The Apollo

Guidance Computer
Architecture and Operation

Frank O’Brien

Infoage Science/History
Learning Center

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

What we hope to accomplish

• AGC Origins and Requirements
• Hardware overview
• Software overview
• User interface
• “How to land on the Moon”!

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Command and Service Modules

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Lunar Module

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

AGC Origins
• NASA contracted MIT to develop AGC
– Now Charles Stark Draper Laboratory
• Early work done on Polaris ballistic missile
• Vigorous debate on the interaction of man,
spacecraft and computer
• As Apollo requirements grew, computer
requirement grew even more!

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Early Design Issues

• What systems will it interface with?
• How much computing capacity?
• What type of circuit technology?
• Reliability and/or in-flight maintenance?
• What do we *need* a computer to do?
• What does a human interface look like?

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

AGC Requirements
• Autonomously navigate from the Earth to the Moon
• Continuously integrate State Vector
• Compute navigation fixes using stars, sun and planets
• Attitude control via digital autopilot
• Lunar landing, ascent, rendezvous
• Manually take over Saturn V booster in emergency
• Remote updates from the ground
• Real-time information display
• Multiprogramming
• Event timing at centisecond resolution
• Multiple user interfaces (“terminals”)
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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Logic Chips
• Fairchild introduced the “Micrologic” chip
• Two triple-input NOR gates per chip
– Resistor-Transistor Logic
• Virtually all logic implemented using the
Micrologic chips
– Single component greatly simplifies design, testing
– Greater production quantities -> better yields and
higher quality
– Several hundred thousand chips procured (!)

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Micrologic chips
installed on
“Logic Stick”

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Logic Assemblies
• Subassemblies (sticks) contain 120 chips (240
gates)
• Chips welded to multilayer boards
• Logic boards essentially identical
• Traditional circuit boards could not produce the
necessary logic density
• Interconnections made through wire-wraps in
the underside of the “logic tray”

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Completed “Logic stick”

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

AGC upper and lower trays

Upper tray: Core

Rope and Erasable
memory

Lower tray: Logic and

interface modules

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

AGC Hardware
• 36K (16-bit) words ROM (core rope)
• 2k (16-bit) words core RAM
• Instructions average 12-85 microseconds
• 1 cu.ft, 70 pounds, 55 watts
• 37 “Normal” instructions
• 10 “Involuntary” instructions
• 8 I/O instructions

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

AGC Internal Architecture

• Registers
– The usual suspects: Accumulator, program counter,
memory bank, return address, etc.
• Input/output channels
• Data uplink / downlink
• No index register or serialization instructions (!)
• Interrupt logic and program alarms
• One’s complement, “fractional” representation

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Logical overview (Spaghetti diagram)

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Instruction Set
• The usual suspects – 37 instructions
– 3 bit opcode, plus (sometimes) two bit
“quarter code”, plus “Extend” mode, plus….
• “Interpreted” instructions
– Coded in Polish Notation
– Similar to “p-code”
– Trigonometric, matrix, double/triple precision
– *Huge* coding efficiency

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Instruction Set
• 8 I/O – read/write instructions to I/O channels
• 10 Involuntary instructions - counters
– Example: Update from Inertial Measurement Unit
• Counters represent accelerometer and gimbal changes
– No context switch!
• Currently running program *NOT* interrupted
– Counters updated directly by hardware
– Processing resumes after involuntary instruction
(counter update) finishes
– Processing delayed only about 20 microseconds

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Memory Architecture
• All memory 16 bit words
– 14 bits data, 1 bit sign, 1 bit parity
– Not byte addressable
• Read/Write memory
– Conventional coincident-current core memory
– 2K words
• Read Only Core “Ropes”
– 36K Read-only storage
– Contained all programming and some data

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Memory Architecture
• Core “Ropes”
– Read-only storage
– One “core” reused 24 times for each bit (!)
– High storage density
– Software “manufactured” into the ropes
• Software frozen 10 months before launch!
• Ropes installed in spacecraft 3-4 months prior to launch
– 6 rope modules, each 6K of memory
– Rope modules easily replaced in computer

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Core Rope Module

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Core Rope Wiring Detail

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Addressing memory
• Instruction has 8 to 12 bits for addressing
• Need to address 36K for instructions, 2K for data
• Not enough bits! (need at least 16 bits -> 64k)
• Torturous memory bank addressing
– “Banks” are either 1K or 256 bytes
– Three banking registers required to address a specific
memory location
– Lots of extra code needed to manage memory banks

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Interfaces (“I/O Devices”)

• Gyroscopes and accelerometers
– Collectively known as the “IMU” (Inertial Measurement Unit)
• Optics
– Sextants and telescopes used for navigations sightings
• Radars and ranging equipment
– 2 radars on LM, VHF ranging on CSM
• Display and Keyboards (DSKY’s); 2 in CM, 1 in LM
• Engines
– CSM: SPS, LM: DPS, APS
– Both have 16 attitude control thrusters, CM has additional 12 for reentry
• Analog Displays
– “8-Balls”, altitude, range, rate displays
• Abort buttons (!)

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

I/O Channels
• Mapped as memory addresses in low core
• Accessible only by I/O instructions
• All 16 bits wide
• 7 input channels
• 14 output channels
• Most are single bit status flags

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Man-Machine Interactions
• Hasn’t changed in 50+ years
• Machine instructions
– Opcode - Operands
• Command line interface
– Command - Options
• Even WIMP’s use similar philosophy!
• All define an object, and the action to be
performed on that object

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Using the DSKY interface

• DSKY – Display and Keyboard
• Specialized keys assigned for each function
• Three “registers” displayed data
• Commands entered in “Verb-Noun” format
– “Verb”: Action to be taken
• Display/update data, change program, alter a function
– “Noun”: Data that Verbs acts upon
• Velocities, angles, times, rates

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

DSKY – Display Keyboard

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

DSKY Components
• Electroluminescent digits (not LED/LCD)
• 2 digit displays for Program number, Verb, Noun
• 3, 5-digit displays for data, +/- signs
– No decimal points!
• Keyboard
• Warning lights
• DSKY separate from computer

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Using the DSKY interface

• “PRO”: Proceed with the data as offered
by computer
• “Enter”, “Clear”: – self explanatory
• “Key Rel”: Releases control of the DSKY
to computer (upon computer request)
• “Reset”: resets program alarm

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation
DSKY in the Command Module

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

DSKY in the Lunar Module

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Sample DSKY Query

• Programs, Verbs and Nouns referred to by their
“number”
• Lots to remember:
– ~45 Programs, 80 verbs, 90 Nouns
• Example: Display time of the next engine burn
• Enter Verb, 06, Noun, 33, Enter
– Verb 06: Display Decimal Data
– Noun 33: Time of Ignition
– End with pressing Enter
• Notation: V06N33E
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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation
Sample DSKY Query: Time of Engine Ignition
Verb 06, Noun 33: Display Time of Ignition

Verb 06: Display values

Program number – P63

Noun 33: Time of Ignition

Hours

Minutes

Seconds . hundredths

Time of Ignition: 104:30:10.94

(Mission time)
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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

AGC Executive
• Multiprogramming, priority scheduled,
interrupt driven, real-time operating
system
• Several jobs running at one time
– Up to 7 “long running” jobs
– Up to 7 short, time dependent jobs
• Only one program has control of the DSKY

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Scheduling a New Job

• Starting a program requires temporary storage
be allocated
• Two types of storage areas available
– CORE SET: 12 words
• Priority, return address and temp storage
• Always required
– VAC Area: 44 words
• Larger temp storage
• Requested if vector arithmetic is used
• 7 CORE SET’s and 7 VAC Areas available

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Scheduling a New Job

• All work assigned a priority
• Executive selects job with highest priority to run
– DSKY always the highest priority
– In exceptional situations, jobs can change priority
• Every 20 milliseconds:
– Job queue checked for highest priority task
– Highest priority job allowed to execute
• Jobs are expected to run quickly, and then finish
– “Night Watchman” verifies job is not looping, and new
work is being scheduled (every 1.2 seconds)
– Restart forced if a job is hung up
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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Error Messages
• Errors need to be communicated to crew
directly
– Software might encounter errors or crash
– Crew may give computer bad data or task
• “Program Alarm” issued, w/error light on
– Verb and Noun code indicate type of error
• Depending on severity of error, may have
to force a computer restart
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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Error Recovery
• All programs resister a restart address
– Program errors, hung jobs, resource shortages can all
force a computer restart
• A “restart” is the preferred recovery
– NOT the same as rebooting
– All critical data is saved, jobs terminated
– All engines and thrusters are turned off (most cases)
– Hardware is reinitialized
– Programs are reentered at predefined restart point
• Process takes only a few seconds!
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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Landing on the moon

• One attempt, no second approaches!
• AGC handles all guidance and control
• Three phases
– Braking (Program 63)
• Started ~240 nm uprange at 50K feet
– Approach (Program 64)
• 2-3 nm uprange, begins at ~7K feet
– Final Descent (Program 66)
• Manual descent, started between 1000 to 500 feet

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Lunar Module Descent Profile

Braking Phase: Program 63

Approach Phase:
Program 64

Terminal Descent: Program 66

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Program 63: Lunar descent

• Started 10-20 minutes before descent
• Computes landing site targeting
• Started with V37E63E
• Response V06N61
– Time until end of P63
– Time from ignition
– Crossrange distance

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

P63 Overview
• Verb 06, Noun 33: time of Ignition
– Hours, minutes, seconds
– 104:30:10.94
• Verb 06, Noun 62: Velocity info
• Flashing Verb 99: Permission to go?
– Key PRO! Ignition!
• P63 displays Verb 06, Noun 63
– Delta altitude, altitude rate, computed altitude

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

P63 – Braking phase (Confirm Engine Ignition)

T-35 Seconds, DSKY Blanks for 5 seconds,
at T-5, Flashing Verb 99 displayed

Verb 99: Please enable Engine Ignition

Program number – P63

Noun 62: Pre-ignition monitor

Current Velocity

Time to ignition (min, sec)

Delta V accumulated
3 seconds until ignition! Press
PRO[ceed]
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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

P63 – Braking phase (post-ignition)

Verb 06, Noun 63: Monitor braking phase of descent

Verb 06: Display values

Program number – P63

Noun 63: Descent monitor

Radar altitude - computed

altitude (not valid yet)
Altitude rate

Altitude

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

P63 – Accept landing radar updates

Verb 57, Enter

Verb 57: Accept Radar Updates

Program number – P63

Noun 63: Descent monitor

Radar altitude - computed

altitude (not valid yet)
Altitude rate

Altitude

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 The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

P63 – Monitoring the descent Antenna angle

Computer displays were compared against a “cheat sheet” % Fuel
Velcro’d onto the instrument panel

Time from Ignition

LM Pitch angle

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Approach – P64!
• Pitch over the LM to see the landing site
• Program 64 automatically selected by P63
• ~7,000 feet high, 2 miles from landing site
• Key PRO to accept and continue!
• P64 displays V06, Noun 64
– Time to go, Descent angle, rate, altitude
– Another cheat sheet velcro’ed to the panel

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

P64 – Approach phase of landing

Program 64 automatically entered from P63

Verb 06: Display values

Program number – P64

Noun 64: Descent monitor

Seconds until end of P64, and

Landing point targeting angle

Altitude rate

Altitude

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

P66: Terminal Descent

• Final phase – only hundreds of feet high
• Less than one minute to landing
• Computer no longer providing targeting
– Maintains attitude set by Commander
• Commanders attention is focused
“outside” the spacecraft
– Other astronaut reads off DSKY displays

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

P66 – Terminal Descent Phase (manual control)

Program 66 entered using usually through cockpit switches

Verb 06: Display values

Program number – P66

Noun 60: Terminal Descent

monitor

Forward Velocity

Altitude rate

Altitude

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Apollo 11 Alarms During Landing

• During landing, several program alarms occurred
• Aborting the landing was a real possibility!
• Handling “hot I/O” put CPU to 100% utilization
– Unexpected counter interrupts from rendezvous radar
– Jobs could not complete in time and free up temporary
storage
• “1201”, “1202” alarms: No more CORE SET or VAC areas
-> Restart!
• Guidance, navigation and targeting data preserved
• Restart completed within seconds
• Computer functioned exactly as it was designed!
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 The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Abort! (A bad day at work….)

Pressing the Abort
button automatically
switches software to
Abort program

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Apollo 14 Abort Switch

• Loose solder ball in Abort switch
– If set, will abort landing attempt when lunar descent is
begun
• Detected shortly before descent was to begin
• Need to ignore switch, but still maintain full abort
capability
• Patch developed to bypass abort switch
– Diagnosed, written, keyed in by hand and tested in
less than two hours !!

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Epilogue
• AGC was “bleeding edge” technology
– By the end of Apollo, hopelessly outdated!
– Still, it never failed

• Moral #1: You can never, ever test enough

• Moral #2: Requirements will always grow
• Moral #3: Always design for the future!

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

Shameless Endorsements
• The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal
– www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj

• The Apollo Flight Journal

– www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/ap15fj/index.htm

• Journey to the Moon, Eldon Hall, AIAA Press

• Cradle of Aviation Museum

– Uniondale, Long Island

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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation

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www.infoage.org

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