COMPUTER NETWORKS Overview Of Data Communication And Networking 2 Physical Level 22 Data Link Layer 28 Medium Access Sub Layer 49 Network Layer 65 Transport Layer 102 Application Layer 109 121 Modern TopicsPOPULAR PUBLICATIONS OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING Multiple Choice Type Questions 1. Ifa signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is [WBUT 2010) ayo b) finite ¢) infinite d) none of these Answer: (c) 2. A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level? a)0 b) 4 c)3 d) none of these [WBUT 2010} Answer: (c) 3. The value of SNRgg for a noiseless channel is [WBUT 2010) a)o b) finite c) infinite d) none of these Answer: (c) 4. Total bandwidth required for AM is [WBUT 2010, 2012) a)o b) 2(1+d) B c)2B d) none of these Answer: (c) 5. In.......... we make the highest input data rate the dominant data rate and then add dummy bits to the input lines with lower rates. [WBUT 2010} a) multiplexing _) interleafing c) pulse stuffing d) none of these Answer: (a) 6. An example of full duplex transmission is [WBUT 2012] a) Telephone channel c) Broadcast radio Answer: (a) b) Satellite channel d) none of these 7. Repeaters function in the . layer. (WBUT 2013) a) physical b) data lin! c) network. d) transport Answer: (a) 8. Process to Process delivery is the function of .......... layer. [WBUT 2013] a) transport b) network ¢) physical 4) none of those Answer: (a) 9. In Ethernet when Manchester encoding is used, the bit rateis (WBUT 2014] a) Half the baud rates b) Twice the baud rate c) Same as the baud rate d) None of these Answer: (a) CNCS-210. Match with si ust —t uitable option (A) Node-to-Node deliver (C) Bit representation 7 LIST-I (1) Physical Layer (3) Data Link Layer a) A-4,B-3,C-1,0-2 c) A-2,B-3,C-4,D-14 Answer: (b) COMPUTER NETWORKS [WBUT 2014] (8) Reassembly of data packets (D) Encryption (2) Application Layer (4) Transport Layer b)A-3,B-4,C=1, -1,0-2 d)A-4,B-4,C-3,D-3 14. Which transmission is highly susceptible to noise interference? ~[WBUT 2015] b) Qat a) ASK b) FSK Answer: (a) 12. Phase transition for each bit is used is a) NRZ encoding ¢) Carrier modulation Answer: (b) 13. In an optical fibre, the inner core is ...... a) denser than c) the same density as Answer: (a) 414. A bridge has access to the ... network. a) Physical (MAC) c) Service access point Answer: (a) 45, Which of the following is not a guided medium? ) PSK Mi [WBUT 2016] b) Manchester encoding ) Amplitude modulation ..the cladding. ) less dense than d) another name for [WBUT 2017) .. address of a station oi: .“* same [WBUT 2017] b) Network d) all of these [WBUT 2019] a) Twisted-pair b) Fibre optic c) Air d) Coaxial cable Answer: (c) 46, Which multiplexing technique involves signals composed of light beams? [WBUT 2019} a) FOM b) TOM c) WOM d) None of these Answer: (c) Short Answer 4. a) What is tho major disadvantage in using NRZ encoding? How does RZ encoding attempt to solve the problem? {WBUT 2006, 2012] b) Wo want to digitize human voice (frequencies ranging from 0 to 4000 kHz). What is the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per sample? CNCS-3 [WBUT 2006, 2015]popu! Bi |ONS Answer: a) The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and receiver clocks are not synchronized. The receiver does not know when one bit has ended and the next nbit is starting. One solution is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme, which uses three values: positive, negative, and zero. In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit, b) Sampling rate = 4000*2 = 8000 sample/sec Bit rate = Sampling rate * nos. of bit per sample = 8000*8 = 64000 bit per sec = 64 kbps What is the purpose of multiplexing? FDM is for analog signals, TDM is for digital signals. Explain why. [WBUT 2008, 2014] b) What Should be the link capacity to multiplex 3 input signals each of 300 bits per sec speed using 2 bits/sec framing rate? [WBUT 2008, 2014] Answer: 1a) Multiplexing is needed so that the available channel can be used efficiently and also to save costs. There is too much to know about multiplexing, here is just a short overview. One thing that one has to know is multiple access. Time-domain concept With respect to time, a signal can be either continuous or discrete. In a continuous signal, the signal intensity varies smoothly over a period of time, i.e., there are no breaks in the signal, e.g, human speech. The familiar sine wave (y = in(x)) is an example of a continuous signal. On the other hand, in a discrete signal, the signal intensity is maintained at a constant level for some period of time and then changes to another constant level, e.g., binary 1 and 0. Frequency-domain concept Practically speaking, an electromagnetic signal is made up of many frequencies, for example, the human speech uses a frequency range between 20 Hz — 200,000 Hz. This frequency range is called as the spectrum of the signal. b) 3 input signals, each of 300 bps + 2bps framing rate means no. of bits arrives per second = (300 + 2) * 3 = 906 bps. Therefore, Link Capacity = 906bps 3. a) Sketch the waveform for the bit stream 10110010 in differential Manchester encoding format. [WBUT 2008, 2012, 2013] b) A binary signal is sent over a 8 kHz channel whose signal to noise ratio is 20 dB. What is the maximum achievable rate? Define signaling rate. [WBUT 2008] CNCS-4Answer: a) b) Bandwidth B = 8KHz = 2"Hz SIN = 20db = 100 C =Blog,(1+S/N) = 2 log,(1+100) = 6.5 x 2" 4, a) What is the purpose of providing two separate protocols UDP and TCP in the transport layer of TCP/ [P architecture? b) Physical address operates in a local domain whereas logical address has a global domain. Explain, Define bandwidth of a media. [WBUT 2008, 2014] Answer: a) TCP is a connection oriented protocol. So it offers a reliable transmission of data. But UDP is connectionless protocol. Which produce an unreliable service but it is faster than connection oriented protocol. b) i) A Physical address is a 48-bit flat address burned into the ROM of the NIC card which is a Layerl device of the OSI model. This is divided into 24-bit vendor code and 24-bit serial address. This is unique for each system and cannot be changed. A Logical address is a 32- bit address assigned to each system in a network. This works in Layer-3 of OSI Model. This would be generally the [P address. ii) Physical address also called MAC address, It is present on Network interface cad. It won't change. Logical addressing is used when a packet passes n/w boundary. Band Width: ; Bandwidth (computing) or digital bandwidth: a rate of data transfer, throughput or bit rate, measured in bits per second. Bandwidth (signal processing) or analog bandwidth: a measure of the width of a range of frequencies, measured in hertz. 5, Explain the utility of layered network architecture. Compare ISO-OSI and TCP/IP models. [WBUT 2008, 2010, 2011) OR, Write down the similarities and differences between OSI and TCP/IP model. be [WBUT 2013) Explain the utility of layered network Srpentine. [weuT 2014) Compare and contrast between. OSI and TCP tayered models. [WBUT 2018} CNCS-5POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Answer: 1. Protocol layering is a common technique to simplify networking designs by dividing them into functional layers, and assigning protocols to perform each layer's task. 2. Protocol layering produces simple protocols, each with a few well defined tasks. These protocols can then be assembled into a useful whole. Individual protocols can also be removed or replaced as needed for particular applications. Similarities ‘The main similaritics between the two models include the following: ‘They share similar architecture. Both of the models share a similar architecture. This can be illustrated by the fact that both of them are constructed with layers. ‘They share a common application layer. Both of the models share a common “application layer". However in practice this layer includes different services depending upon each model. Both models have comparable transport and network layers. This can be illustrated by the fact that whatever functions are performed between the presentation and network layer of the OSI model similar functions are performed at the Transport layer of the TCP/IP model. Differences: Both, TCP/IP model and OSI model, work in very similar fashions. But they do have very subtle differences. OSI Model TCPAP Model 1, More of reference model created by ARPA. | 1. Implemented by almost all equipments | There areno real implementations used in the context of Internet/intranet — computers, routers, cell-phones, etc. 2. Defines seven layers. 2. Defines four layers (Application, Transport, Network and Data-Link) with an abstract physical layer. 3, No clear distinction specified with respect to | 3. Clearly defined connectionless (UDP) and connection-less and connection-oriented | connection-oriented (TCP) Transport layers. scenarios. ‘4. Have Session layer and Presentation layer | 4. Transport layer “links-up” with the with defined semantics. hhysical layer directly. 6. What are the disadvantages in using NRZ encoding? How does RZ encoding attempt to solve the problem? {WBUT 2010) Answer: The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and receiver clocks are not synchronized. The receiver does not know when one bit has ended and the next nbit is starting. One solution is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme, which uses three values: positive, negative, and zero. In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the CNCS-6COMPUTER NETWORKS 7. What i ssurobs cach feurBese of Guard bands? in FDM, suppose there are three signal if 40MHe. Find the na bandwidth 300 MHz. Find the minimum bandwidth of the path minimum bandwidth of the path if 10 MHz guard bands are used. Answer: ([WBUT 2010] In radio, a guard band is an unt i used of th i re Purpose of preventing interference = ral speeram beac oes It is a narrow frequency range used to separat ider f both can transmit simultaneously wis m interfering each clben tls ted in Hequency division multiplexing ly without interfering each other. It is used in frequency With 3 signals, there are minimum 2 guard bands. So minimum band width =3 x 300 +210 = 920 MHz. 10 MHz 10 MHz f mate Fs as 920 MHz ee 8. a) How does Manchester encoding differ from differentia! Manchester encoding? b) at ne encoding scheme for the bit stream: 0001110101 i - (ii) Manchester coding (iii) Differential Manchester coding. (WBUT 2011) Answer: a) Manchester code is a form of data communications line code in which each bit of data is signified by at least one transition. Manchester encoding is therefore considered to be self-clocking, which means that accurate synchronisation of a data stream is possible. Each bit is transmitted over a predefined time period, On the other hand, Differential Manchester encoding is a method of encoding data in which data and clock signals are combined to form a single self-synchronizing data stream. It is a differential encoding, using the presence or absence of transitions to indicate logical value. CNCS-7POPULAR PUBLICATIONS " AARAARAAAL: w NRZ-1 wo t Manchester ¢ Hi orororrairitio rt o a: i | Differential \ i Manchester t t ' oforotry ry ry o Ve 9. a) What is bit rate? What is’ Baud rate? ' : 11, 2013, 2016] Answer: Bit rate is the number of data bits transmitted per second. Baud is a measure of the “signaling rate" which is the number of changes to the transmission media per second in a modulated signal. For example, 250 baud means that 250 signals are transmitted in one second. Each signaling event transmitted can carry one or more bits (for example, 8 bits in 256- QAM modulation) of information. If baud rate is 250 and each signal carries 4 bits of information then in each second 1000 bits are transmitted. Thus, bit rate is 1000 bit/s. b) An analog signal carries 4 bit in each signal unit. If 1000 signal units are sent per second, find the baud rate and bit rate. [WBUT 2014, 2013, 2016] Answer: There are 1000 signal units are sent per second. And each signal carries 4 bits, as we know Bit rate = No. of bits per second = 4 x 1000 bit/sec.= 4000 biv/sec.=4 kbps. where, Baud rate = No. of signal units per second = 1000 bits/sec.=1kbps. 10. Differentiate between datagram and virtual circuit packet switching schemes- [weur 2012] CNCS-8COMPUTER NETWORKS Answer: © Datagram packet switchin packets which are transmit no data ‘is available at t packet is transmitted over In this scheme each pac! host to another host are 2 introduces the idea of cutting data on a flow into ited over a network without any resource being allocated. If the sender at some point during a communication, then no + the network and no resources are wasted. ket is processed individually by a router, all packets sent by a Not guaranteed to use the same physical links. Virtual circuit packet Switching (VC-switching) is a packet switching technique which merges datagram packet switching and circuit switching to extract both of their advantages, VC switching is a variation of datagram packet switching where Packets flow on so-called logical circuits for which no physical resources like frequencies or time slots are allocated, 11. a) A telephone tine formally has BW of (300-3300 Hz) assigned for data communication. The signal to noise rate is 3162. Find the channel capacity. b) Compare virtual circuit network and datagram network. {WBUT 2014] Answer: a) C=B log: (1+SNR) C= Channel Capacity B= Bandwidth (Hz) SNR = Signal to noise ratio For this channel the capacity is calculated as C=Btlogs(1 + SNR) = 3000*log:(1 + 3162) = 3000*10g,(3163) C= 3000*11.62 = 34860 bps d) Virtual Circuit Host to host address is needed in link setup only Errors are handled by subnetwork. Host will Error checking is required by hoxt to resemblel receive the packets in correct sequence. the packet and find out the missing packets. Messages may be out of order in thel Messages passed in order to the network. communication sub-network ‘Connection setup is initially required prior to sending data : Network component failure in path may affect the result Tess overhead in addressing embedded in the! packet Example is X.25 Level 3 Connection setup is not required 1s a flexible foundation to support a range off higher level protocols which can provide for additional network services Overhead in addressing Example is internet Protocol of (TCP/IP) ' CNCS-9POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 12. a) A signal has four data levels with a pulse duration of 1ms. Calculate the ulse rate and bit rate of the signal. DD What do you mean by line coding? For a signal represented by 01001110 raw the patterns using the schemes: NRZ -L & NRZ-I. [WBUT 2015] Answer: a) Pulse Rate = 1/ 10° = 1000 pulses/s Bit Rate = Pulse Rate x logoL = 1000 = log.4 = 2000 bps. b) I" part: , : Line coding consists of representing the digital signal to be transported, by a waveform that is optimally tuned for the specific properties of the physical channel (and of the receiving equipment). 2" Part: 13. Discuss about various transmission impairments. [WBUT 2015] Answer: Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise. Attenuation is a telecommunications term that refers to a reduction in signal strength commonly occurring while transmitting analog or digital signals over long distances. Attenuation is historically measured in dB but it can also be measured in terms of voltage. Noise is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that degrades the quality of signals and data. Noise occurs in digital and analog systems, and can affect files and communications of all types, including text, programs, images, audio, and telemetry. 14. What is inverse TDM? [IWBUT 2015] Answer: There is another technique which is known as inverse TDM which is also used in data communication today. This is opposite of the multi case what was done was the individual inputs of less: to form a composite signal of higher bandwidth. Here it is opposite. Here we are receiving signal of higher bandwidth then it is divided into a number of channels of smaller bandwidth and at the other end opposite operation is done. iplexing technique. In the previous er bandwidth then we are combining CNCS-1015. Define baseband a switching? What is multiplexing? Answer: Baseband: Electronic data prior to any modification. It refers to analog or digital data before they are merged with other signals (multiplexed) or intermixed into a carrier wave (modulated), Broadband: A type of data transmission in which a single medium (wire) can carry several channels at once, cable TV, for example. [n contrast, baseband transmission allows only one signal at a time. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) Switching is a type of digital multiplexing where two or more channels are derived from a selected frequency spectrum. There sre some apparent key benefits to using Time Division Multiplexing Switching as opposed to one of the other multiplexing switching techniques, such as: TDM switching enables service providers to use both their legacy services and the new services simultaneously. TDM can reduce costs by enabling service providers to move to Signalling System 7 (SS7). ‘TDM switching can positively impact investment and cost for service providers. Multiplexing is sending multiple signals or streams of information on a carrier at the same time in the form of a single, complex signal and then recovering the separate signals at the receiving end. ind broadband transmission. What is the application of TOM [WBUT 2019] 146. a) Find the bandwidth for a QPSK signal transmitting at 2kbps. The transmission is in full duplex mode. b) A digital signalling system is required to operate at 9600 bps. If a signal element encodes 16 bit word, what Is the minimum bandwidth required for this channel? (WBUT 2019] Answer: 2 kby a) Each signal element in QPSK carries 4 bits. Hence, band rate is = = 500 bps. b) A digital signalling system is required to operate at 9600 bps. Signal element encodes 16 bit word. 9600 Required bandwidth = 76 7 Hz CNCS-11POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 1. a) briefly discuss about the different guided media that are used in computer networks and make a comparison among them. [WBUT 2012, 2019] b) What is TCP/IP reference model? [WBUT 2012] Answer: a) There are four basic types of Guided Media: © Open Wire © Twisted Pair © Coaxial Cable © Optical Fiber Open Wire: Open Wire is traditionally used to describe the electrical wire strung along power poles. There is a single wire strung between poles. No shielding or protection from noise interference is used. This media is susceptible to a large degree of noise and interference and consequently not acceptable for data transmission except for short distances under 20 ft. Twisted he wires in Twisted Pair cabling are twisted together in pairs. Each pair would consist of a wire used for the positive data signal and a wire used for the negative data signal. Any noise that appears on one wire of the pair would occur on the other wire. Because the wires are opposite polarities, they are 180 degrees out of phase and the noise appearing on the wires cancels itself out. Twisted Pair cables are most effectively used in systems that use a balanced line method of transmission. The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined specifically by the number of turns per foot. Increasing the number of tums per foot reduces the noise interference. To further improve noise rejection, a foil or wire braid shield is woven around the twisted pairs. . Coaxial Cable: Coaxial Cable consists of two conductors. The inner conductor is held inside an insulator with the other conductor woven around it providing a shield. An insulating protective coating called a jacket covers the outer conductor. The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside electrical signals. The distance between the outer conductor (shield) and inner conductor plus the type of material used for insulating the inner conductor determine the cable properties or impedance. Typical impedances for coaxial cables are 75 ohms for Cable TV, 50 ohms for Ethernet Thinnet and Thicknet. The excellent control of the impedance characteristics of the cable allows higher data rates to be transferred than Twisted Pair cable. Optical Fibre: Optical Fibre consists of thin glass fibres that can carry information at frequencies in the visible light spectrum and beyond. The typical optical fibre consists of a very narrow strand of glass called the Core. Around the Core is a concentric layer of glass called the Cladding. A typical Core diameter is 62.5 microns (1 micron = 10-6 CNCS-12COMPUTER NETWORKS meters). Typically Cladding has a diameter of 125 microns. Coating the cladding is a protective coating consisting of plastic, it is called the Jacket. Data is transmitted as light waves which undergo continuous total internal reflection. The cost of optical fibre is a trade-off between capacity and cost. At higher transmission capacity, it is cheaper than copper. At lower transmission capacity, it is more expensive. Topic Twisted Pair Co-Axial Cable ia Optical Fiber ‘Number of | One pair of cables are coe , ‘ean Cable_| required Single cable is required Single Cable is required Medium Elta ein 5 | electrical medium is used | mination medium is used Noise Noise immunity islow | Noise immunity is moderate. | _ Noise immunity is high _| ‘Communication speed is ‘Communication speed is ‘Communication speed is Speed low, nearly 4 Mbps__| moderate, nearly 500 Ml high, nearly 2 Gbps Bandwidth | Low Bandwidh, ‘Comparatively high Very High bandwidth, 3MHz bandwidth, 350MHz 2GHz Disance | Comsnalsiner | Cov small distance, [Cov Tae dite 2t0 10km 110 10 km 10 to 100km Usage | Usedin LAN, THLines | USedin Cable TV. Ethernet | Used in WANMAN ete. b) TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data between the source and destination or the intemet. They also offer simple naming and addressing schemes. It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are: 1. Process/Application Layer 2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer 3. Internet Layer 4, Network Access/Link Layer TCP/IP Model (OSI Model — lication Layer Application Layer Presentation Layer ‘Session Layer Tr Intemet Layer ‘Network Access Layer Layer 1: Network Access Layer 1. Lowest layer of the all. 2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it. 3. Varies from host to host and network to network. CNCS-13POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Layer 2: Internet layer lL Ayr PPpP Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork layer is called a internet layer. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer. ‘The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are: e Delivering IP packets «Performing routing e Avoiding congestion Layer 3: Transport Layer 2 6. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer. 3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer. 4, 5. Transport layer adds header information to the data. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more efficiently by the network layer. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence. Layer 4: Application Layer The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc. 1. 2. ae TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine and run applications on it. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol that allows File transfer amongst computer users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient. SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via a route. DNS (Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected over a network. It allows peer entities to carry conversation. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP e TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol which handles byte-stream from source to destination without error and flow control. © UDP (User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that does not want TCPs, sequencing and flow control. E.g.: One-shot request-reply kind of service. CNCS-14COMPUTER NETWORKS 2. a) De peas the following encoding techniques with suitable diagrams: it) FSK bi) Doves the advantages of fibre optic cable. IWBUT 2013] a) i) QPSK: To increase the data rate and minimi i used is phase shift keying inimize error, advanced technique over ASK and FSK Phase of the carrier is varied to il if remains constant. represent 1/0 while the peak multitude and frequency QPSK uses phase shift of - Adifferent signals generated cach represents 2 bits. (00, 01, 10, 11). Signal Binary data Phase a Acos(2mf.t) 00 o Aeas(2nf+Z] o1 90° J 00 + Acos(2rf-t+m) 10 180° u Acor( anit) W 270° ii) QAM: BA (Qutof phase or quadrature carrier) It is a method is a method of combining (sina) CAA aa two amplitudes — modulated (AM) 7 signals into a single channel, thereby (01) ay doubling the effective bandwidth. In a QAM signal, there are two carriers, Ay (Inphase carrier) each having the same frequency but (cosex) 00) differing in phase by S (In phase (I) and f (10 era ata Quadrature phase (Q) signal). If one signal is represented by sine-waves the other can be represented by cos-wave. Fig: | Constellation diagram They are used in digital data and in wireless communication Various types of QAM may be used like 16 QAM, 32 QAM, 64 QAM, 128 QAM, 256 QAM. It carries more bits per symbol and hence it is a higher order form of modulation. 16 AM —*4 bits per symbol —» 1/4 bit rate = 2* data levels. — Atthe transmitter the composite signal is sent 4, cos(2/.t)+ B, sin(22f,t) CNCS-15PUBLICATIONS iii) FSK: Frequency-shift keying is a frequency modulati 1 a is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave. The two binary states, logic 0 (low) and | (high), are each represented by an analog waveform. FSK was the main way of communication in early days of analog telephone communication. But in modern world BESK has been replaced by many new modulation techniques for higher- performances. ion scheme in which digital information b) Advantages of fiber optic cable are i) Supports high speed communi ii) As the technology uses total involved is minimum. iii) Since fiber optic does not radiate electromagnetic energy, emission cannot be intercepted. Hence it is a good choice for carrying secure data. iv) It is provides good protection against electronic surges, as the material used in fiber optic is non-conductive. v) Small and lightweight. ‘cation over long distances without use of repeaters. internal reflection, hence loss of signal and data 3. a) What sampling rate is required for a signal with bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (2,000 to 12,000 Hz)? b) State the advantages of FM over AM. ¢) What is transmission impairment? Discuss various types of transmission impairments. [WBUT 2017] Answer: a) The sampling rate must be twice the highest frequency in the signal. Therefore, sampling rate = 212000 = 24000 Samples/s. b) FM is clearer in transmission than AM. Its wavelength is short whereas the frequency is high and vice versa in AM. Frequency is modulated in FM whereas in AM, amplitude is modulated. Advantages of FM over AM are: I. Less radiated power. 2. Low distortion due to improved signal to noise ratio (about 25dB) with respect to man- made interference. . Smaller geographical interference between neighboring stations. 4, Well defined service areas for given transmitter power. c) I* Part: Transmission impairment is a property of a transmission medium which causes the signal to be degraded, reduced in amplitude, distorted or contaminated. Impairment can introduce errors into digital signals. Examples of transmission impairments are attenuation, delay distortion, and several sources of noise including, interference, thermal noise, impulse noise, and inter-modulation noise. 2" Part: Refer to Question No. 13 of Short Answer Type Questions. CNCS-16‘COMPUTER NETWORKS 4. Write short notes on the following: a) Microwave transmission [WBUT 2010] b) FOM [WBUT 2015] c) Twisted Pair Cables [WBUT 2015] d) LAN Topologies [WBUT 2018] Answer: a) Microwave transmission: Microwave transmission refers to the technology of transmitting information by the use of the radio waves whose wavelengths are conveniently measured in small numbers of centimeters, by using various electronic technologies. These are called microwaves. This part of the radio spectrum ranges across frequencies of roughly 1.0 gigahertz (GHz) to 30 GHz. Also by using the formula 2 = c/f, these correspond to wavelengths from 30 centimeters down to 1.0 cm. [In the above equation, the Greek letter 4 (lambda) is the wavelength in meters; ¢ is the speed of light in meters per second; and f is the frequency in hertz (Hz).] In the microwave frequency band, antennas are usually of convenient sizes and shapes, and also the use of metal waveguides for carrying the radio power works well. Furthermore, with the use of the modem solid-state electronics and traveling wave tube technologies that have been developed since the early 1960s, the electronics used by microwave radio transmission have been readily used by expert electronics engineers. Microwave radio transmission is commonly used by communication systems on the surface of the Earth, in satellite communications, and in deep space radio communications. Other parts of the microwave radio band are used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems, and radio astronomy. The next higher part of the radio electromagnetic specirum, where the frequencies are above 30 GHz and below 100 GHz, are called “millimeter waves" because their wavelengths are conveniently measured in millimeters, and their wavelengths range from 10 mm down to 3.0 mm, Radio waves in this band are usually strongly attenuated by the Earthly atmosphere and particles contained in it, especially during wet weather. Also, in wide band of frequencies around 60 GHz, the radio waves are strongly attenuated by molecular oxygen in the atmosphere. The electronic technologies needed in the millimeter wave band are also much more difficult to utilize than those of the microwave band. b) FDM: 2 FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the link. The carrier frequencies have to be different enough to accommodate the modulation and demodulation signals. The following figure illustrates the FDM multiplexing process. The multiplexing process starts by applying amplitude modulation into each signal by using different carrier frequencies as/I and/j. Then both signals are combined. CNCS-17POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Modulated signal Signal combined In demultiplexing process, we use filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent component signals. Then each signal is passed to an amplitude demodulation process to separate the carrier signal from the message signal. Then, the message signal is sent to the waiting receiver. The process of demultiplexing is shown in the figure. Signal with Carrier Combined Signal ¢) Twisted Pair Cables: A twisted pair cable is a type of cable made by putting two separate insulated wires together in a twisted pattern and running them parallel to each other. This type of cable is widely used in different kinds of data and voice infrastructures. The wires in Twisted Pair cabling are twisted together in pairs. Each pair would consist of a wire used for the positive data signal and a wire used for the negative data signal. Any noise that appears on one wire of the pair would occur on the other wire. Because the wires are opposite polarities. they are 180 degrees out of phase and the noise appearing on the wires cancels itself out. Twisted Pair cables are most effectively used in systems that use a balanced line method of transmission. The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined specifically by the number of tums per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot reduces the noise interference. To further improve noise rejection, a foil or wire braid shield is woven around the twisted pairs. d) LAN Topologies: LAN physical topology defines the geographical arrangement of networking devices. Topologies are driven fundamentally by two network connection types: A point-to-point connection is a direct link between two devices. For example, when you attach your computer to a printer, you have created a point-to-point link. In networking CNCS-18COMPUTER NETWORKS, terms, most of the today’s point-io-point connections are associated with modems and FSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) communications because only two devices share point-to-point connections, it defeats the purpose of a shared network. A multipoint connection, on the other hand, is a link between three or more devices. eeteaies multipoint connections were used to attach central CPUs to distributed dumb ferminals. In today’s LAN environments, multipoint connections link many network devices in various configurations. The major topologies of LAN are: . Bus Topology Ring Topology Star Topology Mesh Topology Cellular Topology Hybrid Topology ayaene Bus Topology The physical bus topology is the simplest and most widely used of the network designs. It consists of one continuous length of cabling (trunk) and a terminating resistor (terminator) at each end, The data communications message travels along the bus in both directions until it is picked up by a workstation or server NIC. If the message is missed or not recognized, it reaches the end of the cabling and dissipates at the terminator. All nodes in the bus topology have equal access w *e trunk — no discriminating here. This is accomplished using short drop cables or direct T- connectors. This design is easy to install because the backbone trunk traverses the LAN as one cable segment. This minimizes the amount of transmission media required. Also, the number of devices and length of the trunk can be easily expanded, Advantages of Bus Topology: 1. It uses established standards and it is relatively easy to install. 2. Requires fewer media than other topologies. Disadvantages of Bus Topology: 1. The bus networks are difficult to reconfigure, especially when the acceptable number of connections or maximum distances have been reached. 2. They are also difficult to troubleshoot because everything happens on a single media segment. This can have dangerous consequences because any break in the cabling brings the network to its knees. Ring Topology eas ‘As its name implies, the physical ring topology is a circular loop of point-to-point links. Each device connects directly or indirectly to the ring through an interface device or drop cable. Messages travel around the ring from node to node in very organized manner. Each workstation checks the messages for a matching destination address. CNCS-19POPULAR PUBLICATIONS If the address doesn’t match, the node simply regenerates the message and sends it on its way. If the address matches, the node accepts the message and sends a reply to the originating sender. Initially, ring topologies are moderately simple to install; however, they require more media than bus systems because the loop must be closed. | Once your ring has been installed, it’s a bit more difficult to reconfigure. Ring segments must be divided or replaced every time they're changed. Moreover, any break in the loop can affect all devices on the network. Advantages of Ring Topology: . |. They are very easy to troubleshoot because cach device incorporates a repeater. 2. A special intemal feature called becoming, allows the troubled workstation to identify themselves quickly. Disadvantages of Ring Topology: 1. It is considerably difficult to install and reconfigure ring topology. 2. Media failure on unidirectional or single loop causes complete network failure. Star Topology The Physical star topology uses a central controlling hub with dedicated legs pointing in all directions — like points of a star. Each network devices has a dedicated point-to-point link to the central hub. This strategy prevents troublesome collisions and keeps the line of communication open and free of traffic. Star topologies are somewhat difficult to install because each device gets its own dedicated segment. Obviously, they require a great deal of cabling. This design provides an excellent platform for reconfiguration and troubleshooting. Changes to the network are as simple as plugging another segment into the hub. In addition, a break in the LAN is easy to isolate and doesn’t affect the rest of the network. Advantages of Star Topology: |, Relatively easy to configure. 2. Easy to troubleshoot. 3. Media faults are automatically isolated to the failed segment. Disadvantages of Star Topology: 1. Requires more cable than most topologies. 2. Moderately difficult to install.’ Mesh Topology The mesh topology is the only true point-to-point design. It uses a dedicated link between every device on the network. This design is not very practical because of its excessive waste of transmission media. This topology is difficult to install and reconfigure. Moreover, as the number of devices increases geometrically, the speed of communication also become slow. ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and switched Hubs are the example of high-speed Mesh implementation. Advantages of Mesh Topology: 1, Easy to troubleshoot because each link is independent of all others. CNCS-20COMPUTER NETWORKS 2 ¥ sy denn Yeu san easly idemity faults and fscate the affected links. Beeause ofthe high newark, wn paths, multiple links can fail before the failure affects any Disadvantages of Mesh Topology: |. It is difficult to install and reconfigure especially as the number of devices increases. Cellular Topology A cellular topology combines wireless point-to-point and multipoint designs to divide a geographic area into cells. Each cell represents the portion of the total network area in which a specific connection operates. Devices within the cell communicate with a central station or hub. Hubs are then interconnected to route data between cells. The cellular topology relies on the location of wireless media hubs. Cellular networks exhibit interesting characteristics since this topology do not depend on cables. Troubleshooting is easy because each hub interacts independently with each device. A cellular installation depends on the accessibility hub locations. Advantages of Cellular Topology: 1. It is relatively easy to install. 2. It does not require media reconfiguration when adding or removing users. 3, Fault isolation and troubleshooting is fairly simple. Disadvantages of Cellular Topology: 1. All devices using a particular hub are affected by a hub failure. Hybrid Topology bining some of the characteristics of the ‘pure’ network topologies, By modifying or com! ¥ arnore useful result may be obtained. These combinations are called hybrid topologies. CNCS-21PUBLIC: IS PHYSICAL LEVEL 1. The total number of link required to connect n devices using Mesh Topology is (WBUT 2007, 2011) a)2” b) n(n+1)/2 ) n(n-1)/2 d) 1? Answer: (c) 2. Circuit switching takes place at the .. .. layer. [IWBUT 2010, 2012 a) transport b) data link c) physical d) none of these Answer: (c) 3. For a 4-bit sliding window, sequence number range is [WBUT 2013) a) 1to 16 b) Oto7 c) Oto 15 d) 8 to 15 Answer: (c) 4. Which layer converts bit into electromagnetic signals? [WBUT 2016] a) Physical b) Network c) Transport d) Session Answer: (a) 5, The total number of links required to connect ‘n’ devices using Mésh Topology is [WBUT 2018] a) 2" b) n(n+1)/2 ¢) n(n-1)/2 d) n? Answer: (c) 6. In Go-Back-N ARQ, the size of the receiver window will be {WBUT 2019] a) 2” b)1 c) 2"! do Answer: (b) Short Answer Ty} tions 1. Differentiate circuit switching and packet switching. [WBUT 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013] oR, Compare circuit switching with packet switching. [WBUT 2017] Answer: Circuit switching Packet switchin; Circuit switching establishes fixed bandwidth | Packet switching is a communication in which circuit/channel between nodes and terminals | packet are routed between node over data before the users may communicate links shared with other traffic. In each network node, packets are queued in buffered. resulting in variable delay. CNCS-22COMPUTER NETWORKS 2. For following situations state which type of network architecture Is appropriate \) No. of users 50 li) Data and resources need tobe restricted lil) No. network administrato iv) all users with equal wort Answer: i) Bus or Ring topology ii) Mesh topology iii) Mesh topology iv) Bus or Ring topology [WBUT 2014] 3. Find NRZ+4, Manchester and Differential Manchester encoding for the binary data 111001000. Answer: ‘Manchester code Differential Manchester 4. Compare Mesh and Star Topology. Answer: {WBUT 2017} [WBUT 2017] Mesh topology Star topafogy node in the network. This means each link carries traffic only between the two nodes it connects. No traffic problem as there are dedicated links, Robust as failure of one link does not affect the entire system. . | Security as data travels along a dedicated line. The hardware is expansive as there is dedicated link for any two nodes and each device should have (1-1) VO ports 6. Explain message switching with a proper diagram. Answer: In this type of topology, cvery node bas a | Star topotogy is less expensive than a mesh dedicated point to point link to every other | topology as there are no dedicated links between nodes and each device needs only one link and one 1/0 ports to connect it to any number of nodes. Entire network collapse if central controller fails. Security is less. Star topotogy is less expensive than a mesh topology as there are no dedicated links between modes and each device needs only one link and onc YO ports to connect it to any number of nodes »} (WBUT 2019] Refer to Question No. | of Long Answer Type Questions. CNCS-23popl IBLICATIO! estions 4. Distinguish among the working principles of circuit switching, messago switching and packet switching techniques. [WBUT 2010, 2012) Answer: Different types of switching techniques are employed to provide communication between two computers. These are: Circuit switching, message switching and packet switching, Circuit Switching: In this technique, first the complete physical connection between two computers is established and then data are transmitted from the source computer to the destination computer. That is, when a computer places a telephone call, the switching equipment within the telephone system seeks out a physical copper path all the way from sender telephone to the receiver's telephone. The important property of this switching technique is to setup an end-to-end path (connection) between computer before any data can be sent. Message Switching: In this technique, the source computer sends data or the message to the switching office first, which stores the data in its buffer. It then looks for a free link to another switching, office and then sends the data to this office. This process is continued until the data are delivered to the destination computers. Owing to its working principle, it is also known as store and forward. That is, store first (in switching office), forward later, one jump at a time. Packet Switching: With message switching, there is no limit on block size, in contrast, packet switching places a tight upper limit on block size. A fixed size of packet which can be transmitted across the network is specified. Another point of its difference from message switching is that data packets are stored on the disk in message switching whereas in packet switching, all the packets of fixed size are stored in main memory. This improves the performance as the access time (time taken to access a data packet) is reduced, thus, the throughput (measure of performance) of the network is improved. 2. What is a multiplexer? Discuss one analog multiplexing technique. [(WBUT 2013] Answer: 1" Part: Multiplexer is a device that selects one of several analog or digital input signals and forwards the selected input into a single line. A multiplexer of 2” inputs has » select lines. which are used to select which input line to send to the output. Multiplexers are mainly used to increase the amount of data that can be sent over the network within a certain amount of time and bandwidth.COMPUTER NETWORKS 2" Part: Analog Multiplexing Technique: At the source end, for each frequency channel, an electronic oscillator generates a carrier signal at a single frequency that carries information, which has highcr frequency than the baseband signal. The carrier signal and the baseband signal are applied to a modulator circuit. The modulator alters some aspect of the carrier signal, such as its amplitude, frequency. or phase, with the baseband signal, piggybacking" the data onto the carrier. Multiple modulated sub-bands at different frequencies are sent through the transmission medium, such as a RF, cable, or optical fiber, on this main carrier. The information from the modulated signal is carried in the called the sidebands each side of the carrier frequency. This band of frequencies is passband of the channel. As long as the sub-band frequencies of the channel are spaced far enough apart, so they do not overlap, the sub-bands will not interfere with each another. Thus the available channel bandwidth is divided into *sfots” or sub-bands, each of which can carry a separate or parallel modulated signal. At the destination end of the RF, cable, or fiber, a local oscillator mixes with the carrier frequency, and the resulting ‘output, or a single baseband signal is filtered to produce each sub-band to a separate serial output from parallel sub-bands. 1Q differ from Selective Repeat ARQ? 3. a) How does Go-Back-N AR quence numbers. What is the size of the b) A computer is using the following set window? 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 7, 0, 1,2, 3,4... NAK frame mean for Selective Repeat ARQ? Give c) What does the numbor on a ‘one example. {WBUT 2018) Answer: a) Comparison Chart BASIS FOR 0-BACK-N v COMPARISON GO-BAI SELECTIVE REPEAT Basic Retransmits all the frames that sent Retransmits only those frames that are after the frame which suspects to be suspected to lost or damaged. damaged or lest. Bandwidth If error rate is high, it wastes a lot of Comparatively less bandwidth is Utilization bandwidth. wasted in retransmitting. Cornplexity Less complicated. More complex as it require to apply extra logic and sorting and storage, at sender and receiver. Window size Nel <= (NH2 Sorting Sorting is neither required at sender Receiver must be able to sort as it has side nor at receiver side, to maintain the sequence of the frames. Storing Receiver do not store the frames Receiver stores the frames received received after the damaged frame after the damaged frame in the buffer until the damaged frame _ is until the damaged frame is replaced. retransmitted. CNCS-25POPU! UBLICATIONS BASIS FOR COMPARISON GO-BACK-N SELECTIVE REPEAT Searching No searching of frame is required The sender must be able to search and neither on sender side nor on receiver select only the requested frame. ACK Numbers NAK number refer to the next NAK number refer to the frame lost, expected frame number. Use It more often used. It is less in practice because of its complexity. b) Sequence Number is: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1, 2,3, 4... ele? As, window size < 2”" (Ans.) ©) For selective repeat ARQ, NAK frame means upto that sequence no the frames are received properly. +. It means the frame 2 is not received and that frame is again sent to the receiver. So, NAK implies the lost frame number, which will be resent selectively. 4. Write short note on Virtual Circuit Switching. [WBUT 2018) R, Write short note on Virtual Circuit. [WBUT 2019] CNCS-26COMPUTER NETWORKS Answer: Virtual circuit Switching is apacket switching methodology whereby a path is established between the source and the final destination through which all the packets will be routed during a call. This path is called a virtual circuit because to the user, the Connection appears to be a dedicated physical circuit. However, other communications may also be sharing the parts of the same path. Before the data transfer begins, the source and destination identify a suitable path for the virtual circuit. All intermediate nodes between the two points put an entry of the routing in their routing table for the call. Additional parameters, such as the maximum packet size, are also exchanged between the source and the destination during call setup. The virtual circuit is cleared after the data transfer is completed. Virtual circuit packet switching is connection orientated. This is in contrast to datagram switching, which is a connection less packet switching methodology. Advantages of virtual circuit switching are: 7 ° Packets are delivered in order, since they all take the same route; © The overhead in the packets is smaller, since there is no need for each packet to contain the full address; «The connection is more reliable, network resources are allocated at call setup so that even during times of congestion, provided that a call has been setup, the subsequent packets should get through; © Billing is easier, since billing records need only be generated per call and not per packet. Disadvantages of a virtual circuit switched network are: ‘The switching equipment needs to be more powerful, since each switch needs to store details of all the calls that are passing through it and to allocate capacity for any traffic that each call could generate; Resilience to the loss of a trunk is more difficult, since if there is a failure all the calls must be dynamically reestablished over a different route. Examples of virtual circuit switching are X.25 and Frame Relay. CNCS-27POPULAR PUBLICATIONS DATA LINK LAYER 1, The Hamming code is used for [WBUT 2008, 2017) a) Error Detection b) Error correction c) Error encapsulation d) (a) and (b) both Answer: (d) 2. For a4 bit sliding window the sequence number can range from [WBUT 2008, 2012] a) 1to16 b) Oto7 c)0to15 d) 8 to15 Answer: (c) 3. The hamming distance d(000, 011) is [WBUT 2010] ajo b)1 c)2 d) none of these Answer: (c) 4. In selective repeat sliding window protocol, the receiver window size is a) greater than one b) one (WBUT 2011] c) two d) none of these Answer: (a) 5. In HDLC inserts a 0 bit after five consecutive ‘bits in the message data. [WBUT 2011] 6. The Hamming code is used for (WBUT 2011] a) error detection b) error correction ¢) error encapsulation d) both (a) and (b) Answer: (d) 7. Which channel access method is used in Ethernet network? [WBUT 2011, 2012] a) CSMA/CD b) Token bus c) Token ring d) all of those Answer: (2) 8. Pure ALOHA has a maximum efficiency of [WBUT 2011] a) 18% b) 37% c) 10% d) none of these Answer: (b) 9. The ..... . layer handles the creation of data frames. [WBUT 2012] a) Data link b) Network ¢) Transport d) Physical Answer: (a) CNCS-28COMPUTER NETWORKS 10. Which detection method can detect a single bit error? [WBUT 2012] 2 Snes fay etook b) two dimensional parity checks ec H Answer: (d) 4) previous al 1 11. If the dataword is 114144, the divisor is 1010, the remainder is 110, the CRC codeword is [WBUT 2013] a) 1111141010 b) 411449110 ¢) 1010110 d) 1101010 Answer: (b) 12. In. ... ARQ, if a NAK is received, only the specified damaged or lost frame is transmitted. [WBUT 2013) a) Go-Back-N b) Selective Repeat c) Stop-and-Wait ) all of these Answer: (b) 13... is a collision free technique. [WBUT 2013] a) Token Passing ) CSMA c)ALOHA —d) CSMA/CD Answer: (a) 44. HDLC protocols insert a 0 bit after .... .. consecutive 1 bits in the message data. [WBUT 2013) a5 b)7 4 as Answer: (a) 45. Which channel access method is used in IEEE 802.5 network? [WBUT 2013] a) CSMA/CD b) token bus ¢) token ring d) all of these Answer: (c) 46. How much of channel output of slotted ALOHA will be in comparison to pure ALOHA? [WBUT 2013] a) same b) double ¢) three times d) none of these Answer: (b) 47. Error detection and correction at the data link level is achieved by [WBUT 2014] a) bit stuffing b) cyclic redundancy codes c) Hamming codes d) Equalization Answer: (c) 18, Match the following list: Sequence numberis 5 bits [WBUT 2014] Protocol WW, (A) ‘Stop-N-Wait ARQ _| (1) 31,1 (8) Go-Back-NARQ | (2)| 16, 16 (©) | Selective repeat ARQ[(3)| 1.1 W,: Sender Window Size W,: Receiver Window size a) A-3, B-1,C-2 b) A-1, B-3, C-2 ¢) A-2, B-1, 6-3 ) A-3, 4 Answer: (a) CNCS-29POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 419, Error Control activity is performed by [WBUT 2015) a) Datalink layer b)Networklayer c) Transport layer _d) Session layer Answer: (a) 20, HDLC isa [WBUT 2015] a) bit oriented protocol b) byte oriented protocol c) both a) and b) d) can't say Answer: (a) 21. Pick the odd one out from the following [WBUT 2015] a) 2D Parity Check b) CRC ¢) Hamming Code _—d) Checksum Answer: (b) 22. Which of the following transmission media is not readily suitable to CSMA operation? [WBUT 2016] a) Radio b) Twisted pair ¢) Fibre optic d) Coaxial Answer: (a) 23. Sliding window protocol is used for [WBUT 2017] a) error control b) session control c) flow control d) concurrency control Answer: (c) 24. Which the following is an inter-domain routing protocol? [WBUT 2017] a) RIP b) OSPF ¢) BGP d) Both (a) & (b) Answer: (c) 25. Hote (High-Level Data Link Control) is a [WBUT 2018] bit oriented protocol b) byte oriented protocol 3 both (a) and (b) 4) None of these Answer: (a) 26. At which layer circuit switching takes place? [WBUT 2018] a) IP b) ARP c) ICMP. 4) DHCP Answer: (b) 27. For a system using TCP, the sender window size is determined by the window size of [WBUT 2019] a) Receiver b) Congestion ¢) both (a) and (b) _d) none of these Answer: (c) Short Answer estions 4. A 10 bit data bit block 0111010111 is to sent using hamming code for error detection and correction. Show how the receiver corrects an error that occurs in 6" bit position form right. [WBUT 2008, 2011, 2014, 2016] Answer: First step (blank parity positions):__0_111_010111 CNCS-30PI =Parity(011001)= 1 P2 = Parity(011101)=0 P4 = Parity(I11111)=0 P8 = Parity(O10111) =0 Hence sent word: | 0001110010111 The sixth bit from right, ie., the one underlined above is received erroneously. So, received word: LOOOLIIOIIOIIE At receiver: PI = Parity(1011101) P2 = Parity(0011101 P4 = Parity(OLITII1 P8 = Parity(0110111 Now: P4 : P3 : P2: Pl = 1001 = 9Decimal. So, the 9-th bit from left is erroneous, which is the underlined bit. 2. If a = propagation delay! transmission delay and P is the Probability of frame error then prove that channel utilization in the case of stop and wait ARQ protocol le sender, receiver processing time, transmission is (1-p) / (1#2a). Assume negligi time and acknowledgement time. [WBUT 2008] OR, What is working operation of stop and wait ARQ for Lost Acknowledgement. [WBUT 2014] Answer: nd the least expensive technique for link- The stop-and-wait protocol is the, simplest ai overflow control. The idea behind this protocol is that the transmitter waits for an acknowledgement after transmitting one frame. - co en tte me b (= - CNCS-31POPULAR PUBLICATIONS In the following figure, we assume two consecutive frames i and i + 1. Frame i is ready to enter the link and is transmitted at t = 0. Let t; be the time required to enter all the bits of a frame and t, the propagation time of the frame between the transmitter (T) and the receiver (R). It takes as long as t = t, +t, to transmit a frame. At the arrival of a frame j, the receiver processes the frame for as long as tr and generates an acknowledgment. For the same reason, the acknowledgment packet takes t = ta + tp to be received by the transmitter if ta is assumed to be the time required to enter all the bits of an acknowledgment frame, and it takes tr for processing it at the receiver. Therefore, the total time to transmit a frame, including acknowledgment processes, t=t, +2, +20, +1,. Note here that with this technique, the receiver can stop or slow down the flow of data by withholding or delaying acknowledgment. Practically, t, and t, are negligible compared to other components of the equation. Thus, this equation can be approximated as (et, +2t,. In this equation, tr =I /r, where | is the length of frame in bits; r is the data rate; and t, = d1..., where d is the length of transmission line, and I... ispeed of transmission. For ireless and wired transmissions, {... = 3 x 108 m/s where except for fiber-optic links, 1...2.2 x 108 m/s, owing to the fact that light travels zigzag over links, and thus overall speed is lower. Therefore, the link efficiency is defined as 3. a) In Selective Reject ARQ the size of the sender and receiver window must be at most one half of 2”, explain it. [WBUT 2009, 2010] b) What do you mean by ‘Piggybacking’? [WBUT 2009, 2010, 2013] Answer: Sender Recetver a) eens Frame Sender Receiver lols[2|sTo 2 | fojry2}sqors) Fae g ie Tume-out(O]1]2]3] s ‘Time a. Window size = 2°" b, Window size > 2" CNCS-32COMPUTER NETWORKS Size of the sender and receiver windows must be at most one-half of 2 m. If m = 2, window size should be 2 °m/2 = 2. Fig compares a window size of 2 with a window size of 3. Window size is 3 and all ACKs are lost, sender sends duplicate of frame 0, window of the receiver expect to receive frame 0 (part of the window), so accepts frame 0, as the 1* frame of the next cycle ~ an error. b) Piggybacking is a bi-directional data transmission technique in the network layer (OS! model). It makes the most of the sent data frames from receiver to emitter, adding the confirmation that the data frame sent by the sender was received successfully (ACK acknowledge). This practically means, that instead of sending an acknowledgement in an individual frame it is piggy-backed on the data frame. 4. Suppose a system uses Stop and Wait protocol with propagation delay 20 ms. If is 4kbps then calculate channel the frame size is 160 bits and band width i: utilization or efficiency. [WBUT 2011, 201 6] Answer: 0 bits takes 20ms+20ms = 40 ms. So, after ‘At a transmission rate of 4bits/ms, 161 transmitting a 160 bits frame in 160/4=160ms, the sending system has to wait another 4Oms to get the ACK. Thus it takes 20+20=80ms for a frame of which transmission happens for 40 ms. So. efficiency = 40/80 = 50% for round trip propagation delay. 5. Suppose a system uses Go Back N protocol with window size 3. If a sender frame is error then calculate how many wants to transmit 6 frames and every 4 humber of extra frames to be transmitted to the receiver. (WBUT 2011] ‘Answer: Given: Frames 40 send = 6 N= window size =3. Every 4° frame is erroneously transmitted. Hence, 4" frame out of 6 had error. NAK received after 6” frame. ‘Action — Retransmit 4” frame which now goes through without error. So, System needs to transmit | extra frame i.e. 7 frames total. ¢ between bit stuffing and character stuffing. [WBUT 2012, 2013] (WBUT 2018] 6. Write the differenc oR, What is bit stuffing and character stuffing? Answer: Both bit and character stuffing are used to distinguish the start and end of frames. In character stuffing, some special (usually three) characters are used to mark the beginning set oad of frames. In bit-stufling, a special flag pattern “O1II1110" is send at the he start of a frame. All subsequent data is literally treated as a beginning to indicate # stream of bits. However, if five consecutive ‘1'-s have been pumped out, a ‘0’ is ignored by the receiver. CNCS-33POPULAR PUBLICATIO! 7. Discuss the IEEE 802.5 protocol. Draw the lower two layers of the IEEE 802.5 protocol. [WBUT 2012) Answer: Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 support two basic frame types e Tokens © —Data/command frames. Tokens are 3 bytes in length and consist of a start delimiter, an access control byte, and an end delimiter. Data/command frames vary in size, depending on the size of the Information field. Data frames carry information for upper-layer protocols, while command frames contain control information and have no data for upper-layer protocols. Both formats are shown in Figure below. Feed length in Data / command frame Start iddress. | End detimuer | control | delimiver Tokens: Start delimiter: Alerts each station of the arrival of a token (or data/command frame). This field includes signals that distinguish the byte from the rest of the frame by violating the encoding scheme used elsewhere in the frame. Access-control byte: Contains the Priority field (the most significant 3 bits) and the Reservation field (the least significant 3 bits), as well as a token bit (used to differentiate a token from a data/command frame) and a monitor bit (used by the active monitor to determine whether a frame is circling the ring endlessly). End delimiter: Signals the end of the token or data/command frame. This field also contains bits to indicate a damaged frame and identify the frame that is the last in a logical sequence. Data/Command Frame Data/command frames have the same three fields as Token Frames, plus several others: Start delimiter: Alerts cach station of the arrival of a token (or data/command frame). This field includes signals that distinguish the byte from the rest of the frame by violating the encoding scheme used elsewhere in the frame. Access-control byte: Contains the Priority field (the most significant 3 bits) and the Reservation field (the least significant 3 bits), as well as a token bit (used to differentiate a token from a data/eommand frame) and a monitor bit (used by the active monitor to determine whether a frame is circling the ring endlessly). Frame-control bytes: Indicates whether the frame contains data or control information. In control frames, this byte specifies the type of control information. CNCS-34COMPUTER NETWORKS Destination and source addresses: Consists of two 6-byte address fields that identify the destination and source station addresses, Data: Indicates that the length of field is limited by the ring token holding time, which defines the maximum time a station can hold the token. Frame-check sequence (FCS): \s filed by the source station with a calculated value dependent on the frame contents. The destination station recalculates the value to determine whether the frame'was damaged in transit. If so, the frame is discarded. End Delimiter: Signals the end of the token or data/command frame. The end delimiter also contains bits to indicate a damaged frame and identify the frame that is the last in a logical sequence. Frame Status: \s a 1-byte field terminating a command/data frame. The Frame Status field includes the address-recognized indicator and frame-copied indicator. 8. a) Suppose a sender is using sliding window protocol of window size 15. What will be the window status for the following occurrence? Sender has sent packets 0 to 11 and has received NAK 6. b) “In Selective-Repeat ARQ, sender window size > 2*'.” Is it correct? Justify. [WBUT 2013] Answer: a) Window size of sender is 15. Sender(S) has sent 0— 11 packets and received NAK6 v NAK is used by receiver to indicate there is error no frames received and sender must resend frame 6. ¥ After frame 6, from 7 to 15 are buffered in receiver (R). v After resending frame 6 by S, the R can now send ACK 12 — expecting rest of frames (12-15) b) The size of the sending and receiving windows must be equal and half the maximum sequence number (assuming that sequence numbers are numbered from 0 to n—1) to avoid miscommunication in all cases of packets being dropped. To understand this, consider the case when all ACKs are destroyed. If the receiving window is larger than half the maximum sequence number, some, possibly even all, of the packages that are resent after timeouts are duplicates that are not recognized as such. The sender moves its window for every packet that is ach,.owledged. CNCS-35POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 9. Discuss about data transparency and bit stuffing in case of HDLC? Answer: INBUT 2046} In the frame format of HDLC flag fields delimit the frame at both ends with the uniqu pattern 01111110. A single flag may be used as the closing flag for one frame and the opening flag for the next. On both sides of the user-network interface, receivers are continuously hunting for the flag sequence to synchronize 6n the start of a frame. While receiving a frame, a station continues to hunt for that sequence to determine the end of the frame. Since the pattern 01111110 may appear in the frame as well, a procedure know bit stuffing is used. After detecting a starting flag, the receiver monitors the bit stream. When a pattern of five Is appears, the sixth bit is examined. If this bit is 0, it is deleted. If the sixth bit is a 1 and the seventh bit is a 0, the combination is accepted as a flag. If the sixth and seventh bits are both 1, the sender is indicating an abort condition. With the use of bit stuffing, arbitrary bit patterns can be inserted into the data field of the frame. This property is known as data transparency. 10. What is bit stuffing and byte stuffing? [WBUT 2016] Answer: Bit stuffing is the mechanism of inserting one or more non-information bits into a message to be transmitted, to break up the message sequence, for synchronization purpose. This is called bit-oriented framing. Bit stuffing is a mechanism to convert a message formed of a sequence of bytes that may contain reserved values such as frame delimiter into another byte sequence that does not contain the'reserved values. This is also called character-oriented framing, Byte stuffing is a process that transforms a sequence of data bytes that may contain ‘illegal’ or ‘reserved’ values (such as packet delimiter) into a potentially longer sequence that contains no occurrences of those values. 44. A channel has a data rate 4 kbps and propagation delay of 20 ms. For what range of frame size does ‘stop-and-wait give an efficiency of at least soe ur 2046] Answer: Set S,=S, =lyge=0 based on my statement of what parameters to ignore (note that 1a Sora transmission delay of ACK is 52), Plug in the values of r=4KbPS, fyaq = 20:ms, and 7 transmission efficiency is 50%. Find S,. This works out to be 160 bits. 1 SS 1 2x 20ms) «4 kbps 5, 0.5= or, —-S, = 160 bits. CNCS-36COMPUTER NETWORKS 12. What is polling? f Answer: % (weur 2018) Polling is the process where the computer or controlling, device waits for an external eee check for its ioe or state, often with low-level hardware. For example, is connected via . e z, received the next charecter a parallel port, the computer waits until the printer has Algorithm Polling can be described in the following steps: Host actions: . 1. The host repeatedly reads the busy bit of the controller until it becomes clear. 2. When clear, the host writes in the command register and writes a byte into the data-out register. 3. The host sets the command-ready bit (set to 1). Controller actions: 1. When the controller senses command-ready bit is set, it sets busy bit. 2. The controller reads the command register and since write bit is set, it performs necessary V/O operations on the device. If the read bit is set to one instead of write bit, data from device is loaded into data-in register, which is further read by the host. 3. The controller clears the command-ready bit once everything is over, it clears error bit to show successful operation and reset busy bit (0). 43. Why acknowledgement is numbered in stop and wait protoco!? Discuss the situation when unnumbered acknowledgements can create confusion in the sender and receiver end. (WBUT 2019] Answer: Refer to Question No. 3 of Long Answer Type Questions. 44. Compare Repeater, Router, Bridge and Gateway functionally as well as coverage of various layers for operational aspect in OSINSO reference model. [WBUT 2019} Answer: In order for computers from different manufacturers to communicate with each other by a reference model, which is called the OSI seven layer network model. The seven layers of OSI mode! are — i) Physical layer ii) Data link layer iii) Network layer iv) Transport layer v) Session layer vi) Presentation layer vii) Application layer Repeater, Router, Bridges ‘operate at the lowest three layers of the OSI network model i.e, the physical layer, data link layer and Network layer. CNCS-37JPULAR PI Tit © Hubs and Repeater works at the first or physical layer. It just rey all the ports. Routers are on the third layer i.e. Network layer. They are used to connects network together. The intemet consists of many interconnected routers. Using a network Protocol, like TCP/IP, a router can intelligently move data from one network to another. e Bridges operate at data link layer or second layer. peats the message to 1. Applying CRC algorithm, determine the checksum and the transmitted frame for the frame 11010111 and for the generator polynominal x’ +x? +1. [WBUT 2006, 2011, 2016, 2018) Answer: Frame: 11010111 Generator G(x) of degree 3, x? +x? 41: 1101 T(x) is the frame with 3 attached 0-bits: 11010111000 Divide T(x) by G(x) by using XOR, 1101] 11010111000|1000010 1101 ‘0000 01110 ol 000110» Remainder The remainder R(x) = 110. The Transferred frame: 11010111 110 2. What is the minimum window size required for selective-repeat ARQ protocol and how? [WBUT 2010, 2018] Answer: The size of the sending and receiving windows must be equal and half the maximum sequence number (assuming that sequence numbers are numbered from 0 to n—1) to avoid miscommunication in all cases of packets being dropped. To understand this, consider the case when all ACKs are destroyed. If the receiving window is larger than half the maximum sequence number, some, possibly even all, of the packages that are resent after timeouts are duplicates that are not recognized as such. The sender moves its window for every packet that is acknowledged. 3. Why acknowledgement is numbered in stop and wait protocol? Discuss 4 situation when unnumbered acknowledgements can create confusion in the sender and receiver end. [WBUT 2012) CNCS-38(COMPUTER NETWORKS Answer; The frame/ACK number field in Stop and Wait protocol is used in the receiver to distinguish between a new frame and a fame retrelemtla Suppose frames of succeeding packets are framed with frame numbers 0, 1, 0, 1, and so on (i.e., O and | repeating altemately), The receiver keeps a local copy of the frame number that it expects to receive. If the arriving frame has a different frame number, it is silently discarded. On other cases, the receiver sets the ACK frame's frame-number with the received frames frame number and alters its expected frame number appropriately (0 to I or | to 0, as the case may be). At the sender side, the last-sent frame is considered delivered correctly only if its frame number matches that of an ACK frame received. Suppose frames and ACK-s are not numbered and a frame is sent and arrives error free on the receiver. It is delivered to the network layer and an unnumbered ACK is sent. Suppose the ACK itself gets corrupted on its way. The sender never gets the ACK and by the Stop and Wait algorithm, when the timer fires, it re-sends the frame. The receiver may receive this frame error-free. Since it has no inkling that the ACK it had sent earlier got lost, it will accept the frame and deliver the packet. In essence, the packet gets delivered twice and hence the sequence assumption is clearly broken. 4. a) Given a 10 bit sequence 1010011110 and a divisor of 1011. Find the CRC. [WBUT 2012, 2013] OR, Generate the CRC code for the data word of 1010011110. The divisor is 1011. [WBUT 2018] b) What is the advantage of two dimensional parity over simple parity? Explain with suitable example. [WBUT 2012] Answer: a) Since divisor is 1101, we append from 0-s to the data and divide. 100100011 1011]10100111100000 _ 101 1011 1011 1100 loll to loll 1010 loll Remainder-» 0010 . Data with CRC is 10100111 1000 10 CNCS-39POPULAR PUBLICATIONS b) Two dimensional parity check increases the likelihood of detecting burst errors. It can detect upto three burst errors that occurs anywhere in the table, whereas one-dimensional parity can detect upto one error ina block. Example: Suppose we want to send four 5-bit words arranged in a table and the data are 10111, 00100, 11001, 01100 10111 |0 00100|1 11001 |1 01100}0 00110|0 So, the sent bit pattern is 101 11[0 00]1001 110011 011000 001100 Suppose the three 0-s as shown is box get received as |-s. In one-dimensional parity, the double error in the second word will not get detected. However, in one example, the last parity word will easily detect the errors. 5. a) Prove that 2’>m+r+l, where m is the no. of data bits and ris the no. of redundancy bits required to correct the error. . b) How does a single bit error differ from a burst error? [WBUT 2013] Answer: a) In Hamming code, r parity bits must indicate all possible error positions plus one case for no error. Since there are total m+r bits andr parity bits indicate rth power of 2, we get Yom4rsl. b) Single bit error Burst bit error 1-1t means only one bit of data unit is changed 1. Multiple bits in single data units (two or during transmission more) are changed. Tx 1011 Length of error is measured from first changed Ry 1111 bit to last bit. Tx LOL Rx O11 2. Single bit errors can happen in parallel 2. Burst errors are likely to occur in a serial * transmission - where all the data bits are transmission, transmitted using separate wires. 3 Can be detected by Hamming code or Block 3. Detected by Convolution codes. code. 6. a) The address 43:7B:6C:DE:10:00 has been shown as the source address in an Ethernet frame. The receiver has liscarded the frame. Why? b) What is transparent bridge? How does a repeater extend the length of a LAN? {WBUT 2014] Answer: a) The first byte in binary is 0100001. The least significant bit is 1. This means the pattern defines a multicast address. A multicast address can be.a destination address, but CNCS-40COMPUTER NETWORKS ro kes ee Address. Therefore the receiver knows there is an error and discards the packet. b) Transparent bridges are bridges that connect more than one network segments with other bridges and take routing decisions, A repeater is a networking component that extends a network by boosting the signal so that it can travel farther along the cabling. Digital signals travelling on cables weaken with distance—a phenomenon known as attenuation. A repeater is a form of digital amplifier that works at the physical layer (layer 1) of the Opén Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model for networking to regenerate (amplify) the signal so that it can travel farther. Repeaters also perform other functions such as filtering out noise caused by electromagnetic interference (EMI), reshaping the signal, and correcting timing to remove signal jitter so that the signal can travel farther. Repeaters can also be used to join dissimilar media such as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling and thinnet, but they cannot be used to join dissimilar network architectures such as Ethernet and Token Ring. Repeaters are an inexpensive way to extend a network. 7. a) What do you mean by Forward Error Correction (FEC)? Discuss in detail. b) The code 11110101101 was received. Using the Hamming Code method find out what was the original code sent. c) In case of stop -and —Wait ARQ, with the help of suitable diagrams discuss the operations performed on the following situations: i) Lost or damaged frame ii) Lost Acknowledgement Delayed Acknowledgement. [WBUT 2015] Answer: a) Forward error correction (FEC) is a digital signal processing technique used to enhance data reliability. It does this by introducing redundant data, called error correcting code, prior to data transmission or storage. FEC provides the receiver with the ability to correct errors without a reverse channel to request the retransmission of data. The first FEC code, called a Hamming code, was introduced in the early 1950s. It is a method adopted to obtain error control in data transmission where the transmitter sends redundant data, Only a portion of the data without apparent errors is recognized by the receiver. This allows broadcasting data to be sent to multiple destinations from a single source. Forward error coding is also known as channel coding. b) Received code is 11110101101. We perform the parity check for even. Hamming code P| P. | m |B | my | im, | m, | Py mlm gas Bit positions 1 i2}3)4 6{7{[s]9f{ioln 238 Received hamming code | Tt | tT VI tTo}ifotitt fie we * First parity check [1 u o 0 T TI Pass Second parity check | iy Tfo to 11] Pass Third parity check 1 +2 tho f Pass Fourth parity check =p TLIitol. | tate CNCS-41POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Fourth parity check is failed for even parity. There is error in 8th position bit. The received value for 8th position bit is 1. So we can change it to 0. The original code was = 111101010101 c) i) As the figure below shows, from sender to receiver, frame | is lost, but sender is still expecting the ACK 0 back. After timer time out, frame 1 sends again. Time Time Fig: Stop-and-wait ARQ lost frame ii) As the figure below shows, when ACK 0 sends back to sender, this frame has lost. So after time out, frame 1 sends again. Receiver side is excepting for frame 0, so frame 1 is discarded. ‘Sender Receiver Time. R=0 Fig: Stop-and-wait ARQ lost ACK] [1] iii) Frame 0 sends to receiver, ACK | sends back to Sender, but the transmission has delayed. After time out, sender sends frame 0 again; receiver is excepting frame |. Therefore, the frame 0 is discarded, ACK | is discarded. Frame | sends again. CNCS-42Fig: Stop-and-wait ARQ delayed 8. Discuss the concept of sliding window in detail with the help of an example. How does HDLC perform flow control? [WBUT 2015] Answer: 1" Part: Sliding window algorithm is 2 method of flow control for network data transfers. TCP, the Internet's stream transfer protocol, uses a sliding window algorithm. A sliding window algorithm places a buffer between the application program and the network data flow, For TCP, the buffer is typically in the operating system kernel, but this is more of an implementation detail than a hard-and-fast requirement. Data received from the network is stored in the buffer, from where the application can read at its own pace. As the application reads data, buffer space is freed up to accept more input from the network. The window is the amount of data that can be “read ahead” fer, less the amount of valid data stored in it. Window announcements mote host of the current window size. permitted to send frames with = the size of the buf are used to inform the ret Sender sliding Window: At any instant, the sender is ence numbers in a certain range (the sending window) as shown in Figure below. Window of frames Frames already that ray be transmitted wansmitted sequ Frame sequence Last frame ‘Window expands as number traramnined acknowledgments are —— Window shrinks as frames are sent Fig: Sender's window dow: The receiver always maintains a window of size | as shown ks for a specific frame (frame 4 as shown in the figure) to arrive in CNCS-43 Receiver sliding Win in Figure below. It lool