Department of Mechatronics Engineering

Dr. Mahmoud Kaid

Mechatronics System Design

Chapter 1 Introduction to MSD

- Ref: - ch.1, Shetty

1.1. What Is Mechatronics?

Mechatronics is a methodology used for the optimal design of
electromechanical products. A methodology is a collection of practices,
procedures, and rules used by those who work in a particular branch of
knowledge or discipline. Familiar technological disciplines include
thermodynamics, electrical engineering, computer science, and mechanical

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engineering, to name several. Instead of one, the mechatronic system is
multidisciplinary, embodying four fundamental disciplines: electrical,
mechanical, computer science, and information technology.
Many control system engineers are familiar with the quip: Design and build
the mechanical system, then bring in the painters to paint it and the control
system engineers to install the controls.
The mechatronic design methodology is based on a concurrent (instead of
sequential) approach to discipline design, resulting in products with more
synergy.
The difference between a mechatronic system and a multidisciplinary
system is not the constituents, but rather the order in which they are
designed. Historically, multidisciplinary system design employed a
sequential design-by-discipline approach. For example, the design of an

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electromechanical system is often accomplished in three steps, beginning
with the mechanical design. When the mechanical design is complete, the
power and microelectronics are designed, followed by the control algorithm
design and implementation. The major drawback of the design-by-discipline
approach is that, by fixing the design at various points in the sequence, new
constraints are created and passed on to the next discipline. Control designs
often are not efficient because of these additional constraints. For example,
cost reduction is a major factor in most systems. Tradeoffs made during the
mechanical and electrical design stages often involve sensors and actuators.
Lowering the sensor–actuator count, using less accurate sensors, or using
less powerful actuators, are some of the standard methods for achieving cost
savings.
1.2. Mechatronics Key Elements

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Mechatronics is a good design practice. The basic idea is to apply new
controls to extract new levels of performance from a mechanical device.
Sensors and actuators are used to transduce energy from high power
(usually the mechanical side) to low power (the electrical and computer
side). The block labeled “Mechanical systems” frequently consists of more
than just mechanical components and may include fluid, pneumatic,
thermal, acoustic, chemical, and other disciplines as well.
Control is a general term and can occur in living beings as well as machines.
The term “Automatic control” describes the situation in which a machine is
controlled by another machine. The inherent concurrency or simultaneous
engineering of mechatronics approach relies heavily on the use of system
modeling and simulation throughout the design and prototyping stages.

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 Figure 1-2. Mechatronics Key Elements
Mechatronics is the result of applying information systems to physical
systems. The physical system (the rightmost dotted block of Figure 1-2)
consists of mechanical, electrical, and computer systems as well as
actuators, sensors, and real-time interfacing. In some of the literature, this
block is called an electromechanical system.
1.2.1. Mechanical Systems

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Mechanical systems are concerned with the behavior of matter under the
action of forces. Such systems are categorized as rigid, deformable, or fluid
in nature. Newtonian mechanics provides the basis for most mechanical
systems and consists of three independent and absolute concepts: space,
time, and mass. A fourth concept, force, is also present but is not
independent of the other three.
1.2.2. Electrical Systems
Electrical systems are concerned with the behavior of three fundamental
quantities: charge, current, and voltage (or potential). When a current exists,
electrical energy usually is being transmitted from one point to another.
Electrical systems consist of two categories: power systems and
communication systems. Communication systems are designed to transmit
information as low-energy electrical signals between points.

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Functions such as information storage, processing, and transmission are
common parts of a communication system. Electrical systems are an integral
part of a mechatronics application.
1.2.3. Sensors and Actuators
Sensors are required to monitor the performance of machines and
processes. Using a collection of sensors, one can monitor one or more
variables in a process. Sensing systems also can be used to evaluate
operations, machine health, inspect the work in progress, and identify part
and tools. The monitoring devices are generally located near the
manufacturing process measuring the surface quality, temperature,
vibrations, and flow rate of cutting fluid. Sensors are needed to provide real
time information that can assist controllers in identifying potential

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bottlenecks, breakdowns, and other problems with individual machines and
within a total manufacturing environment.
Actuation involves a physical action on the process, such as the ejection of
a work piece from a conveyor system initiated by a sensor. Actuators
transform electrical inputs into mechanical outputs such as force, angle, and
position. Actuators can be classified into three general groups.
1. Electromagnetic actuators, (e.g., AC and DC electrical motors, stepper
motors, electromagnets)
2. Fluid power actuators, (e.g., hydraulics, pneumatics)
3. Unconventional actuators (e.g., piezoelectric, magneto strictive, memory
metal) There are also special actuators for high-precision applications
which require fast responses. They are often applied to controls which
compensate for friction, nonlinearities, and limiting parameters.

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1.2.4. Real-Time Interfacing
The real-time interface process falls into the electrical and information
system categories but is treated independently as was computer system
hardware because of its specialized functions. In mechatronics, the main
purpose of the real-time interface system is to provide data acquisition and
control functions for the computer. The purpose of the acquisition function
is to reconstruct a sensor waveform as a digital sequence and make it
available to the computer software for processing. The control function
produces an analog approximation as a series of small steps. The inherent
step discontinuities produce new undesirable frequencies not present in the
original signal and are often attenuated using an analog smoothing filter.
Thus, for mechatronic applications, real-time interfacing includes analog to

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digital (A/D) and digital to analog (D/A) conversion, analog signal
conditioning circuits, and sampling theory.
1.2.5. Information Systems
Information systems include all aspects of information transmission—from
signal processing to control systems to analysis techniques. An information
system is a combination of four disciplines: communication systems, signal
processing, control systems, and numerical methods. In mechatronics
applications, we are most concerned with modeling, simulation, automatic
control, and numerical methods for optimization.
1.2.5.1 Modeling
Modeling is the process of representing the behavior of a real system by a
collection of mathematical equations and logic. The real system/physical
system is a system whose behavior is based on matter and energy. Models

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can be broadly categorized as either static or dynamic. In a static model,
there is no energy transfer. Systems, which are static produce no motion,
heat transfer, fluid flow, traveling waves, or any other changes. On the other
hand, a dynamic model has energy transfer which results in power flow.
Power, or rate of change of energy, causes motion, heat transfer, and other
phenomena that change in time. Phenomena are observed as signals, and
since time is often the independent variable, most signals are indexed with
respect to time.
In engineering applications, certain conventions in terminology are used.
Resources are referred to as design variables, aspects of system behavior as
objectives, and system governing relationships (equations and logic) as
constraints.
1.2.5.2 Simulation

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Simulation is the process of solving the model and is performed on a
computer. Although simulations can be performed on analog computers, it
is far more common to perform them on digital computers. The process of
simulation can be divided into three sections:
initialization, iteration, and termination. If the starting point is a block
diagram-based model description, then in the initialization section, the
equations for each of the blocks must be sorted according to the pattern in
which the blocks have been connected.
The iteration section solves any differential equations present in the model
using numerical integration and/or differentiation. An ordinary differential
equation is (in general) a nonlinear equation which contains one or more
derivative terms as a function of a single independent variable. For most
simulations, this independent variable is time.

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The order of an ordinary differential equation equals the highest derivative
term present. The display section of a simulation is used to present and post
the output process. Output may be saved to a file, displayed as a digital
reading, or graphically displayed as a chart, strip chart, meter readout, or
even as an animation.
Because the model will be used and altered by engineers from multiple
disciplines, it is especially important that it be programmed in a visually
intuitive environment. Such environments include block diagrams, flow
charts, state transition diagrams, and bond graphs. In contrast to the more
conventional programming languages such as Fortran, Visual Basic, C++,
and Pascal, the visual modeling environment requires little training due to
its inherent intuitiveness. This environment is extremely versatile, low in
cost, and often includes a code generator option, which translates the block

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diagram into a C (or similar) high-level language suitable for target system
implementation. Block diagram-based modeling and simulation packages
are offered by many vendors, including MATRIXxTM, Easy5TM, SimulinkTM,
Agilent VEETM, DASYLabTM, VisSimTM, and LabVIEWTM.
1.2.5.3 Optimization
Optimization solves the problem of distributing limited resources
throughout a system so that pre-specified aspects of its behavior are
satisfied. In mechatronics, optimization is primarily used to establish the
optimal system configuration. However, it may be applied to other issues as
well, such as:
• Optimal System Configuration
• Identification of optimal trajectories
• Control system design

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 • Identification of model parameters
Another aspect of optimization is to optimize the overall manufacturing
processes from product design to inspection by integrating all of the
information into a common database. For example, knowledge of the parts
geometry, as contained in the CAD system, can be used to determine the
reference values of process variables. Information from various process-
related sensors can be integrated to improve the reliability and quality of
sensor information. This shared information (such as the data of the
geometry of a part and the materials used from CAD/CAM database) can be
used in selecting the optimum machining processes, tool selections, and
finishing operations. The figure below shows a detailed presentation of
mechatronics system components.

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1.3. The Mechatronic Design Process
The mechatronic design process is presented in Figure 1-4.

Fig.1.4. Mechatronics Design Process

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The mechatronic design process consists of three phases: modeling and
simulation, prototyping, and deployment. All modeling, whether based on
first principles (basic equations) or the more detailed physics, should be
modular in structure. A first principal model is a simple model which
captures some of the fundamental behavior of a subsystem. A detailed
model is an extension of the first principal model providing more function
and accuracy than the first level model. Connecting the modules (or blocks)
together may create complex models. Each block represents a subsystem,
which corresponds to some physically or functionally realizable operations,
and can be encapsulated into a block with input/output limited to input
signals, parameters, and output signals.

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1.4. Integrated Design Issues in Mechatronics
Mechatronics makes the combination of actuators, sensors, control systems,
and computers in the design process possible.
The integration within a mechatronic system is performed through the
combination of hardware (components) and software (information
processing).
• Hardware integration results from designing the mechatronic system as
an overall system and bringing together the sensors, actuators, and
microcomputers into the mechanical system.
• Software integration is primarily based on advanced control functions.
An important characteristic of mechatronic devices and systems is their
built-in intelligence that results through a combination of precision in

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mechanical and electrical engineering, and real-time programming
integrated into the design process.
1.5. Modularity and Re-Configurability
Because of their modularity, mechatronic systems are well suited for
applications that require reconfiguration. Such products can be
reconfigured either during the design stage by substituting various
subsystem modules or during the life span of the product. Since many of the
steps in the mechatronic design process rely on computer-based tasks (such
as information fusion, management, and design testing), an efficient
computer-aided prototyping environment is essential.
1.6. Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation
In the prototyping step, many of the non-computer subsystems of the model
are replaced with actual hardware.

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Sensors and actuators provide the interface signals necessary to connect the
hardware subsystems back to the model. The resulting model is part
mathematical and part real. Because the real part of the model inherently
evolves in real time and the mathematical part evolve in simulated time, it
is essential that the two parts be synchronized. This process of fusing and
synchronizing model, sensor, and actuator information is called real-time
interfacing or hardware-in-the-loop simulation, and is an essential
ingredient in the modeling and simulation environment.
The hardware-in-the-loop model (Figure 1-5) shows the different
components of a mechatronic system. There are different ways in which
hardware-in-the-loop could be simulated, such as electronics simulation,
simulation of actuators and sensors, or simulation of mechanical systems
alone. It is possible to simulate the electronics where the actuators,

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mechanics and sensors are the real hardware. On the other hand, if
appropriate models of the mechanical systems, actuators, and sensors are
available, the electronics could be the only hardware.

Fig 1.5. Hardware in the Loop Model

Assuming the following six functions in mechatronics systems:
• Control: The control algorithm(s) in executable software form.
• Computer: The embedded computer(s) used in the product.
• Sensors
• Actuators

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• Process: Product hardware excluding sensors, actuators, and the
embedded computer.
• Protocol (optional): For bus-based distributed control applications.
There are other possibilities summarized in Table 1-1.
Table 1-1 Different Configurations for Hardware-In-The-Loop Simulation

1.7. Life Cycle Design in Mechatronics

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The mechatronic design methodology is not only concerned with
producing high-quality products but with maintaining them as well—an
area referred to as life cycle design. Several important life cycle factors are
indicated.
• Delivery: Time, cost, and medium.
• Reliability: Failure rate, materials, and tolerances.
• Maintainability: Modular design.
• Serviceability: On board diagnostics, prognostics, and modular design.
• Upgradeability: Future compatibility with current designs.
• Disposability: Recycling and disposal of hazardous materials.
1.8. Condition Monitoring in Mechatronics Systems
Condition monitoring is defined as the determination of the machine status
or the condition of a device and its change with time in order to decide its

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condition at any given time. The condition of the machines can be
determined by physical parameters (like tool wear, machine vibration,
noise, temperature, oil contamination, and debris). A change in these
parameters provides an indication of the changing machine condition.
The condition monitoring systems can be of two types.
1. Monitoring systems that display the machine conditions to enable the
operator to make decisions.
2. Automated monitoring of conditions with adaptive control features.
If the machine conditions are properly analyzed, they can become a valuable
tool in establishing a maintenance schedule and in the prevention of
machinery failures and breakdowns. The diagnostic parameters can be
measured and monitored continuously at predetermined intervals. In some
cases, measurement of secondary parameters such as pressure drop, flow,

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and power can lead to information on primary parameters such as vibration,
noise, and corrosion. The data coming from different levels of the factory
provide support for automated manufacturing. Sensors integrated with
adaptive processes control capability at the plant level, manufacturing
management level, control level, or sensory level and handle the
requirements as shown in Figure 1-7.
In the case of manufacturing machinery, sensors can monitor machining
operations, conditions of cutting tools, availability of raw material, and work
in progress. Sensors can assist in the recognition of parts, tools, and pallets.

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They also can be used on the production floor during pre-process situations
or at the time when the manufacturing process is in progress.

Figure 1-7 Sensor Distribution at Different Levels of Production

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The selection of the sensing principle and parameters monitored are
shown in Table 1-2.
Table 1-2 Examples of Sensing Parameters in Automated Manufacturing

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1.8.1. Monitoring On-Line
The importance of lean production systems has created an opportunity for
intelligent autonomous inspection, manufacturing, and decision-making
systems that perform tasks without human intervention. Currently, quality
is ensured in the product engineering cycle at two distinct levels.
• At the product design stage: To ensure that quality is designed into the
product, using the robust design method.
• At the final inspection stage: Using statistical process control methods.
1.8.2. Supervisory Control Structure
The hierarchical control structure consists of servo, process, and
supervisory controls.

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• The lowest level is servo control, where the motion of the cutting tool
relative to the workpiece (such as its position and velocity) is controlled.
This involves cycle times of approximately 1 millisecond.
• At the process control level, process variables (such as cutting forces and
tool wear) are controlled with typical cycle times of around 10 milliseconds.
Control level strategies are aimed at compensating for factors not explicitly
considered in the design of the servo and process level controllers.
• The highest level is the supervisory level, which directly measures product
related variables (part dimension and surface roughness). The supervisory
level also performs functions such as chatter detection and tool monitoring.
The supervisory level operates at cycle times of approximately 1 second.
Finally, all of this information can be used to achieve online optimization of
the machining process at the shop floor and plant control level. Figure 1-14

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illustrates a hierarchical control structure where the controller elects’
position and velocity at the machine level, force and wears at the process
level, and quality control issues (like dimension and roughness) at the
product level.

Fig 1.14. Framework for Integration Heterogeneous Systems

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 Chapter 2
Mechatronics System Design Examples
2.1. The Four Questions to be asked when Designing a Mechatronic
System
When designing mechatronic systems, it is important to consider the
following four questions:
1- Is system dynamics important? If the speed of response of a system is
critical to its stability and time response specification (e.g. overshoot, rise
time, settling time …), then system dynamics is important and has to be
considered in the design. In this case, a dynamic model has to be developed
for the whole system (including the plant, controller, actuator and sensor).
The model is then used to design a suitable controller.

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The following list includes examples of systems for which system dynamics
is critical:
• Quad-rotor
• Heat seeking missile

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• Inverted pendulum
• Exothermic reaction (chemical reaction)
• Nuclear reaction
• Vehicle active suspension system
• Space vehicle
On other hand, for the following systems, system dynamics is not critical:
• IRIS scanning system for identification purposes
• Artificial nose
• A residential healthy for a storage cylinder
• A solar tracking photo-voltaic system
2- What type of components to select for each of the four main
components for the mechatronic system?

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The designer of the system will have to make a decision regarding the
components of the mechatronic system, as follows:
a. Control algorithm: example: PI, PD, PID, lead-lag compensator, Fuzzy
controller, neural… genetic, digital PID …
b. Physical controller: This is the physical controller within which the
control algorithm will be implemented. Examples: PLC, PC/laptop,
Raspberry pi and microcontrollers (PIC, AVR), as well as relays and the older
type of analogue computers and logic gates.
c. Actuator System: The actuator executes the instructions of the controller
to realize changes in the plant. The actuator systems comprise the following
three sub-components: variable speed drive (optional); actuator (required);
mechanical drive (optional).

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d. Sensor/Transducer/feedback Drivers): The sensor or feedback devices
are the eyes and ears of the mechatronic system. They can be thermal,
mechanic (translational or rotational) … etc. Where system dynamics is
important, it is necessary to find transfer function of the sensor as well, as it
forms the H(s) transfer function shown in the figure below.
3- The size of each component: Once the design has selected the
components to be used it has to size them. Calculations have to be carried
out to find the necessary size. This is especially true of the actuator system
(e.g. motor, variable frequency drive, gearbox).
4- Resolution, accuracy and precision: Once the sensor/feedback has
been selected, it is necessary to ensure that it can achieve the required
accuracy, resolution and precision.

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The user requirements specify the required accuracy, resolution and
precision. In some cases, the controller selection and the actuator selection
have to be revised or changed in order to achieve these requirements.
The system is shown with multiple inputs 𝑈1, 𝑈2 … 𝑈𝑖; and multiple
outputs 𝑦1, 𝑦2 … 𝑦𝑖, to allow for the general case.
2.2. User Requirements Specifications for a Mechatronic System
The following categories encompass the types of user requirements for
mechatronic systems:
2.2.1. Size/Capacity/Force/Torque/Stroke:
This is the most obvious user requirement. It is related to the size of the
system, in relationship to what is can do. For example, a bottle filling
system will be able to fill 1000 bottles per hour; or on elevator can carry
eight persons; or a printer can print 12 pages per minute.

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2.2.2. Safety/Reliability/Maintainability/Availability.
2.2.3. System dynamics (e.g. rise time; overshoot; settling time).
2.2.4. Resolution/Accuracy/Precision:
These characteristics are related to both actuator(s) and transducer(s).
• Resolution is the smallest change in input that would cause a change in output.
• Accuracy is freedom from systematic errors.
• Precision is freedom from random errors.
2.2.5. User Friendliness:
The system user interface should be user friendly. It should allow different
levels if access. It should also be “fool proof”.
2.2.6. Energy Consumption:
In some application, reducing the amount of energy consumed must be
restricted/reduced.

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2.2.7. Cost (Capital cost/Running cost):
It is important to consider all costs associated with the system, throughout
the lifetime of the system. This includes capital costs (initial cost of the
system) as well as running costs (energy costs, maintenance cost).
2.2.8. Space/Size/Weight:
In certain cases, there may be constraint on the size of the system and its weight.
2.2.9. Environment:
It is important to consider the environment in which the system will be
operated. For example, ambient temperature, humidity, dust, and foreign
particle and fluid ingress.
2.2.10. Versatility:
A versatile system is one that can be used in different ways.
2.3. Examples of Mechatronic Systems

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The following are examples of mechatronic systems:
1. Home appliances (fridges and freezers, microwave ovens, washing
machines, vacuum cleaners, dishwashers, cookers, timers, mixers, blenders,
stereos, televisions, telephones, lawn mowers, digital cameras, videos and
CD players, camcorders, and many other similar modern devices): Many of
the home appliances that are in use today are mechatronics systems. They
are manufactured in large numbers end masse and typically require small
controllers to be “embedded” within them.
2. ABS (anti-lock braking system) and many areas in automotive
engineering: An antilock braking system on a vehicle is a system that
prevents the wheels from ceasing up or stopping to rotate when the brakes
are suddenly pressed. Another good example of a mechatronics system from
automotive engineering is the engine control unit (ECU).

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3. Elevators and escalators:
They have many sensors to detect the position and speed of the elevator car,
as well as any calls registered by the passengers. It has many actuators, the
most important of which is the main hoist motor. Safety is also paramount
in these systems as they carry human beings.
4. Mobile robots and manipulator arms: Robots are widely used today in
all domains of life. Robots are generally used for applications that are
inaccessible (difficult locations to get too due to height or space), dull
(repetitive and tedious tasks), or dangerous (hazardous environments).
5. Sorting and packaging systems in production lines: Mechatronic
systems are effectively the basis for modern factory automation.

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6. Computer Numerically Control (CNC) production machines: CNC
machines are critical in modern manufacturing systems. They allow the
user to produce a product directly from a computer model of the piece.
7. Aeroplanes and helicopters: These are complex examples of
mechatronic systems that incorporate hundreds or even thousands of
smaller sub-mechatronic systems.
8. Tank fluid level and temperature control systems: An example is the
process used to produce bio-fuels from vegetable oil.
9. Temperature control system in an industrial oven: Many industrial
processes require close control of the temperature of the process in order
to achieve the exact required outcome. These systems have very long lag
times; thus, they take a long time to heat up and cool down.

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10. Heat-seeking missiles: Heat seeking missiles are complex systems
that require extremely fast responses. A poor or slow controller could
easily lead to the destruction of the missile. The orientation of the missile
will be controlled based on the heat signal received from the target.
11. Packing machines.
12. Using robots for painting windows and doors.
13. Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMM): CMM’s are machines that are
used in manufacturing in order to scan the surface of an object to produce a
computer aided design (CAD) model of the object. This can be done by direct
contact (e.g. by the use of probes) or by the use of contactless methods (e.g.
laser range detection). CMM are critical in the areas of reverse engineering
and quality control.
Activity:

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Try to identify the four components of the mechatronics systems.
Answer Key to Examples of Mechatronics Systems Activity
Identifying the four components of the mechatronics systems:
1. The washing machine as an example of a mechatronic system. Let us
take one of the systems within the washing machine such as the water
heating system.
Plant: The water within the washing machine Controller: Embedded
controller on an integrated circuit Actuator: Heating element Feedback
device: thermal sensing element such as a bimetallic strip or a resistance
temperature detector (RTD).
2. In an anti-lock braking system, it is important to prevent the locking
of the braking system when the road surface is slippery.

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Plant: The wheels and the braking system Controller: ABS control module
embedded within a microcontroller Actuator: Solenoid valve controlling the
hydraulic fluid
Feedback device: Wheel speed sensors
3. Elevators: speed control system in an elevator is comprised of the
following:
Plant: elevator cabin
Controller: elevator speed controller system
Actuator: induction motor, drive system
Feedback device: shaft encoder
8. Tank fluid level systems:
Plant: tank and contained fluid
Controller: microcontroller

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Actuator: pump
Feedback device: float device or ultrasonic sensor
9. Temperature control system in an industrial over:
Plant: oven and product within
Controller: microcontroller or programmable logic controller
Actuator: heating coil
Feedback device: bimetallic strip
10. Heat seeking missiles:
Plant: the missile body and any payload
Controller: microcontroller embedded within the missile
Actuator: jet engine
Feedback device: temperature sensors fitted to the body of the missile
11. Packing Machines:

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Plant: Item to be packed and conveyor carrying it.
Controller: PLC (programmable logic controller).
Actuator: Hydraulic cylinder.
Feedback device: the feedback devices for such a system are usually of
three types:
a) image processing
b) laser range sensors
c) ultrasonic sensors
12. Painting robot:
Plant: item to be painted (e.g. car frame)
Controller: microcontroller
Actuator: servo-motors controlling the robot parts
Feedback device: camera with image processing software

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13. Coordinate measuring machine (manipulator arm):
Plant: CMM arms and object to be scanned
Controller: PC with dedicated software
Actuator: Human operator (i.e. not automated!)
Feedback device: absolute shaft encoders on the CMM
2.4. Design of Inkjet Printer
2.4.1. Problem Statement
You are asked to design an inkjet printer. The inkjet printer has two
cartridges internally that are fitted on a horizontal carriage. Each cartridge
has a piezoelectric actuator inside in order to dispense the ink. The printer
also takes A4 size sheets of paper.
Discuss in detail the design of the system, looking at the following actions:
1. Feeding the sheets of paper.

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2. Moving the paper up and down.
3. Moving the carriage that carries the two cartridges left and right.
4. Printing with a resolution of 600 dpi (dots per inch).
5. Giving warning alarms to the user, such as “no paper” and “cartridge
empty”. In your discussion, identify the different control loops in the system.
Identify all the components of the mechatronic systems to be designed.
Answer: Design of an inkjet printer
The inkjet printer has two cartridges: one for black ink, and the other for
three colors: cyan, magenta, and yellow. Each cartridge has a piezoelectric
actuator that dispenses ink onto the sheet of paper.
The inkjet printer has four control subsystems.
1. The vertical motion system that takes the sheet/paper and feeds it
through printer. This system also moves the sheet of paper up and down to

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a certain accuracy and resolution, during the printing process. So, the
purpose of this subsystem is to feed the sheet of A4 paper and to move it
accurately during the printing process.
To do this, it needs an actuator which cloud either be a small d.c or stepper
motor. The motor will be geared if a d.c. motor is used. The motor will be
connected to a cylinder, over which the paper is fed. Rotational feedback is
needed from the cylinder. This is usually in the form of an optical disk
(transparent disk with stripes (lines)), where an optical transistor and LED
will detect the rotation of the disk, to provide feedback to the controller. The
number of lines/stripes on the disk should match the required printing
resolution of 600 dots per inch (dpi). A micro-switch is used under the
sheets of paper to detect that purpose are present, or if the paper has run
out.

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2. The second system is the horizontal motion system. This system moves
the carriage (that holds the two cartridges) left and right in order to position
the cartridges over the point where printing needs to take place. To do this
movement a cleated/toothed belt shall be used as shown below. In order to
provide feedback a disk is used with lines on it with optical feedback. The
belt is toothed to prevent slipping. The resolution of optical disk should
match the required printing resolution of 600 dots per inch (600 dpi).

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3. The ink cartridges control system: The cartridges shown above will
carry the two inkjet cartridges. A ribbon cable is necessary in order to pass
signal to end from the cartridges and controller. No feedback will be used
in this system. Each cartridge will have one or more piezoelectric actuator
to allow ink to leave the cartridges and go onto the paper.
4. Control and monitoring system: PIC controller will be used to control the
three systems above. The controller will also communicate with P.C. with
the USB port and also control the on/off light, receive from the input control
push-buttons, and sends status signals to LEDs (out of paper, inkjet
cartridges empty). It also monitors the paper empty micro-switch.
Components of the Mechatronic Systems (copy machine):
1. Physical Controller: PIC micro-controller of microprocessor.
2. Feedback: Optional disk with stripes x2.

52
3. Plant:
a. Cylinder and paper.
b. Carriage.
c. Ink and cartridges.
4. Actuators:
a. D.C. motors or stepper motors.
b. Piezoelectric actuators.
5. Control algorithm: On-Off controller.
6. Control loops:
a. Vertical motion system. (closed loop)
b. Horizontal motion system. (closed loop)
c. Ink dispensing system (open loop)
2.5. Problems

53
1) What do you understand by the term 'mechatronics'?
2) What are the key elements of mechatronics?
3) Is mechatronics the same as electronic engineering plus mechanical?
4) Is mechatronics as established as electronic or mechanical engineering?
5) List some mechatronic systems that you see every day.
6) Identify the four main components of the following MS systems:
• Domestic systems, such as air conditioning units, security systems,
automatic gate control systems.
• Office equipment, such as laser printers, hard drive positioning systems,
liquid crystal displays, tape drives, scanners, photocopiers, fax machines.
• Retail equipment, such as automatic labeling systems, bar-coding
machines, and tills found in supermarkets.
• Banking systems, such as cash registers, and automatic teller machines;

54
• Manufacturing equipment, such as numerically controlled (NC) tools, pick
and-place robots, welding robots, automated guided vehicles (AGVs), and
other industrial robots.
• Aviation systems, such as cockpit controls and instrumentation, flight
control actuators, landing gear systems, and other aircraft subsystems.

55
 Chapter 3
Modeling of Physical Systems
A model of a system is a tool we use to answer questions about the system
without having to do an experiment. While there are many types of models,
we are concerned with the mathematical models of systems
3.1. Modeling and Simulation of Mixed Systems
The majority of technical systems are mixed; i.e. they incorporate
components from various fields, such as electronics, mechanics, software
and other domains. This raises significant design problems because hitherto
design methodologies and the associated design tools have usually been
developed for a single field only. This means that the overall function of the
system cannot be investigated until the prototype construction phase.
However, by the time this stage is reached, changes to the design have

56
already become very expensive and time-consuming. The consideration of
virtual prototypes, which allow virtual experiments to be performed on a
computer by simulation, offers an elegant solution to the problem described
above.
3.1.1. Modeling and Simulation of Mechatronic Systems
In mechatronics systems the interaction between the different domains is
particularly significant here because the interfaces contribute significantly
to system behavior. The problem of the joint simulation of electronics and
mechanics must be solved, which throws up a whole range of problems:
• In the case of mechatronics, the time constants of mechanics and
electronics often differ by orders of magnitude. For micromechanics we can
expect oscillations of a few (tens of) hertz. In electronics the figure lies four
to six orders of magnitude higher. So, we could assume that the dynamic

57
interaction between electronics and mechanics can be disregarded. The
opposite is true. For example, a wide range of control algorithms are
performed on embedded controllers. Their running time again lies in the
millisecond range, so that dynamic feedback between electronics and
mechanics very definitely plays a role. This requires the dynamic simulation
of the entire system in order to be able to track cyclical dependencies,
including those that cross domain boundaries. Another reason for the
importance of this is the fact that domain boundaries often also represent
the interfaces between design teams working in parallel.
• For the field of mechanics, precise models that are compatible with an
electronics simulator must be prepared.
• An efficient conversion is of crucial importance for the field of software in
particular. Millions of machine instructions are performed in a single second

58
of real time. On the other hand, it is necessary to precisely determine the
timing of the functions implemented using software, which requires a
precise synchronization between software and electronics. This is
indispensable in order to correctly reflect the dynamics between software,
electronics and mechanics.
• In addition, the representation of the results can sometimes be a problem.
Of course, we always obtain the values of system variables plotted against
time, as is also normal for electronics simulation. In the case of mechanics,
however, we would often prefer an animation, in order to be able to evaluate
the system behavior at a glance. As far as software is concerned, the typical
outputs of an electronics simulator are virtually useless. We would like a
debugger, like those used in pure software development, which illustrates

59
the sequence of the software and furthermore permits control of the
sequence, perhaps by breakpoints.
3.1.2. Approaches to modeling mechatronic and micro mechatronic
systems
1. Transfer the mechanical model into the electronic simulator one
possibility is to transfer mechanical models into the form of electronic
models (and vice-versa). This permits the consideration of the
mechanics in a electronics simulator (and vice-versa.
2. Domain-independent simulators. There are also some approaches
that attempt to model the entire electromechanical system as a unit
without any preference for electronics or mechanics. These methods
include bond graphs, block diagrams, and modelling languages such
as Model Ica. Despite the elegance of these description forms it is

60
generally found that neither the electronics nor the mechanics can be
modelled with the usual standard procedures.
3. Coupling simulators from different domains: The possibility of
coupling together simulators for different domains represents a
further approach to solving the problem. This could, for example, occur
systematically with the aid of a simulator backplane, as is often
created for pure electronics. Typical applications for this are the
coupling of circuit and logic simulators or the distribution of
simulations on a parallel computer or a cluster of workstations.
However, simulator coupling is associated with a whole range of
problems:
1- Firstly, the resulting simulator package is unwieldy, it is often
difficult to operate

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2- Licenses are required for all of the individual simulators.
3- The problems associated with synchronization between two very
heterogeneous simulator cores are even more severe>
3.2. Mathematical Modeling of Mechatronics systems
By mathematical models we mean that the relationships between quantities
(distances, currents, flows, unemployment, and so on) that can be observed
in the system are described as mathematical relations.
3.2.1. Review of Basic Relations of Electrical and Mechanical Elements
The following tables show the basic relations of electrical and mechanical
elements.

62
TABLE Voltage-current, voltage-charge, and impedance relationships for
capacitors, resistors, and inductors

63
TABLE Force-velocity, force-displacement, and impedance translational
relationships for springs, viscous dampers, and mass

64
TABLE 2.5 Torque-angular velocity, torque-angular displacement, and
impedance rotational relationships for springs, viscous dampers, and inertia

65
3.3. The Analogy Approach
All disciplines of engineering are based on sets of fundamental laws or
relationships. Electrical engineering relies on Ohm’s and Kirchoff’s laws,
mechanical engineering on Newton’s law, electromagnetics on Faradays and
Lenz’s laws, fluids on continuity and Bernoulli’s law, and so on. These laws
are used to predict the behavior (both static and dynamic) of systems.
Systems may exist completely in one engineering discipline (such as an
electric circuit, a gear system, or a water distribution system), or they may
be coupled between several disciplines (electromechanical,
electromagnetic, etc). Although analytic solutions are appropriate for single
discipline static equations it is more often the case that computer-based
solution methods are required, especially when dynamics are
present in the equations.

66
3.3.1. Potential and Flow Variables, PV and FV
Systems consist of components such as springs and dampers in mechanical
systems, tanks and restrictions in fluid systems, and insulators and thermal
capacitances in thermal systems. When in motion, the energy in a system
can be increased by an energy-producing source outside the system,
redistributed between components within the system, or decreased by energy
loss through components out of the system. In this context, a coupled system
becomes synonymous with energy transfer between systems.
Since the analogy method was developed for use on analog computers, it is
fitting that the approach be described from a basic electrical viewpoint.
Electrical systems are based on three fundamental components:
• Resistor • Capacitor • Inductor

67
The capacitor and inductor are capable of storing energy. The energy stored
in a capacitor is and the energy stored in an inductor is 𝑖.
The resistor cannot store energy but can transfer electrical energy into heat
energy. In an ideal, lossless LC circuit with nonzero initial energy, all energy
remains in the circuit and is transferred back and forth in sustained
oscillations between the inductor and capacitor. Addition of a resistor
establishes an energy leak to the surrounding air through which heat energy
is transferred, causing the oscillations to decay in amplitude and
eventually disappear.
If the resistor were immersed in a fluid such as water, the temperature of
the fluid would rise due to the heat energy transferred to it. In the steady
state, all electrical energy in the circuit would be converted to heat energy
in the fluid. Further addition of a voltage or current source to the circuit

68
would provide an external source of energy into the circuit. If the source had
a nonzero mean value, the heat energy transferred to the fluid would be
sustained. Total energy, E, in the LC circuit consists of potential energy, U,
and kinetic energy, K. Potential energy is associated with the potential
to perform work and kinetic energy with the work to change motion or
flow. Based on this association two energy related are defined as.
• Potential variable = PV
• Flow variable = FV
Example, in an LC circuit, the initial energy may exist in either the capacitor
as a potential, in the inductor as a current, or in both. If the potential energy
is stored entirely in the capacitor, voltage becomes the natural choice for the
potential variable and, current becomes the flow variable. On the other
hand, if the potential energy is stored entirely in the inductor, then current

69
may be used as the potential variable and voltage as the flow variable. Since
it is natural to picture current as flowing and voltage drops as accumulating
through an electrical circuit, the flow variable in an electrical circuit is
current, and the potential variable is voltage.
3.3.2. Impedance Diagrams
In an electrical circuit the impedance of a component is defined as the ratio
of the voltage phasor, v , across the component over the current phasor, 𝑖,
through the component. Since voltage and current are complex numbers,
the impedance is also a complex number. A complex number consists of a
real part and an imaginary part. The placeholder for the imaginary part is j,
and no placeholder is required for the real part.
The impedance of an electrical circuit element is a complex phasor quantity
defined as the ratio of the voltage phasor divided by the current phasor. The

70
impedance phasors for the capacitor, inductor, and resistor are summarized
in Figure 2-35 and are shown as bold arrows. Positive phase occurs when
the phasor is rotated in the counterclockwise direction
beginning from the positive real axis (which is the zero phase direction).

Figure 2-35 Impedance Phasors for The Capacitor, Inductor, And Resistor

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When the phasor is lined up with the positive imaginary axis (vertically
upward) 90° of the phase has been accumulated. When the phasor is
pointing leftward, 180° of the phases has been accumulated. When the
phasor is pointing downward along the negative imaginary axis, 270° or -
90° of the phase has been accumulated.
Keeping in mind that impedance is voltage divided by current, a positive
imaginary component indicates voltage leading current, and a negative
imaginary component indicates voltage lagging current. Because j occurs in
the denominator of the capacitor impedance, the capacitor voltage lags its
current by 90°. Similarly, because j occurs in the numerator of the inductor
impedance, the inductor voltage leads its current by 90°.
Consider the sinusoid x(t) = sinwt. If we differentiate x(t) analytically with
respect to time, we obtain

72
73
EXAMPLE: Impedance Calculations for a Parallel System
This example illustrates how impedances are calculated in a parallel system.
The system shown in Figure 2-37 has three impedance’s, three flow
variables, and three potential variables.

Figure 2-37 Simple Circuit for Impedance Calculations

Solution
Using Equation 2-1, the impedance’s are calculated as:

74
PV3 is a common potential point in the circuit. It is usually set to either
zero or a reference value. Setting PV3 to zero, the impedance equations
may be reduced to

In many situations, an impedance diagram can be simplified by applying

any of six fundamental impedance relationships. These relationships, are
based on Ohm’s and Kirchoff’s Laws, are summarized in Table 2-2.

75
Table 2-2 Fundamental Impedance Relationships

76
Parallel and series impedance reductions will be used frequently in our
manipulations. The following properties will be used repeatedly.

77
• Series Impedance’s Add: The total impedance of a series combination is
the sum of the individual impedances.
• Parallel Impedance’s–Inverses Add: The inverse of the total impedance of
a parallel combination is the sum of the inverses of the individual
impedances. To illustrate how the impedance relationships are applied,
several examples are presented.
EXAMPLE: Impedance Diagram Simplification—Simple System
This example illustrates how series and parallel reductions can be applied
to the previous example to derive a single representative impedance, ZTotal,
for the entire system. The system, which is rewritten in Figure 2-38, is
reduced in two steps.
Step 1. Combine the Z2 and Z3 impedance’s into a single series impedance, Z23.
Step 2. Combine the Z1 and Z23 into a single parallel impedance, ZTotal

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 Figure 2-38 Simple Impedance System
Solution
Step 1. The Z2 and Z3 impedance’s are combined into the single series
impedance, Z23, according to the series relationship, Z23 = Z2 + Z3. The
impedance diagram is presented in Figure 2-39.
Figure 2-39 Series Simplification for The Simple Impedance System
Inevitably, some signals are lost as a result of impedance diagram
simplifications. In this simplification, we have lost the PV2 signal.

79
Step 2. The Z1 and Z23 impedance’s are combined into the single parallel
impedance, ZTotal.

This result is important because it is encountered so frequently. It is

summarized as the combined impedance of parallel branches is equal to the
product of the two impedances’ divided by the sum of the two.
It is important to note that the flow through ZTotal is FV1 and not FV2. we
have lost the flow variables, FV2 and FV3.

Figure 2-40 Parallel Simplification for The Simple Impedance System

80
EXAMPLE; Impedance Diagram Simplification—Complex System
This example illustrates how series and parallel reductions can be applied
to a more complex system. The system, Figure 2-41, is typical of the type
encountered in mechanical systems with several masses. The objective is to
reduce the diagram to a single equivalent impedance.

Figure 2-41 Complex Impedance System

We will solve the problem in the four steps outlined below.
Step 1. Combine the Z5 and Z6 into a single series impedance, Z56.
Step 2. Combine the Z3 and Z4 into a single series impedance, Z34.

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Step 3. Combine the Z2, Z34, and Z56 into a single parallel, Z23456.
Step 4. Combine the Z1 and Z23456 impedance’s into a single series ZTotal.
Solution

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Step 4. The reduction is completed by combining the series Z1 and Z23456
impedance’s into the single final impedance, ZTotal. The completed
impedance diagram is presented in Figure 2-43.

Figure 2-43 Final Reduction of Complex Impedance System

Not all electrical circuit components have an impedance, for example, an
ideal voltage source does not have a fixed impedance. Although the voltage
value is constant, the current is determined by the circuit to which the
source is connected, making the impedance a variable. The same is true for
an ideal current source.

83
3.4. The Modified Analogy Approach
The modified analogy approach is a process which allows you to convert an
illustration of a physical system to a block diagram model. The approach is
based on the electrical notion of impedance and a four-step conversion
process explained in this section.
The difference between the modified analogy approach and the basic
analogy approach is the manner in which nonlinearities are handled. The
basic analogy approach presented in many texts is restricted to linear
applications. If a nonlinearity exists, it must be linearized prior to
incorporating it into the model. Linearization provides only an
approximation to the behavior of the nonlinearity; the difference between
the linearized and actual behavior becomes an undesirable modeling error.

84
This results in a more accurate model with better predictive capability and
less modeling error. Given a system illustration, analogies are first
established for the PV and FV. The following four-step procedure is applied
to obtain the block diagram model.
Step 1. Create and (if possible) simplify the impedance diagram using the
manipulations presented in Table 2-2. Simplifications of this nature include
minor parallel and series branches which can be easily reduced to single
equivalent branches.
Step 2. Circle all nodes (FV and PV) in the impedance diagram and label all
signals entering and leaving these nodes. A FV node is a point in the
impedance diagram where three or more branches intersect. A PV node
occurs when two or more impedance elements exist in series. The PV node
relates the individual PV drops of the elements to a single overall PV drop.

85
Step 3. Construction of the block diagram is initiated by representing select
nodes (PV and FV) from the previous step as summing junctions with inputs
and outputs labeled according to signals from the impedance diagram. In
general, it usually is not necessary to implement all PV and FV nodes,
because often they are dependent upon one another.
Select the output of each summing junction such that, when it is applied to
the corresponding impedance block, a causal operation (either an
integration or multiplication by a gain) results.

It should be noted that in some situations it will not be possible to create a

block diagram with only gain or integral causality. In these situations, we

86
either attempt to differentiate the non-causal elements directly or modify
the model to achieve causality.
Step 4. The block diagram is completed by placing each component
impedance from the impedance diagram onto the block diagram and
connecting them with signals from either summing junctions or other
impedances.
EX: Block Diagram Construction—Parallel Resonant Electrical Circuit
The parallel resonant circuit exhibits a controllable resonant peak suitable
for notch filtering applications. Notch filters are used to remove unwanted
frequencies from a signal leaving the other frequencies unaltered. The
parallel resonant circuit diagram with the resistance lumped in the inductor
branch is presented in Figure 2-44.
Figure 2-44 Parallel Resonant Circuit

87
FV= current and PV= voltage.

Capacitor:

88
Step 2. Identify all independent nodes (FV and PV) in the impedance diagram
and label all signals. A FV node is a point in the impedance diagram where
three or more branches intersect. A PV node relates the individual PV drops
over a series of impedance’s to an overall PV drop. Our diagram has one FV
node and one PV node as shown in Figure 2-47.
Step 3. Represent select nodes as a summing junction, and select the output
of the summing junction such that either gain or integral causality results.
The two nodes in our impedance diagram produce the two summing

89
junctions shown in Figure 2-48. It has arbitrarily selected the summing
junction output in step 3.
Step 4. Add the impedance blocks; connect and create all necessary
intermediate and output signals to complete the block diagram.

Figure 2-47 Nodes in The Parallel Resonant Circuit Impedance Diagram

Figure 2-48 Partial Block Diagram Representation of The Parallel Resonant Circuit

90
Noting that IR _ IL and that vout=vc , the block diagram is constructed by
first adding the three impedance blocks. Next, the appropriate signal
connections are made using wires. Luckily, it has selected the summing
junction outputs which provide integral causality, so no modifications are
needed in step 3. The completed block diagram is presented in Fig 2-49.

Fig 2-49 Completed Block Diagram Representation of The Parallel Resonant

91
The system equations can be derived by simplifying the block diagram. For
example, the transfer function relating the input current to the output
voltage is presented in Equation 2-2.

3.4.1. Electrical Systems

Electrical circuits rely on two variables, voltage and current, to transport
energy. Since current flows through an electrical circuit, it is natural to
associate current with the flow variable and voltage with the potential
variable. Using this convention, the impedances of six basic ideal circuit
components are discussed: the resistor, capacitor, inductor, voltage
source, current source, and transformer. The impedances of these
components will provide the fundamental analogies for components in

92
other disciplines. Of the six basic electrical components, only the resistor,
capacitor, and inductor have impedance’s which are not functions of the
circuit to which they are attached. The resistor, capacitor, and inductor
impedance characteristics are summarized in Table 2-3.
Table 2-3 Resistor, Capacitor, And Inductor Impedances

The remaining three components have impedances which are functions of

the circuit to which they are attached. The ideal voltage source is used to

93
create a specified potential at any point in a circuit. The potential exists
between the two terminals of the voltage source.
The current which passes through the voltage source is determined by the
circuit to which the source is connected. Due to the current being an
unknown, it is not possible to write the impedance relationship for the
voltage source without knowledge of the rest of the circuit.
Sometimes the voltage value for the source will be a function of another
variable of the circuit (such as a current or voltage). In this situation, the
voltage source is called dependent, since it’s value is dependent on another
signal in the circuit. The ideal current source is used to create a specified
current at any point in a circuit. The voltage which exists between the two
terminals of the current source is determined by the circuit to which the
source is connected. Due to the voltage being an unknown, it is not possible

94
to write the impedance relationship for the current source without
knowledge of the rest of the circuit. Similar to the voltage source, sometimes
the value for the current source will be a function of another variable of the
circuit (such as a current or voltage). In this situation, the current source is
called dependent, since it’s value is dependent on another signal in the circuit.
A transformer is a magnetically coupled electrical device consisting of two
coils wound along each side of a closed conducting core. One winding is
called the primary (winding 1) and the other winding called the secondary
(winding 2). The number of windings in the primary and secondary coils are
N1 and N2, respectively. The impedance characteristics of the ideal
transformer are dependent on the circuit to which it is connected. The
impedance characteristics of the voltage source, current source, and
transformer are presented in Table 2-4.

95
To illustrate how the analogy approach is applied to electrical circuits to
create block diagrams, two examples are presented: a bridge circuit and a
transformer circuit. Bridges can be constructed entirely of resistors or
capacitors depending on the quantity being measured. The transformer is
an important electric circuit component, because (as will be seen later) it is
analogous to gear trains in mechanical rotational systems and lever arms in
mechanical translation systems. Transformers have many applications,
including impedance matching, voltage step up, and voltage step down.
Electric power-transmission systems rely heavily on step-up and step-down
transformers to efficiently send electricity over large distances.

96
Table 2-4 Voltage Source, Current Source, And Transformer Impedances

97
EXAMPLE: Bridge Circuit System
A thermistor is a semiconductor device whose resistance changes with
temperature. Temperature readings in terms of voltage can be obtained by
installing the thermistor as one of the resistances in a bridge circuit. A
typical configuration is shown in Figure 2-50.

Figure 2-50 Bridge Circuit for Temperature Measurement

When a constant voltage is applied to the circuit, V, heat source variations
cause the thermistor resistance to change, thus creating a potential
difference between points A and B, which is proportional to temperature.

98
The objective of this example is to apply the analogy method to develop a
block diagram model of the bridge circuit.
Solution
Step 1. Create/simplify the impedance diagram. The first step of the
procedure is the construction of the impedance diagram. This is relatively
straight forward. All flow paths, potentials, and branches remain intact; the
only difference is the replacement of each component with its associated
impedance. The impedance diagram is presented in Fig 2-51.

Figure 2-51 Impedance Diagram for Temperature Measurement Circuit

99
Step 2.
Identify all independent nodes (FV and PV) in the impedance diagram and
label all signals. The impedance diagram has one FV node and two PV nodes.
The node equations are given as

Step 3.
Represent select nodes as a summing junction, and select the output of the
summing junction such that (when it is connected to its associated
impedance blocks) either gain or integral causality results. The initial

100
Fig 2-52 Summing Junctions for Temperature Measurement Circuit Block
block diagram is constructed with two summing junctions to model the two
PV nodes, Figure 2-52.

Step 4. Add the impedance blocks; connect and create all necessary
intermediate and output signals to complete the block diagram.

101
The FV node equation was not directly implemented using a summing
junction; however, since ZR1 and ZR2, both have the same flow, FVA, and since
ZR3 and ZRth have FVB flowing through them, the following two constraint
relationships are written.
Figure 2-53 Summing Junctions for
Temperature Measurement Circuit Block
Diagram With Slight Modification

102
The final block diagram, Figure 2-54, is constructed by adding these two
relationships to the block diagram to define the PVR1 and PVR2 signals. From
the revised block diagram, the system equations may be derived after
substituting the appropriate resistance values and noting that V= PV1, VA=
PVA, VB= PVB, we have

As written, the system equation represents the output voltage as a function

of the thermistor resistance and the input voltage; V0=V0(RTH, V) With a

103
constant input voltage, the output voltage becomes only a function of the
thermistor resistance.

Figure 2-54 Block Diagram for Temperature Measurement Circuit

EXAMPLE: Transformer System
The basic transformer circuit with input, V, and output, i2, is shown in Figure
2-55.

104
 Figure 2-55 Basic Transformer Circuit
Voltage, V1, is applied to the transformer primary side coil which consists of
a series resistance and inductance, R1 and L1. The secondary side coil of the
transformer consists of a load impedance, Zload. Again, the objective of this
example is to develop the block diagram model for the transformer circuit.
Solution
Step 1.

105
Create/ simplify the impedance diagram. The impedance diagram for the
transformer is created by replacing each element of the circuit with its
associated impedance. The impedance diagram is presented in Fig 2-56.

Figure 2-56 Basic Transformer Impedance Diagram

Step 2.
Identify all independent nodes (FV and PV) in the impedance diagram and label
all signals. The impedance diagram has two PV nodes which represent the

106
potential drops around the primary winding and secondary winding loops.
These equations are summarized here.

In addition to the loop equations, the auxiliary transformer equations

which relate PV and FV across the transformer ratio are:

Step 3. Represent select nodes as a summing junction and select the output
of the summing junction such that (when it is connected to its associated
impedance blocks) either gain or integral causality results. The block

107
diagram construction is initiated with the primary winding loop PV equation and
presented in Figure 2-57.

Step 4. Add the impedance blocks; connect and create all necessary
intermediate and output signals to complete the block diagram. The block

108
diagram is completed by incorporating these definitions and presented in Fig 2-
58.

We have assumed that the load impedance has current causality in the
formulation. If this were not the case, for example, if it had voltage causality,
the diagram would need to be modified.
many system relationships can be computed from the block diagram. For
example, Equation (2-3) relates input voltage to secondary current

109
3.4.2. Mechanical Translational Systems
Mechanical translation system analysis is based on Newton’s law, which
states: The vector sum of all forces applied to a body equals the product of
the vector acceleration of the body times it’s mass.
The equation for Newton’s law is presented in Equation 2-4.
. F=m.a
where the units in the British system are
F = total force, newtons, N
a = total acceleration, m/S2
Two elements typically encountered in mechanical systems are the linear
damper and the linear spring. The linear damper produces a force
proportional to the applied velocity, and the linear spring produces a force
proportional to the applied displacement.

110
Depending on the system, either velocity or displacement may be used as
the PV. Regardless of the choice of PV, force is used for the FV. Table 2-5
summarizes the impedance’s of the three mechanical translation system
components for both analogies.
Table 2-5 Mechanical System Impedance Analogies

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Mass–Damper System
The basic mass–damper system is modeled in this example. Selection of
logical PV and FV variables will create a causality problem which is also
discussed. An illustration of the mass–damper system is shown in Figure 2-
59. Since the input, , and output, , of the system are both velocities and no
springs are involved, velocity is the logical choice for the potential variable.
The flow variable is force.

Figure 2-59 Mass–Damper System Illustration

Solution
Step 1. Create/simplify the impedance diagram.

112
The impedance diagram for the mass–damper system is created by
replacing each element of the circuit with its associated impedance. The
impedances are defined as

Figure 2-60. Mass-Damper System Impedance Diagram

113
Step 2. Identify all independent nodes (FV and PV) in the impedance
diagram and label all signals. The impedance diagram consists of one PV
node represented by the following equation.

Step 3. Represent select nodes as a summing junction and select the output
of the summing junction such that (when it is connected to its associated
impedance blocks) either gain or integral causality results. Integral causality
for the ZM element requires that FV be its input. Our strategy is to model the PV

114
node equation such that PVZB is the output. The damper, which has no causality
problems because the potential variable is velocity, is used to create the FV
required as input to the ZM block.
Step 4. Add the impedance blocks, the resulting block diagram is presented
in Figure 2-61. The output velocity, 𝑦, is computed by reducing the block
diagram and substituting for the two impedances as:

Figure 2-61 Mass–Damper Block Diagram

115
The force flowing through the system, FV, may also be computed from the
block diagram as:

One also could solve this problem using displacement instead of velocity as
the potential variable. The input and output variables become x and y. Since
displacement is the integral of velocity and integration is represented in
operator notation as 1/D, the impedances in the displacement–voltage
analogy system are equivalent to the impedances of the velocity–voltage
system multiplied by 1/D. These impedances become:

Because the system is linear, the transfer function relating 𝑦 is:

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We can compute the transfer function from x to y by integrating both sides.
This is analogous to division by the D operator. The resulting transfer
function becomes:

This is no surprise, however. Suppose we were confronted with the task of

modeling the system with displacement used as the potential variable.
Causality now becomes an issue.
For integral causality, both elements ZB and ZM must have an FV input.
Investigation of the PV node equation for this system reveals that this is
not possible; however, all is not lost.

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We recognize that the real problem is that the only causality independent
element capable of converting a PV to an FV signal in this situation is the
spring, which is not present in our diagram.
This problem is solved by using an approximate system which includes an
additional spring with its stiffness set to a very large value. The approximate
system will be of integral causality and will approximate the actual response
closer and closer as the spring stiffness is increased. Setting this limit, the
original transfer function will result.
The approximate system block diagram is presented in Figure 2-62. The
added spring is placed just to the right of the PV node summing junction to
produce the required FV output.

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 Figure 2-62 Approximate System Block Diagram
Since we are interested in computing the system transfer function from x
to y, it is beneficial to redraw the block diagram before any reductions are
performed, as in Figure 2- 63.

Figure 2-63 Redrawn Approximate System Block Diagram

Since displacement is the PV, the impedance’s are:

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Reducing the block diagram and substituting the impedance relationships
yields the following transfer function.

As the spring stiffness is made very large, the transfer function approaches
the expected transfer function as:

Problems of this nature are often found in real systems and with proper
attention, integral causality can be maintained.

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3.4.3. Mechanical Rotational Systems
Mechanical rotational system analysis also is based on Newton’s Law;
however, the law is slightly modified to account for rotation instead of
translation. The law states:
The vector sum of all moments applied to a body equals the product of the
vector angular acceleration of the body times it’s inertia.
A rotational system obeys Equation 2-5.
𝝉 = 𝒋𝜽̈ (2.5)
where
𝜏 = Total Torque, N-m
J= body inertia about it’s center of mass,
𝜃̈= angular acceleration, rad/sec2 .

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Two elements typically encountered in mechanical rotational systems are
the linear torsional damper and the linear torsional spring. The damper
produces a torque proportional to the applied angular velocity, and the
spring produces a torque proportional to the applied angle.
An analogy similar to that used for translation systems exists for rotational
systems—except angle replaces displacement, angular speed replaces
velocity, and torque replaces force. Also, mass becomes inertia, the
translational spring constant becomes a torsional spring constant, and
translational damping becomes rotational damping. The impedance
analogies are identical in form to those used in translational systems. The
flow variable is defined as torque, and the potential variable is defined as
either angular velocity or angle. The analogies and impedances for
rotational systems are summarized in Table 2-7.

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Table 2-7 Impedance Analogies for Rotational Systems

EXAMPLE 2-17 Elevator System

A cable-driven elevator hoistway system consists of a drive pulley (drive
sheave) attached to a gearbox powered by an electric motor. The drive
sheave is wrapped (usually six or more times to prevent slippage) with a

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cable—one end of which is attached to a counterweight and the other end
to the elevator cab. the elevator hoistway system is shown in Fig 2-72.

Figure 2-72 Geared Elevator Hoistway System Illustration

The cable is assumed to act as a spring with no damping. For modeling, the
cable weight on either side of the pulley is halved. One half is lumped as part

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of the pulley weight, and the other half lumped into the car weight and
counterweight, respectively.
The radius of the drive sheave is designated as r, and the gear ratio as 1:N
(N motor revolutions to 1 drive sheave rev). the hoistway system contains
springs, the logical choice for the potential variable is displacement.
Solution
Step 1. Create/simplify the impedance diagram.
The following impedance diagram (Figure 2-73) is constructed.
The force due to gravity has been included on both the counterweight and
the car and on the direction results from the definition of the car and
counterweight directions. The variable x denotes the linear displacement
of the drive sheave and is related to Ѳ by:

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Figure 2-73 Geared Elevator Hoistway System Impedance Diagram

The impedances in Figure 2-73 are listed as:

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Step 2. Identify all independent nodes (FV and PV) in the impedance
diagram and label all signals. The impedance diagram has six nodes. Four
of these nodes are FV nodes, and two are PV nodes. The node equations are
given as:

Several auxiliary equations pertaining to the gear ratios are also necessary
and listed as:
Gear ratio: T1 = N Tm ,Drive sheave ratio: F = T2/r

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Step 3. Represent select nodes as a summing junction and select the output
of the summing junction such that either gain or integral causality results.
Construction of the block diagram begins by implementing the FV and PV
equations as summing junctions. We also include the auxiliary equations.
The initial block diagram is presented in Figure 2-74.

Figure 2-74 Geared Elevator System Summing-Junction Block Diagram

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Step 4. Add the impedance blocks; connect and create all necessary
intermediate and output signals to complete the block diagram.
Substitution of the three mass impedances give

Replacing ZK = 1/K the spring impedances, allows us to complete the block

diagram. The completed block diagram is presented in Figure 2-75.

Figure 2-75 Geared Elevator System Block Diagram

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In Example 2-17, the reaction torque of the car and counterweight to the
motor have been excluded. The effect is important, as it models the effect of
load or reaction torque on the motor. The effect can be added easily once
two fundamental electromechanical relationships—Lorentz’s law and
Faraday’s law—are presented.
3.5. Automobile Suspension System
The suspension system of a car can be modeled on a per-wheel basis as a
two-mass system:
the car mass and the wheel mass. The tire behaves as a spring, and the
connection between the tire and the car is a spring shock absorber (damper)
assembly. The road roughness provides the input to the system as a
displacement. The outputs are the axle displacement and the vehicle
displacement. An illustration of the suspension system is shown in Fig2-64.

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Suspension Mechanical Diagram Suspension System Illustration
Solution
Step 1. Create/simplify the impedance diagram.
The impedances that will be used in the impedance diagram are listed here.

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 Figure: Suspension System Impedance Diagram
Step 2. Identify all independent nodes (FV and PV) in the impedance
diagram and label all signals.
The impedance diagram may be reduced by first combining the parallel
spring–damper into equivalent impedance defined as ZKB. With this
reduction, the impedance diagram has one FV node at y2 and two PV nodes
over ZKtire and ZKB. The node equations are summarized here.

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Step 3. Represent select nodes as a summing junction and select the output of
the summing junction such that (when it is connected to its associated
impedance blocks) either gain or integral causality results.
These summing junction representations of the node equations are in Fig
2-67.

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Step 4. Add the impedance blocks; connect and create all necessary
intermediate and output signals to complete the block diagram.
For integral causality, the inputs to the and blocks must be FV signals. Since
only one FV node equation is present, we must use the ZKB block to produce
the additional FV signal required for ZM2 . For brevity, the general PV and
FV notation is dropped, and the completed block diagram shown in Figure
2-68 uses the problem variables.

Figure: Suspension System Block Diagram

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3.6. Electromechanical System Case Study
It is required to find the transfer function for the electromechanical system
consisting of a shaker table that runs on a pair of slider rails shown in Figure
5.1. The table shall be design to move back and forth in a sinusoidal manner
using a direct current motor. The transfer function relates the voltage
applied to the DC motor to the velocity of the table.

Figure 5.1. bSketch of shaker Table System

This problem can be broken down as follows:

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(1) Derive the math model of the table, using any of the four methods
(2) Derive the math model of the motor and transmission.
(3) Derive the math model of the motor controller.
3.6.1. Deriving the Math Model of the Table
The table can be modeled as a combination pure translational mass and
pure translational damper. Figure 5.2a shows our symbolic model and
Figure 5.2b the associated circuit diagram. We want to find a relationship
between the velocity of the table v and the applied force F using any of the
following methods:
(1) Path-Vertex-Elemental Equation Method
(2) Impedance Method
(3) Operational Block Diagram Method
(4) Free-body Diagram Method.

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 Figure 5.2. System Diagrams
Path-Vertex-Elemental Equation Method
From the circuit diagram, we can write the elemental equations

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Substituting (5.2) and (5.3) into (5.1) gives
Impedance Method
Again, use the circuit diagram in Figure 5.2b and replace each elemental
component with its impedance as in Figure 5.2c. Since the impedances are
in parallel, we write

Or

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Free-body Diagram Method
Using the free-body diagram shown in Figure 5.2d, we can write:

Equations (5.8) and (5.9) are static equations because the bearings hold
the table to the rails. These equations simply tell us that Fb3 and Fb4 are
equal and that their sum equals the weight of the table. Equation (5.7)
reveals the assumption we are making regarding the resistive bearing
forces. That are assuming: Fb1 + Fb2 = bv (5.10)
Substituting equation (5.10) into (5.7) and rearranging terms gives:

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Block Diagram Method
We start constructing the block diagram with the desired response variable
as an output of an integrator placed on the right side of the diagram. The
velocity of the table is the response variable and the applied force is the
forcing variable. We rewrite equation (5.2) as, Figure 5.3a

And rewrite equation (5.1) as, Figure 5.3b:

Fa = F - Fb (5.13)
Finally, draw the block diagram for equation (5.3) as shown in Figure 5.3c,
and connect the individual block diagrams together as shown in Figure
5.3d. The block diagram can be reduced to a single transfer function by
first write the equation for the output of the summer as:
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 e = F - Fb (5.14)
Then write the equation for v as:

Substitute (5.14) into (5.15) to eliminate e and rearrange the result

Which can be written using the time constant as:

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Where:

The math model of this mechanical system and that of the electrical system
discussed so extensively e are identical. So the mechanical circuit will act
like a low-pass filter (mechanical style filter).

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The table in essence will move with a velocity equal to F/b when a low-
frequency sinusoidal force is applied. As the frequency of the force
increases past the break frequency (f = 1/2πt), the velocity will become
smaller than F/b.

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3.6.2. Derivation of Math Model of Motor and Transmission
Figure 5.11 shows a sketch of one way to make the DC motor drive the
shaker table. The table is attached at two ends with a taut, inelastic cable
wound around an idler pulley at one end and a drive pulley at the other.

The following equations (5.25) and (5.26) are fundamental transmission

equations. They provide a mathematical relationship to convert angular

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speed into linear speed and vice versa, and to convert linear force into
rotational torque and vice versa.
Q=rF (5.26)
and
v=rw (5.25)

Current flowing through the motor armature creates a motor torque Qm ft-
lbs Qm = Km ia

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The bearings in the motor and pulley act as a rotational damper having a
damping coefficient, B ft-lb / rad / sec.
From the free-body diagram we can write:
Where:
Jm: ft-lb-sec2: the motor moment of inertia
QB: ft-lbs: bearing damper torque given by
QB = B w (5.28)
QL: ft-lbs: load placed on the motor output shaft given by where r is the
radius of the pully and F is the linear force acting on the Table. Combining
equations (5.27) and (5.28) and then rearranging gives:

Substituting the F value calculated from the table model gives:

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Since v= r w

or in terms of the time constant of the motor-table system

Which is the block diagram of the motor-table system given in Figure 5.14.
We will use this block diagram to connect to the electrical portion of the
motor model next.

Figure 5.14. Block Diagrams of Motor-Table System

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3.6.3. Derivation of Math Model of Motor Controller
A motor is an electromechanical component, the mechanical output
generated by an electrical input. We will derive the transfer function for one
particular kind of electromechanical system, the armature-controlled dc
servomotor. Lorentz and Faraday’s laws are the physical laws applied.

Figure. Physical laws applicable to the DC motor.

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The motor’s schematic is shown in Figure 2.35(a), and the transfer
function we will derive appears in Figure 2.35(b).

FIGURE 2.35 DC motor: a. schematic;12 b. block diagram

Lorentz’s Law
In Figure 2.35(a) a magnetic field is developed by stationary permanent
magnets or a stationary electromagnet called the fixed field. A rotating
circuit called the armature, through which current 𝑖a(t) flows, passes

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