits for
maximum permissible workplace exposure to shortwave radio frequency energy in the range
of 3–30 MHz has a plane-wave equivalent power density of (900/f ) mW/cm where f is the
2 2

frequency in MHz, and 100 mW/cm from 0.3 to 3.0 MHz. For uncontrolled exposure to the
2

general public, the limit is 180/f between 1.34 and 30 MHz.

2

Radio and microwave frequencies

The designation of mobile phone signals as "possibly carcinogenic to humans" by the World
Health Organization (WHO) (e.g. its IARC, see below) has often been misinterpreted as
indicating that some measure of risk has been observed – however the designation indicates
only that the possibility could not be conclusively ruled out using the available data.
In 2011, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified mobile phone
radiation as Group 2B "possibly carcinogenic" (rather than Group 2A "probably
carcinogenic" nor the "is carcinogenic" Group 1). That means that there "could be some risk"
of carcinogenicity, so additional research into the long-term, heavy use of mobile phones
needs to be conducted.The WHO concluded in 2014 that "A large number of studies have
been performed over the last two decades to assess whether mobile phones pose a potential
health risk. To date, no adverse health effects have been established as being caused by
mobile phone use."

Since 1962, the microwave auditory effect or tinnitus has been shown from radio frequency
exposure at levels below significant heating.Studies during the 1960s in Europe and Russia
claimed to show effects on humans, especially the nervous system, from low energy RF
radiation; the studies were disputed at the time.

In 2019, reporters from the Chicago Tribune tested the level of radiation from smartphones
and found that certain models emitted more than reported by the manufacturers and in some
cases more than the U.S. Federal Communications Commission exposure limit. It is unclear if
this resulted in any harm to consumers. Some problems apparently involved the phone's
ability to detect proximity to a human body and lower the radio power. In response, the FCC
began testing some phones itself rather than relying solely on manufacturer certifications.

Microwave and other radio frequencies cause heating, and this can cause burns or eye
damage if delivered in high intensity, or hyperthermia as with any powerful heat source.
Microwave ovens use this form of radiation, and have shielding to prevent it from leaking out
and unintentionally heating nearby objects or people.

Millimeter waves

In 2009, the US TSA introduced full-body scanners as a primary screening modality in

airport security, first as backscatter X-ray scanners, which use ionizing radiation and which
the European Union banned in 2011 due to health and safety concerns. These were followed
by non-ionizing millimeter wave scanners. Likewise WiGig for personal area networks have
opened the 60 GHz and above microwave band to SAR exposure regulations. Previously,
microwave applications in these bands were for point-to-point satellite communication with
minimal human exposure.

Infrared

Infrared wavelengths longer than 750 nm can produce changes in the lens of the eye.
Glassblower's cataract is an example of a heat injury that damages the anterior lens capsule
among unprotected glass and iron workers. Cataract-like changes can occur in workers who
observe glowing masses of glass or iron without protective eyewear for prolonged periods
over many years.
Exposing skin to infrared radiation near visible light (IR-A) leads to increased production of
free radicals Short-term exposure can be beneficial (activating protective responses), while
]

prolonged exposure can lead to photoaging.

Another important factor is the distance between the worker and the source of radiation. In
the case of arc welding, infrared radiation decreases rapidly as a function of distance, so that
farther than three feet away from where welding takes place, it does not pose an ocular
hazard anymore but, ultraviolet radiation still does. This is why welders wear tinted glasses
and surrounding workers only have to wear clear ones that filter UV.

Visible light

Photic retinopathy is damage to the macular area of the eye's retina that results from
prolonged exposure to sunlight, particularly with dilated pupils. This can happen, for
example, while observing a solar eclipse without suitable eye protection. The Sun's radiation
creates a photochemical reaction that can result in visual dazzling and a scotoma. The initial
lesions and edema will disappear after several weeks, but may leave behind a permanent
reduction in visual acuity.

Moderate and high-power lasers are potentially hazardous because they can burn the retina of
the eye, or even the skin. To control the risk of injury, various specifications – for example
ANSI Z136 in the US, EN 60825-1/A2 in Europe, and IEC 60825 internationally – define
"classes" of lasers depending on their power and wavelength. Regulations prescribe required
safety measures, such as labelling lasers with specific warnings, and wearing laser safety
goggles during operation (see laser safety).

As with its infrared and ultraviolet radiation dangers, welding creates an intense brightness in
the visible light spectrum, which may cause temporary flash blindness. Some sources state
that there is no minimum safe distance for exposure to these radiation emissions without
adequate eye protection.

Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet light, specifically UV-B, has been shown to cause cataracts. It is hypothesised
that depletion of the ozone layer and a consequent increase in levels of UV light on the
ground may increase future rates of cataracts. Note that the lens filters UV light, so if it is
removed via surgery, one may be able to see UV light.

Clear evidence establishes ultraviolet radiation, especially the non-ionizing medium wave
UVB, as the cause of most non-melanoma skin cancers, which are the most common forms of
cancer in the world. UV rays can also cause wrinkles, liver spots, moles, and freckles. In
addition to sunlight, other sources include tanning beds, and bright desk lights. Damage is
cumulative over one's lifetime, so that permanent effects may not be evident for some time
after exposure.
Ultraviolet radiation of wavelengths shorter than 300 nm (actinic rays) can damage the
corneal epithelium. This is most commonly the result of exposure to the sun at high altitude,
and in areas where shorter wavelengths are readily reflected from bright surfaces, such as
snow, water, and sand. UV generated by a welding arc can similarly cause damage to the
cornea, known as "arc eye" or welding flash burn, a form of photokeratitis.

Fluorescent light bulbs and tubes internally produce ultraviolet light. Normally this is
converted to visible light by the phosphor film inside a protective coating. When the film is
cracked by mishandling or faulty manufacturing then UV may escape at levels that could
cause sunburn or even skin cancer.
 CONCLUSION

Electromagnetic waves have changed our lives in many ways, especially its significant
contribution in the communication sector- with the use of mobile phones, Wi-fi and
bluetooth we can communicate and share information with anybody on this planet.
Also with the arrival of GPS, locating places has become so much easier. The
advantages of electromagnetic waves surround us all the time. The different types of
electromagnetic waves and their different characteristics really make us appreciate
nature even more.

The scientists that have contributed towards understanding electromagnetic waves

really receive a huge praise, their contributions have changed the world completely
and now we can’t imagine a world without the applications of such waves.

As advantageous as it seems, electromagnetic rays can be harmful to our health too if

exposed for long durations. We must ensure that we are not exposed to such harmful
rays for too long and if we are, we must take all the precautions beforehand.

May our journey into the realm of electromagnetic waves inspire further exploration,
ignite curiosity, and lead to new discoveries that shape our world for the better.
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waves/#:~:text=Electromagnetic%20waves%20are%20created%20as,electric%20and%20a
%20magnetic%20field.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to Principal Ma’am for giving me an opportunity to work
on this project. I would like to thank my teacher Uma Ma’am for providing me with the
necessary guidlines and instructions which helped me to better my project.