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GCSE Biology AQA 

1.1 Cell Structure

CONTENTS
1.1.1 Eukaryotes & Prokaryotes
1.1.2 Animal & Plant Cells
1.1.3 Cell Specialisation
1.1.4 Cell Differentiation
1.1.5 Microscopy
1.1.6 Required Practical: Microscopy
1.1.7 Culturing Microorganisms
1.1.8 Required Practical: Growth

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1.1.1 Eukaryotes & Prokaryotes YOUR NOTES


Cells

Use this image

All cells have a number of features in common with each other
For a cell to be a cell, it has to have the following components:
Cellular components & functions table

Use this image

There are two distinct types of cell – eukaryotic and prokaryotic
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YOUR NOTES

Eukaryotic Cells
Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells
They have the components listed in the table above (so a cell membrane, cytoplasm and
ribosomes), as well as others
A defining feature of eukaryotic cells is that their genetic material (DNA) is enclosed within a
nucleus
Eukaryotic cells vary in size, usually between 10 and 100 µm

Use this image

Animal and plant cells are both eukaryotic cells as their genetic material is packaged in a
nucleus

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Prokaryotic Cells YOUR NOTES

Bacterial cells are a type of prokaryotic cell 
A defining feature of prokaryotic cells is that their genetic material is not enclosed within a
nucleus, it is found as a single loop of DNA within the cytoplasm
Additional smaller, circular pieces of DNA called plasmids may also be present
The cell membranes of all prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a cell wall (usually made from
a substance called peptidoglycan)
Prokaryotic cells are much smaller in comparison to eukaryotic cells, with many measuring
~ 1 µm in size

Use this image

Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, and are much smaller than eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells table

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Scale & the Size of Cells YOUR NOTES

Cells are very small and require a microscope to be seen 
Scientists measure the size of cells in micrometers (µm)
1 µm is equivalent to 0.001 mm, or 1 x 10-3 mm (or alternatively 1 millionth of a metre, 1 x 10-6
mm)
You need to be able to convert between different units of measurement, particularly mm
and µm

Use this image

Make sure you are comfortable converting between different units
You need to show an understanding of the size and scale of cells (and the subcellular
structures within them)

Use this image

You need to be aware that many subcellular structures in eukaryotic cells are the same size
as or bigger than prokaryotic cells!
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YOUR NOTES
Differences in size can be described as differences in order of magnitude, essentially the 
difference in size calculated by a factor of 10
Size of cells table

Use this image

 Exam Tip
A common exam question is to ask you to calculate the size of subcellular structures
and then to suggest why they may or may not be present in a certain type of cell. For
example: Why do bacterial cells not contain mitochondria?

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How to Use Standard Form YOUR NOTES

When biologists talk about the size of cells and the structures within them, they are dealing 
with very small numbers. Very small (or very big) numbers are represented using standard
form – this helps to avoid confusion
Let’s say we want to represent the length of a Vibrio cholerae cell which is 1.5µm in mm
First, we need to convert the measurement in µm into mm (see image in Scale & the Size of
Cells)
5 µm = 0.0015 mm
To write this in standard form:

Use this image

Practise converting numbers into standard form – you may be asked to do this in the exam!

 Exam Tip
Take care to look at the units that measurements of cells and subcellular structures
are given in.

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1.1.2 Animal & Plant Cells YOUR NOTES



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Animal Cells YOUR NOTES

Eukaryotic cells have subcellular structures, each carrying out a particular function 
Organelles are subcellular ‘compartments’ where specific processes take place within the
cell
The main subcellular structures in animal cells are:
The nucleus
Cell membranes
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Cytoplasm

Some cellular structures can only be seen when viewed with an electron microscope
Cell structures table

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YOUR NOTES


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Plant Cells YOUR NOTES

In addition to the subcellular parts found in animal cells, plant cells have: 
A cell wall made of cellulose (algal cells also have this structural feature)
A permanent vacuole filled with cell sap
Plant cells found in the leaf and stem may also contain chloroplasts

The plant cell shown above contains chloroplasts, so it would be found in the leaves of a
plant

Plant cell structure & function table

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YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
You need to be able to recognise, draw and interpret images of cells, so make sure
to get some practice of drawing and labelling animal and plant cells as part of your
revision.

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1.1.3 Cell Specialisation YOUR NOTES



Specialised Cells
You, as a human being, are made from trillions of cells, but only of about 250 different types
A specialised cell is a cell that has a particular structure and composition of subcellular
structures
Structural differences between different types of cells enable them to perform specific
functions within the organism
Cells specialise by undergoing a process known as differentiation

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Specialised Cells in Animals YOUR NOTES

The nerve cell 

Nerve cells (neurones) have a characteristically elongated structure which allows them to
coordinate information from the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body
Function: conduction of impulses
Adaptations:
Has a cell body where most of the cellular structures are located and most protein
synthesis occurs
Extensions of the cytoplasm from the cell body form dendrites (which receive signals)
and axons (which transmit signals), allowing the neurone to communicate with other
nerve cells, muscles and glands
The axon (the main extension of cytoplasm away from the cell body) is covered with a
fatty sheath, which speeds up nerve impulses. Axons can be up to 1m long in some
animals
Muscle cells

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YOUR NOTES


Muscle cells contain layers of fibres which allow them to contract. The image above shows
skeletal muscle cells
Function: contraction for movement
Adaptations:
There are three different types of muscle in animals: skeletal, smooth and cardiac
(heart)
All muscle cells have layers of protein filaments in them. These layers can slide over
each other causing muscle contraction
Muscle cells have a high density of mitochondria to provide sufficient energy (via
respiration) for muscle contraction
Skeletal muscle cells fuse together during development to form multinucleated cells
that contract in unison
A sperm cell

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YOUR NOTES


Sperm cells are mobile – their tail helps propel them forward in search of an egg to fertilise
Function: reproduction (pass on fathers genes)
Adaptations:
The head contains a nucleus which contains half the normal number of chromosomes
(haploid, no chromosome pairs)
The acrosome in the head contains digestive enzymes that can break down the outer
layer of an egg cell so that the haploid nucleus can enter to fuse with the egg’s nucleus
The mid-piece is packed with mitochondria to release energy (via respiration) for the
tail
The tail rotates, propelling the sperm cell forwards (allowing it to move/swim)

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Specialised Cells in Plants YOUR NOTES

A root hair cell 

The root hair is an extension of the cytoplasm, increasing the surface area of the cell in
contact with the soil to maximise absorption of water and minerals
Function: absorption of water and mineral ions from soil
Adaptations:
Root hair to increase surface area (SA) so the rate of water uptake by osmosis is
greater (can absorb more water and ions than if SA were lower)
Thinner walls than other plant cells so that water can move through easily (due to
shorter diffusion distance)
Permanent vacuole contains cell sap which is more concentrated than soil water,
maintaining a water potential gradient
Mitochondria for active transport of mineral ions
Remember that chloroplasts are not found in these cells – there’s no light for
photosynthesis underground!
A xylem vessel

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YOUR NOTES


Xylem cells lose their top and bottom walls to form a continuous tube through which water
moves through from the roots to the leaves
Function: transport tissue for water and dissolved ions
Adaptations:
No top and bottom walls between cells to form continuous hollow tubes through
which water is drawn upwards towards the leaves by transpiration
Cells are essentially dead, without organelles or cytoplasm, to allow free passage of
water
Outer walls are thickened with a substance called lignin, strengthening the tubes,
which helps support the plant
Phloem cells

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YOUR NOTES


Phloem cells form tubes similar to xylem vessels, except the cells still retain some
subcellular structures and are therefore living
Function: transport of dissolved sugars and amino acids
Adaptations:
Made of living cells (as opposed to xylem vessels which are made of dead cells) which
are supported by companion cells
Cells are joined end-to-end and contain holes in the end cell walls (sieve plates)
forming tubes which allow sugars and amino acids to flow easily through (by
translocation)
Cells also have very few subcellular structures to aid the flow of materials

 Exam Tip
You may be given some information (including an image) about an unfamiliar cell in
an exam, and asked to describe how it’s able to carry out its function. This shouldn’t
faze you – just look at the shape of the cell and its subcellular structures.Does the
cell have a shape which increases its surface area? Are there lots of ribosomes to
make proteins (such as enzymes or hormones), or lots of mitochondria (to transfer
lots of energy via respiration)?

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1.1.4 Cell Differentiation YOUR NOTES


Differentiation: Basics
Structural differences between different types of cells enables them to perform specific
functions within the organism
Cell differentiation is an important process by which a cell changes to become specialised
Cells that have not differentiated are therefore unspecialised. As an organism develops,
cells differentiate to form different types of cells
Almost all of the cells in a multicellular organism will contain the same genetic information
(the same genes or alleles), but depending on what role one particular cell needs to have,
only some of the total sum of genes in a particular cell are used to control its development
When a cell differentiates, it develops a structure and composition of subcellular structures
which enables it to carry out a certain function
To form a nerve cell the cytoplasm and cell membrane of an undifferentiated cell must
elongate to form connections over large distances

Diagram showing the differentiation of a human cell

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Differentiation & Development YOUR NOTES

As a multicellular organism develops, its cells differentiate to form specialised cells 
In an animal, most cells differentiate at an early stage of its development. Cell division is
mainly restricted to repair and replacement in mature animals
Animal cells therefore lose their ability to differentiate after they have become
specialised early in the life of the animal
Some cells in various locations throughout the body of an animal retain the ability to
differentiate throughout the life of the animal. These cells are called adult stem cells
and are mainly involved in replacing and repairing cells (such as blood or skin cells)
Plants differ from animals in that many types of plant cell retain the ability to fully
differentiate throughout the life of a plant, not just in the early stages of development

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1.1.5 Microscopy YOUR NOTES


A Brief History of the Microscope
Microscopy techniques have developed over time, increasing our understanding of cell
subcellular structure
The first light microscopes were developed in the 17th Century
Scientists such as Anton van Leeuwenhoek and Robert Hooke are responsible for using
microscopes to develop our first understanding of cells
Light microscopes use light and lenses to form a magnified image of a specimen
Over the centuries, the design of the light microscope has evolved, increasing
magnification and resolution to enhance the detail of what can be visualised
With a light microscope it is possible to see images of cells and large subcellular
structures (like nuclei and vacuoles), although stains are often required to highlight certain
parts of cells
The first electron microscopes were developed in the first half of the 20th Century
Electron microscopes use beams of electrons, rather than light, to visualise
specimens
The wavelength of an electron beam is much smaller than that of visible light, which
gives electron microscopes a much higher resolution and magnification

Electron Microscopes
An electron microscope has much higher magnification and resolving power than a light
microscope
They can therefore be used to study cells in much finer detail, enabling biologists to see and
understand many more subcellular structures such as the mitochondrion
They have also helped biologists develop a better understanding of the structure of the
nucleus and cell membrane

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Magnification Calculations YOUR NOTES

Magnification is calculated using the following equation: 

Magnification = Drawing size ÷ Actual size

A better way to remember the equation is using an equation triangle:

An equation triangle for calculating magnification

Rearranging the equation to find things other than the magnification becomes easy when
you remember the triangle – whatever you are trying to find, place your finger over it and
whatever is left is what you do, so:
Magnification = image size / actual size
Actual size = image size / magnification
Image size = magnification x actual size
Remember magnification does not have any units and is just written as ‘X 10’ or ‘X 5000’
Worked example
An image of an animal cell is 30 mm in size and it has been magnified by a factor of X 3000.
What is the actual size of the cell?
To find the actual size of the cell:

Worked example using the equation triangle for magnification

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 It is easy to make silly mistakes with magnification calculations. To ensure you do

not lose marks in the exam:
Always look at the units that have been given in the question – if you are asked
to measure something, most often you will be expected to measure it in
millimetres NOT in centimetres – double-check the question to see!
Learn the equation triangle for magnification and always write it down when
you are doing a calculation – examiners like to see this!

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Converting Units YOUR NOTES

You may be given a question in your Biology exam where the measurements for a 
magnification calculation have different units. You need to ensure that you convert them
both into the same unit before proceeding with the calculation (usually to calculate the
magnification)
For example:

Example of an extended magnification question

Remember that 1mm = 1000µm
2000 / 1000 = 2, so the actual thickness of the leaf is 2 mm and the drawing thickness is 50
mm
Magnification = image size / actual size = 50 / 2 = 25
So the magnification is x 25

 Exam Tip
If you are given a question with 2 different units in it, make sure you make a
conversion so that both measurements have the same unit before doing your
calculation. Also, watch out for the units you are given in the answer-prompt
space.Remember the following to help you convert between mm and µm:

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1.1.6 Required Practical: Microscopy YOUR NOTES


Using a Light Microscope
Aim: To use a light microscope to observe, draw and label a selection of plant and animal
cells, including a magnification scale
You will:
Use a light microscope to make observations of biological specimens and produce
labelled scientific drawings
Include a magnification scale

Preparing a microscope slide

Specimens must be prepared on a microscope slide to be observed under a light
microscope
This must be done carefully to avoid damaging any biological specimen
The most common specimens to observe under a light microscope are cheek cells (animal
cells) and onion cells (plant cells)
Stains are used to highlight structures within cells – methylene blue is used to stain cheek
cells, iodine for onion cells

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YOUR NOTES


Care must be taken to avoid smudging the glass slide or trapping air bubbles under the
coverslip
Using a microscope
Understanding the main features of a light microscope is essential if you are to use it
correctly
Always hold the microscope by the arm when moving it around the lab, and always start
your observation with the lowest-powered objective lens

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YOUR NOTES


Light microscopes have a lens in the eyepiece which is fixed and two or three objective
lenses of different powers
Biological drawings
Producing biological drawings of what you see under the microscope is a key skill
The key is not to try to be too artistic with your drawings – they are supposed to be scientific
so make sure you follow the rules

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YOUR NOTES


Biological drawings should be as large as possible – aim to take up at least half of the space
available on the page with your drawings

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1.1.7 Culturing Microorganisms YOUR NOTES


Binary Fission
Bacteria multiply by a type of simple cell division known as binary fission
In the right conditions, a bacterial cell prepares to divide by replicating its genetic material
before it increases in size
A copy of each piece of circular DNA moves to each end of the cell before the cytoplasm
divides, and new cell walls form around each daughter cell

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YOUR NOTES


Each division of one cell produces two cells, so the number of cells increases by a power of
2 each time binary fission occurs

Growing Bacterial Cultures in the Lab

The effect of disinfectants and antibiotics on microorganisms can be investigated using
cultures of bacteria grown in the lab
In the right conditions, some species of bacteria (such as coli) can multiply as much as
once every 20 minutes. This is ideal as large cultures of bacteria for study can be grown in
relatively short periods of time
To multiply this quickly, bacteria require an adequate supply of nutrients (carbohydrates,
proteins, minerals and vitamins) and an appropriate temperature (which varies depending
on the species being grown)
Warmer temperatures promote faster growth, but in a school lab the maximum allowed
temperature for growth is 25°C
Above this temperature, more harmful pathogens are likely to grow
Bacteria can be grown in a nutrient broth solution or as colonies on an agar gel plate

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Uncontaminated Cultures & Aseptic Techniques YOUR NOTES

It is vital that uncontaminated cultures of microorganisms are grown in the lab 
The presence of competing species can affect the growth of cultures, as well as the validity
of any study performed on them
Some important aseptic techniques are outlined in the table below:
Uncontaminated culture preparation table

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YOUR NOTES


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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Only lifting the lid of the petri dish a little is vital to reduce the risk of contamination by

other microorganisms. It is not to prevent air from entering, as air is still required by
bacteria grown in school labs (more harmful bacteria tend to be anaerobic).

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Calculating Inhibition Zone Area YOUR NOTES

The effectiveness of different antibiotics, antiseptics or disinfectants can be determined 
by calculating the area of an inhibition zone around a disc of the substance being tested
To calculate the area of an inhibition zone you should use the equation:

Calculating area
Worked example

Calculating the area of a clear zone is a far more accurate way of comparing the effect of
different substances on bacterial growth than trying to judge by sight

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 It is far more accurate to measure the diameter of an inhibition zone than the radius,

but remember to half it before using the area equation above.You will need to take at
least two measurements of the diameter of an inhibition zone and find the mean to
calculate if the clear zone is not perfectly circular.

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Calculating Bacteria in a Population YOUR NOTES

The average amount of time it takes for a bacterial cell in a population to divide is the mean 
division time
The number of times a cell has divided and how many cells it produces can be determined if
you know the mean division time and how long division has been occurring
Worked example

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Check that both the mean division time and the time the cell has been dividing have

the same unit (either hours or minutes).

Calculations in Standard Form

Higher tier only
If you are calculating the number of bacteria present in a population, you are likely to be
handling very large numbers (as bacteria can multiply very quickly in certain conditions)
You should be able to express an answer for the number of bacteria in standard form
Worked example

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1.1.8 Required Practical: Growth YOUR NOTES


RP2: Investigating Bacterial Growth
Aim: To investigate the effect of antiseptics or antibiotics on bacterial growth using agar
plates and measuring zones of inhibition
You will:
Use aseptic technique to place filter paper discs soaked in different
antiseptics/antibiotics onto uncontaminated agar plates containing bacteria
Measure the zone of inhibition around the growing colonies to compare the effect of
different antiseptics/antibiotics
Calculate the area of each zone
In this practical, you are not required to prepare the plates used to investigate bacterial
growth but you should be aware of good microbial aseptic techniques (see Culturing
Microorganisms)
Preventing contamination is vital in any microbiology investigation to ensure that you
are only investigating the effect of any antiseptic or antibiotic on the bacterial species
you want to
You will most likely use coli or Micrococcus luteus bacterial cultures in your practical

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YOUR NOTES


Whilst carrying out this practical you should try to identify the main hazards and be thinking
of ways to reduce the risk of accidents
You may use commercially produced antibiotic discs rather than soaking discs in
disinfectants

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Incubating the plates allows the bacteria in the agar to multiply by binary fission, this may YOUR NOTES
be visible by the agar darkening or by colonies appearing 
The antiseptics present in the discs will diffuse out into the agar, with the concentration
decreasing with distance from the disc
Where the concentration is sufficient to prevent bacterial growth or kill bacteria, the agar
will remain clear
It is possible to judge which antiseptic or antibiotic is the most effective by eye, but it is far
more accurate to calculate the diameter of each zone and from this calculate the area of
each inhibition zone
Clear zones of inhibition are not always perfectly circular, so the diameter of each zone
should be measured twice at 90° angles to each other) and a mean diameter and area
calculated for each clear zone

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YOUR NOTES


Record the diameter of each clear zone to the nearest whole mm, and remember to calculate
the area using the radius (taken as half the value of the mean diameter of each zone)
Why use a control?
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It is vital that one of the paper discs placed on the bacterial agar plate is not soaked in YOUR NOTES
antiseptic or antibiotic but sterile water instead 
This is to ensure that any differences in bacterial growth observed can be attributed to the
presence of the antiseptic or antibiotic used and not some other factor (such as the paper
discs for example)

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