Discrete Mathematics

Unit-II
Relations & Functions
By
Prof. Vishwas M. Gaikwad
 Functions
It is a mapping in which every element of set A is uniquely associated at the element with set
B. The set of A is called Domain of a function and set of B is called Co domain.

Let A and B be two non-empty sets. A function 'f' from A to B is a set of ordered pairs f is a
subset of AxB. For each element x in A, there is a unique element y in B such that (x,y) ∈ f.
The statement 'f is a function from A to B' is represented as f: A → B or A → B.

* There may be some elements of set B which are not associated to any element of the set A.
* Each element of set A must be associated to one and only one element of set B.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Functions
Image, Pre-Image, Domain, Co-Domain, and Range of a Function:
Image: Let f: A → B be a function and (a, b) ∈ f such that f(a) = b then b ∈ B is called the
image of element a ∈ A.
Pre-image: Let, f: A → B be a function and (a, b) ∈ f such that f(a) = b then element a ∈ A
is called pre-image of element b ∈ B.
Domain of a Function: Let f be a function from P to Q. The set P is called the domain of
the function f.
Co-Domain of a Function: Let f be a function from P to Q. The set Q is called Co-domain
of the function f.
Range of a Function: The range of a function is the set of picture of its domain. In other
words, we can say it is a subset of its co-domain. It is denoted as f (domain).

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Functions
Example: Find the Domain, Co-Domain, and Range of function.

Let x = {1, 2, 3, 4}
y = {a, b, c, d, e}
f = {(1, b), (2, a), (3, d), (4, c)

Solution:

Domain of function: {1, 2, 3, 4}

Range of function: {a, b, c, d}
Co-Domain of function: {a, b, c, d, e}

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Functions
Representation of a Function
The two sets P and Q are represented by two circles. The function f: P → Q is represented by
a collection of arrows joining the points which represent the elements of P and corresponds
elements of Q

Example1: Let X = {a, b, c} and Y = {x, y, z} and f: X → Y such that

f= {(a, x), (b, z), (c, x)}
Solution: Then f can be represented diagrammatically as follows

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Functions
Example2: Let X = {x, y, z, k} and Y = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Determine which of the following
functions. Give reasons if it is not. Find range if it is a function.
1. f = {(x, 1), (y, 2), (z, 3), (k, 4)
2. g = {(x, 1), (y, 1), (k, 4)
3. h = {(x, 1), (x, 2), (x, 3), (x, 4)
4. l = {(x, 1), (y, 1), (z, 1), (k, 1)}
5. d = {(x, 1), (y, 2), (y, 3), (z, 4), (z, 4)}.

Solution:
1.It is a function. Range (f) = {1, 2, 3, 4}
2.It is not a function because every element of X does not relate with some element of Y i.e., Z is
not related with any element of Y.
3.h is not a function because h (x) = {1, 2, 3, 4} i.e., element x has more than one image in set Y.
4.d is not a function because d (y) = {2, 3} i.e., element y has more than image in set Y.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Properties of Functions
• Addition : Let f1 and f2 be function from A to B, then f1 + f2 is defined as
f1 + f2 (x) = f1(x) + f2(x)

• Multiplication: Let f1 and f2 be function from A to B, then f1 . f2 is defined as

f1 . f2 (x) = f1(x) . f2(x)

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Special Types of Functions
1. Injective (One-to-One) Functions: A function in which one element of Domain Set is
connected to one element of Co-Domain Set.

Note: For sake of understating, in injective function, set B element can not mapped to many A elements.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Special Types of Functions
2. Surjective (Onto) Functions: A function in which every element of Co-Domain Set has
one pre-image.

Example: Consider, A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {a, b, c} and f = {(1, b), (2, a), (3, c), (4, c)}.

It is a Surjective Function, as every element of B is the image of some A

Note: In an Onto Function, Range is equal to Co-Domain.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Special Types of Functions
3. Bijective (One-to-One Onto) Functions: A function which is both injective (one to -
one) and surjective (onto) is called bijective (One-to-One Onto) Function.

Example: Consider P = {x, y, z}

Q = {a, b, c}
and f: P → Q such that
f = {(x, a), (y, b), (z, c)}

The f is a one-to-one function and also it is onto. So it is a bijective function.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Special Types of Functions
4. Into Functions: A function in which there must be an element of co-domain Y does not
have a pre-image in domain X.

Example: Consider, A = {a, b, c}

B = {1, 2, 3, 4} and f: A → B such that
f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3)}
In the function f, the range i.e., {1, 2, 3} ≠ co-domain of Y i.e., {1, 2, 3, 4}

Therefore, it is an into function

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Special Types of Functions
5. One-One Into Functions: Let f: X → Y. The function f is called one-one into function if
different elements of X have different unique images of Y.

Example: Consider, X = {k, l, m}

Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} and f: X → Y such that
f = {(k, 1), (l, 3), (m, 4)}
The function f is a one-one into function

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Special Types of Functions
6. Many-One Functions: Let f: X → Y. The function f is said to be many-one functions if
there exist two or more than two different elements in X having the same image in Y.

Example: Consider X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Y = {x, y, z} and f: X → Y such that
f = {(1, x), (2, x), (3, x), (4, y), (5, z)}
The function f is a many-one function

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Special Types of Functions
7. Many-One Into Functions: Let f: X → Y. The function f is called the many-one function if
and only if is both many one and into function

Example: Consider X = {a, b, c}

Y = {1, 2} and f: X → Y such that
f = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, 1)}

As the function f is a many-one and into, so it is a many-one into function.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Special Types of Functions
8. Many-One Onto Functions: Let f: X → Y. The function f is called many-one onto function
if and only if is both many one and onto.

Example: Consider X = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Y = {k, l} and f: X → Y such that
f = {(1, k), (2, k), (3, l), (4, l)}
The function f is a many-one (as the two elements have the same image in Y) and it is onto
(as every element of Y is the image of some element X). So, it is many-one onto function

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Types of Functions
Identity Functions
The function f is called the identity function if each element of set A has an image on itself
i.e. f (a) = a ∀ a ∈ A.
It is denoted by I.

Example: Consider, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and f: A → A such that

f = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5)}.

The function f is an identity function as each element

of A is mapped onto itself. The function f is a one-one
and onto

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Types of Functions
Invertible (Inverse) Functions
• A function f: X → Y is invertible if and only if it is a bijective function.
• Consider the bijective (one to one onto) function f: X → Y. As f is a one to one, therefore,
each element of X corresponds to a distinct element of Y. As f is onto, there is no element
of Y which is not the image of any element of X, i.e., range = co-domain Y.
• The inverse function for f exists if f-1 is a function from Y to X.

Example: Consider, X = {1, 2, 3}

Y = {k, l, m} and f: X→Y such that
f = {(1, k), (2, m), (3, l)

The inverse function of f is shown in fig:

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Types of Functions
Partial functions

Let, A and B be two non-empty sets. A partial function f : A' → B for some subset A' of A.
where A' ⊂ A i.e. A' is a proper subset of A. For any element x ∈ A - A', the value of f(x) is
said to be undefined.
Example: Let, A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {a, b, c, d, e}
F be a function from A to B i.e. f : A' → B
Here, f is a partial function which maps elements of A' (proper subset of A) to elements of B.
A - A' = {4, 5} are undefined.

The function which is not partial is called as total

function.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Types of Functions
Equality of two functions:

Let, f be a function from A to B (f: A → B) and g be a function from A to B (g : A → B) are

equal when they have same domain, have the same co-domain and map elements of their
common domain to the same elements in their common co-domain.
Two functions are inequal when there is a change in either the domain or the co-domain of
a function.
Example: Let, f= {(3, x), (4, y), (5, z)}, g = {(3, x), (4, y), (5, z)}
Here, f and g are equal functions.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Types of Functions
Constant function
A function f : A → B is said to be constant function, if every element of A has the same
image in B.
Thus, f be a function f : A → B, f(x) = C for ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐 ∈ 𝐵 is a constant function.
Example: Let, A = {1, 2, 3,4}, B = {a, b, c, d}
f= {(1, c), (2, c), (3, c), (4, c)}

Here, f is a constant function since, every domain element has same image that is "C".

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Types of Functions
Compositions of Functions
Let f: A → B and g: B → C. The composition of f and g, denoted by gof (read as 'g of f') is a
new function from A to C and is given by (gof) (x) = g(f(x)) for all x in A. The composition
gof first applies f to map A into B and it then employs g to map B to C.

Example: Let A={1,2,3}, B={s,t} and C={x,y} and

f: A → B, defined as f(1)=s, f(2)=s, f(3)=t and
g:B → C is defined as g(s)=x, g(t)=y,
then, gof: A → C is defined by
(gof) (1) = g(f(1)) = g(s) =x
(gof) (2) = g(f(2)) = g(s) =x
(gof) (3) = g(f(3)) = g(t) =y

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Examples
Let, f and g are function defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 2. Find
𝑎 𝑔𝑜𝑓 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑔 4 𝑏 𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑎 + 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑎 + 2 𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑔 5 𝑑 𝑔𝑜𝑓(𝑎 + 3)

𝑏 𝑔𝑜𝑓(𝑎 + 2) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑎 + 2) = 𝑔(2(𝑎 + 1) + 1)

𝑎 𝑔𝑜𝑓(4) = 𝑔(𝑓 4 ) = 𝑔 2 4 + 1 = 𝑔(9)
2
= 𝑔 2𝑎 + 5 = 2𝑎 + 5 − 2
= 92 − 2 = 81 − 2 = 79
= 4𝑎2 + 20𝑎 + 23
𝑓𝑜𝑔(4) = 𝑓 (𝑔 4 ) = 𝑓 42 − 2 = 𝑓(14)
2
𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑎 + 2 = 𝑓 𝑔 𝑎 + 2 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 2 −2
= 2 14 + 1 = 28 + 1 = 29
= 𝑓 𝑎2 + 4𝑎 + 2 = 2 𝑎2 + 4𝑎 + 2 + 1
𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑔 (5) = 𝑓( 𝑔(5) ) = 𝑓 (52 − 2) = 2𝑎2 + 8𝑎 + 4 + 1
= 𝑓 (25 − 2) = 𝑓 (23) = 2𝑎2 + 8𝑎 + 5
= 2 (23) + 1 = 46 + 1 = 47 𝑑 𝑔𝑜 𝑓 𝑎 + 3 = 𝑔 𝑓 𝑎 + 3 =𝑔 2 𝑎 + 3 + 1
= 𝑔 (2𝑎 + 6 + 1) = 𝑔(2𝑎 + 7)
2
= 2𝑎 + 7 −2
= 4𝑎2 + 28 𝑎 + 47

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Examples
Let, 𝐴 = 1 , 2, 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝑓1 = { 1, 2 , 2, 3 , 3,1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 = 1, 2 , 2, 1 , 3, 3 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓1𝑜𝑓2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2𝑜𝑓1.
Solution: Given : 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}
𝑓1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 be the functions from A to B.
𝑓1 = { 1, 2 , 2, 3 , 3,1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 = 1, 2 , 2, 1 , 3, 3
(i) = 𝑓1𝑜𝑓2 (i) = 𝑓2𝑜𝑓1
𝑓1𝑜𝑓2 1 = 𝑓1 𝑓2 1 = 𝑓1 2 = 3
𝑓2𝑜𝑓1 1 = 𝑓2 𝑓1 1 = 𝑓2 2 = 1
𝑓1𝑜𝑓2 2 = 𝑓1 𝑓2 2 = 𝑓1 1 = 2
𝑓2𝑜𝑓1 2 = 𝑓2 𝑓1 2 = 𝑓2 3 = 3
𝑓1𝑜𝑓2 3 = 𝑓1 𝑓2 3 = 𝑓1 3 = 1
𝑓2𝑜𝑓1 3 = 𝑓2 𝑓1 3 = 𝑓2 1 = 2
𝑓2𝑜𝑓1 = {
1, 1 , 2, 3 , 3, 2 }

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Examples
What are relations and functions. Given a Relation ,R= {(1, 4), (2, 2), (3,4),(4, 8), (5,6)} and check whether
the following relations R1, R2, R3, & R4 is a function or not.
R1={(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4), (4,4), (5, 4)}
R2= {(1,2), (2, 4), (2, 10), (3, 8), (4, 6), (5, 4)}
R3= {(1, 6), (2, 2), (4, 4), (5, 10)}
R4= {(1, 6), (2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 4), (5, 10)}

Solution: For relations and functions, Please see theory

Given:𝑅 = { 1, 4 , 2, 2 , 3,4 , 4, 8 , (5,6)}

Here, Relation R is a function. Since, each element of domain is mapped to c o-domain.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Examples
𝑅1 = 1, 4 , 2, 4 , 3, 4 , 4,4 , 5, 4 𝑅2 = {(1,2), (2, 4), (2, 10), (3, 8), (4, 6), (5, 4)}

𝑅1 is a function and it is constant function since, Here, 𝑅2 is not a function, since, element 2 is not
every element of domain is uniquely mapped uniquely mapped into co-domain.
into co-domain. In other way, 𝑅2 is not a function because two ordered
pairs have same first element.
𝑅3 = {(1, 6), (2, 2), (4, 4), (5, 10)} 𝑅4 = { 1, 6 , (2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 4), (5, 10)}

𝑅3 is not a function because 3 is not mapped into It is a function, since every element of domain is
any of the element of co-domain. mapped into co-domain.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Examples
Let, A = {a, b, c, d, e}, g: A → A be a function as shown below
Find gog, go(gog). Determine whether each is one-to-one or onto Function

Solution:
(𝑖) 𝑔𝑜𝑔 𝑔 (𝑔 𝑎 ) = 𝑔 (𝑏) = 𝑎, (ii) go (gog) 𝑔 (𝑔 𝑜 𝑔 𝑎 ) = 𝑔 (𝑎) = 𝑏
𝑔 (𝑔 𝑏 ) = 𝑔 (𝑎) = 𝑏 𝑔 (𝑔 𝑜 𝑔 𝑏 ) = 𝑔 (𝑏) = 𝑎
𝑔 (𝑔 𝑐 ) = 𝑔 (𝑐) = 𝑐 𝑔(𝑔𝑜𝑔 𝑐 ) = 𝑔 (𝑐) = 𝑐
𝑔 ( 𝑔 𝑑 ) = 𝑔 (𝑒) = 𝑑 𝑔 (𝑔 𝑜 𝑔 𝑑 ) = 𝑔 (𝑑) = 𝑒
𝑔 ( 𝑔(𝑒)) = 𝑔 (𝑑) = 𝑒 𝑔 (𝑔 𝑜 𝑔 𝑒 ) = 𝑔 (𝑒) = 𝑑

gog (one to one and onto function) go (g o g) (one to one and onto function)

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Examples
Determine if each is a function. If yes, is it injective, surjective, bijective?
Solution:

(i) Each person on the earth is assigned a number which corresponds to his age.
It is a function. Since each person has unique age.
- It is not injective function, because two person's may have same age.
- There is no person whose age is 250 years. Hence Function will not be surjective. It is not bijective
function.
(ii) Each student is assigned a teacher.
It is a function, each student is not exactly mapped to teacher. So, it is not injective function, as many
students may be assigned to the same teacher. It is surjective function as each teacher will have some
student assigned to him. It is not bijective.

(iii) Each country has assigned a capital.

It is a function: It is injective function as every country has unique capital. Function is surjective as
each capital city has mapped to it's country. Hence function is bijective.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Examples
(iv) To each country assign the number of people living in the country.
It is a function : It is a Injective function as every country has different population.
It is not surjective function, as each number represent population may not have a valid count of the people
in the country. It is not bijective.

(v) To each book written by only one author, assign the author.
It is a function. It is not injective as one author can have many books. It is a surjective function, as
every author has written a book. It is not bijective.

(vi) To each country having prime minister, assign the prime minster.
It is a function
- It is both Injective and Surjective function as each country has unique prime minister and each
prime minister is associated with a country.
- Hence it is bijective function.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Finite Set & It’s Cardinality
• Finite set is either null (void) set or it's elements can be listed.
• In finite set, we can count the elements associated with it.
• The number of elements in the finite set can be denoted as n (A) where A is finite set. It is also called as
order or cardinal number of a set A.
• In short, finite set has finite number of elements.
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,……. 50}
B = {a, b, c, d,……….. , z}
Here, A and B are finite sets
There are some theorems associated with finite set are as given below.
(1) Theorem 1 : Let A and B be finite set and suppose there is bijection from A to B.
Then n(A) = n(B).
(2) Theorem 2 : If A and B be finite sets with same cardinality.
f : A→B be a function then f is injective iff f is surjective.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Infinite Sets and Countability
A set “A” is said to be an infinite set if there exists an injective (one to one) mapping.
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴.

𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔 ;
(𝑖) 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 => 𝑍+ => 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 => 𝑊 => 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡
(𝑖ii) 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 => 𝑁 => 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡

Properties of Infinite set

(i) If A be a infinite set then Cartesian product (A x A) and power set (P(A)) are also infinite sets.
(ii) If A and B are non-empty set and either A or B is an infinite set then A x B is an infinite set.
(iii) If either A or B is an infinite set then 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is an infinite set.
(iv) If A ⊆ B and A is an infinite set then B is also an infinite set.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Infinite Sets and Countability
• As, we know empty set is a countable set because n (∮ ) = 0.
• In finite set we can list the element, so finite set is countable.
• But, infinite set can be countable and uncountable.

𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔 ;
(𝑖) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, ... 5000} 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
(𝑖𝑖)𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.
(𝑖𝑣) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏], 𝑎 < 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.

Properties of countable set

(i) A subset of a countable set is countable.
(ii) Let, A and B be countable sets then 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is countable.
(ill) Set of rational number is countable.
(iv) The set of irrational number is uncountable.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Pigeonhole Principle
If there are n + 1 pigeons and only n pigeons holes, then two pigeons will share the same whole.
Consider there are 'n' pigeons and f(n) are pigeonholes, then it can be represented as

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Advanced Pigeonhole Principle
Let f: A → B be a function from A to B.
n(A) = n , n(B): m, where n > m
then, 𝑛−1
𝐾= +1
𝑚

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑘 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎1, 𝑎2, … … . 𝑎𝑘 ∈ 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑎1) = 𝑓(𝑎2) … = 𝑓(𝑎𝑘)
𝐼𝑛 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑦, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑚 𝑝𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑛ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒
𝑛−1
𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 + 1 𝑝𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠.
𝑚

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Example
Find the minimum number of students in the class to be sure that three of them are born in the same
month.

Solution: Here, n = Number of pigeons = number of students = ?

m = Number of pigeon holes = Number of months
= 12
We know that, three students from the class are born in the same month.
𝑛−1
∴ According to extended pigeonhole principle at least + 1 students born in the same month,
𝑚
𝑛−1
+1= 3
𝑚
𝑛−1
=3−1
12
𝑛 = 2 × 12 + 1 = 25
𝑛 = 25
There are 25 minimum number of students in the class.

Unit-II Relations & Functions

 Example
Prove that among 5000 peoples, there are four who are born at exactly the same minute.

Solution: Let, n = number of peoples (number of pigeons) = 5000

m = number of minutes (number of pigeon holes)
= 24 X 60 = 1440

Here, n > m that is peoples are more than Hours.

Apply, Extended pigeonhole principle,

𝑛−1
𝐾= +1
𝑚
5000 − 1
= +1=3+1=4
24 × 60

Hence, there are at least 4 peoples who born on the same day or same minute.

Unit-II Relations & Functions