UNIT 4 EVOLUTION OF EDUCATIONAL

TECHNOLOGY: TECHNOLOGY OF
EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGY IN
EDUCATION
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Meaning of Educational Technology
4.3.1 Technology of Education
4.3.2 Technology in Education
Hardware and Software Aspects of Educational Technology
Scope of Educational Technology
Evolution of Educational Technology
4.6.1 Audio-visual Phase
4.6.2 Cybernetic Phase
4..6.3 Psychology-Sociology Based Phase
4.6.4 Computer and Telecommunication Phase
Let Us Sum Up
Unit-end Activities
Points for Discussion
Answers to Check Your Progress
Suggested Readings

4.1 INTRODUCTION
We all know that some teachers teach better by utilising new methods'and techniques. Some
other teachers teach with some age old methods without looking back whether their teaching
is effective. Over the years, teachers and researchers have developed and used many techniques,
methods and equipments to make the process of learning effective. This process of developing
and using scientific methods, media and techniques for raising the effectiveness of teaching
and learning is essential for educational, technology.
In this unit, you will deepen your understanding about Educational Technology (E.T.) by
bther distinguishing between various aspects of Educational Technology. You will be able
to differentiate between technology of education and technology in education. Since many
technologies are used at school level, you as a teacher will be able to list down the different
hardware and software used at the school level.

4.2 OBJECTIVES
AAer going through this unit, you will be able to:
o define the meaning and'scope of educational technology;
0 differentiate between Technology of Educatioi~andTechnology in Education;
list down the hardware and software, separately, that have been is use at the school stage;
and
e describe the evolution of educational technology.
Educational Tecb~mlogy:
State d the Art 4.3 MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Before reading the following para, define the meaning of education and meaning of technology
separately. You may consult any dictionary for this.
The meaning which you have written may be as follows:
Education: Education is not only external arrangement by a trainer e.g. training of a dog,
it is a process of changing human behaviour in the desirable directioh or helping an individual
to bring out (educe) hisher best potential;
Technology: It is a systemic studL of techniiues, and methods applied to achieve an objective.
You may also say that it is that branch of knowledge that deals with industrial arts, applied
science, engineering, etc,
Combirling the two you may try to derive the meaning of educational technology. Before
doing that you will try to review some of the definitions given by experts.
'I"k Ndonal Council for Educational Technology (1967) Kas defined educational technology
as "the development, application, and evaluation of systems, techniques h d aids to improve
the process of human learning. Therefore, educational technology means not only the hardware
or machines, but also all those processes which help in human learning.
A more comprehensive definition that is given by Leith is that "Educational Technology is
the application of scientific knowledge about learning and conditions of learning, to improve
the effectiveness aid efficiency of teaching and learning. In the absence of scientifically
established principles, educational technology implements techniques of empirical testing to
improve learning situation." Here the scientific knowledge of teaching-learning refers to the
followilng.
T. Sakmato has defined educational technology as "an applied or practical study which aims
at maximum educational effect by controlling such relevant facts as educational purposes,
educational contents, teaching materials, methods, educational environment, conducts of
students, behaviour of instructors and interrelation between students and instructors". I11 this
definition emphasis has been given to the input, process and output aspects of education.
Unwin (1969) has also defined educational technology as "the application of modem skills
and techniques to the requirements of education and training. This includes the facilitation of
learning by manipulation of mediq and methods, and the control of environment so far as this
reflect$ on learning". An analysis of this definition pointed out that educational technology is:
1. an application of modern skills and techniques in view of the objectives.
2. faditation of learning by methods and media.
3. control of environment for effective learning.
An analysis of all the definitions, and in the light of the meaning of education and technology
witteo separately by you, may suggest that "Educational Technology is a science of techniques
and methods by which educational goals can be realised".
You whll be able to understand the meaning of educational technolsgy better by going through
the chwacteristics of educational technology as listed below.
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Characteristics of Educational Technology

1. It includes input, process and output aspects of education.
2. It stresses upon developing methods and techniques for effective learning.
3. It is an application of scientific knowledge to education ind training.
4. It includes organisation of learning conditions for realising the goals of education.
5. It emphasises designing and mearsuring instruments for testing learning outcomes.
6. It facilitates learning by controlling environment, media and methods.
4.3.1 Technology of Education Evolution af Educational
Technology: T~&nologyof
Technology of education deals with the active use of all the systematic application of the Education and Td~nology
in Education
resources of scientific knowledge of the process of learning that each individual has to pass
through in order to acquire and use knowledge. It also includes decisions about the educational
objectives to be achieved and decisions about the size of the learning groups, learning sequence,
teaching methods and selection of media. It also embraces the selective use of media, personnel,
knowledge, ideas and resources in the systematicplanning, designing, produotion, management
and evaluation of the educational process.

4.3.2 Technology in Education .

Technology in Education refers to the use of technological hardware in education. It is mainly
concerned with electrical and electronic gadgets which are used to facilitate the teaching-
learning process. Saettlef (1978) distinguishes between technology of education and technology
.
in education. According to him, the former is a behavioural science conception whereas the ,
latter is a machine (device) conception of educational technology. Radio, Television, OHP, ,
Computer, Tape Recorder, etc., constitute technology in education, whereas the radio
programmes, television programmes, computer programmes, OHP transparencies which are
based on scientific knowledge of education constitute technology of. education.

Check Your Progress

Notes : a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the.unit. ''

1. What do you mean by educational technology?

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2. Differentiate between technology of education and technoloiy in education.

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.4.4 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ASPECTS OF I

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Educational technology as ari amalgam of Hardware add software is a known fact in the sense
that essentiallyhardware covers TV,computer, overhead projector, tape recorkr. and teaching
machines. The other aspect, i.e., software, includes audio-video cassettes, filmstrips,
transparencies, microfilm, slides, and so on. In the absence of these software gadgets hardware
alone can hardly satisfy the educational requirements. Therefore, both thc aspects of educational
technology are closely inktwined to serve the cause of education. From Ule above discussion
you may find that hardware is based on the principles of engineering technology and software
is based on psychological and sociological principles. In your school you may find many
technologies which are available and used by the teachers regularly. Most of the schools have
a blackboard and a chalk (both hardware) while that which is written on it (chwt, paragraph
etc.) is the software..You may also realise that these technologies are used by teachers and
students mostly in combination rather in isolation.

1. List separately, the hardware and software present in your school.

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Educational Technologyr
State of the Art 4.5 SCOPE OFEDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
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Activityt You have read above that. educational technology is not 'a new concept. And as
a teacher, you are acquainted with the use of educatiorial technology. Now, Tor better
understafiding of the scope of educational technology, recall your experiences in- the
classrooph and write some items as to what according to you are within the scope of
educatioCal technology. While reading please check the new points that you have not written.
Educationlal technology as you know is used to raise the efficiency of education. But with the
passage oif time, the system of education is facing new problems to be tackled. So, the
hardware and software of educational technology are ever expanding. Therefore, the application
of educational technology is much more than what it was a few decades back. Following are
some of the applications of educational technology that are worth noting.
Mass education: There has been explosion of population and knowledge. There is, therefore,
a need to educate the masses. The problem is multiplied further by having a large section of
illiterate geople. So, educational technology has a tremendous application to educate a large
section oflpeople and to impart a large amount of knowledge in a limited span of time. In-this
regard, thi mass media viz.. W,radio, newspaper and other modern technologies like computers
and information technology (E-mail, internet, etc.) has a lot of scope. The illiterate masses can
also be wade literate with the help of innovative methods and practices of teaching and
learning.
Historical information: Any branch of knowledge that we deal with has a historical base.
Such infdrmation is of tremendous importance for the students to understand any branch of
knowledjje in its totality. Such incidents when occur can be recorded with the help of audio-
video casette or documented in the form of a written or printed material. Such documents
become the source of information for learners to learn. The main advantage of such documents
is that w&cannot create or repeat the history once more howsoever we try hard and place it
before the learners. For example, can we have the same view of the explosion of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki (1946) and show it to our students? This is neither feasible nor possible.
Further, for example, we cannot have the same view of Nuclear test conducted at Pokhran
(1998). So such records..........in the form of a film taken when the incident is happening are
of immense value to the learners which educational technology can only provide.
Costly ahd hazardous experiments: In many fields of science and technology there are
some exgeriments having great implications for effective learning which are not advisable for
the teacwr to conduct in the classroom because of cost and health hazards involved. Such
experiments, once conducted carefully in the laboratory or elsewhere can be recorded with the
help of nbw electronic technology and be used by teachers and students for effective learning.
Gaming and simulation: If historical events which are either costly or hazardous which
cannot be conducted, then educational technology can rescue us by doing the same through
simulatidn. Computer technology in this regard plays a main role. This can provide a lifelike
picture o~fphenomena in three dimensions. It can also show the operation of different parts
of a pheqomenon and the consequences. The other possibility is games. Children can learn,
through play, many concepts that just cannot be taught in the formal set of the classroom. The
gaming qnd simulation has a great scope in the training of military personnel and in the field
of aviation. '
Distance education: Educational technology has a great scopein distance education and open
school programme (Go through the chapter on Open School in Block 1, Unit 2). Today there
is a great need for personnel training and education on regular basis for updating oneself in
the field of work. In this regard, distance education programmes, a relatively less formal
process of education, have acquired new status. Educational technology with its innovative
practiced can educate the learners who cannot come to the classroom setup for their education.
In this rbgard programmed learning materials, modules, contact programme, and counselling
are som? innovations which can help distance learners.
Collecti~n,storing and retrieval of information: There are certain cameras which provide
us the fbcility to take same photographs of events that take place in a fraction of second,
events tbat occur at a far off place, those that cannot be seen by the naked eye. There are also
satellite4 that work for us day and night to provide us information about places which are not
accessible to us. Information can be collected with the help of this new electronic technology
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both in audio and in video form. such information can be stored with magnetic and electronic Evolution of Wucational
devices easily and can be retrieved within no time. Teclinology: Twl~nologyof
Education and Technology
Research: As mentioned earlier, information can be collected and stored to be used for in WA*r~ation
educational purposes. Information can also be collected and stored in the same way for
research. Further, for analysis and reporting, technology can be used. Not only quantitative
data but also qualitative data can be anlaysed and there lies the role of computer and the
different methods of data analysis methods and techniques. Moreover, in deveiopmental type
of research, different kinds of packages can be developed for raising the effectiveness of
learning. There are many researches already conducted in this field i.e., development of
programmed learning materials, computer assisted instrucdon, and computer assisted language
learning packages.
With, the facilitiei of INTERNET, Website, and INFLIBNET the researchers as well as a
learner wanting to inquire or find out something that is happening elsewhere can have access
to a large amount of information sitting at home. He can float his hypotheses, problems, and
ideas and get them solved while at home. In this process, the research'findings are not only
disseminated but also the quality of research can be increased

our P r orress
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Notes : ;I) Write your answers i11 the space give11 below.
17) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
i. Wh:lt t:o you meall by hardware and software aspects of educational technology?
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3 . What ;iri. 111cdifferetit applications of educatio~ialteclinology with which you are familiar?
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4.6 EVOLUTION OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Human beings have the potential to create. This potential has enabled the people to solve
problems and learn from their experiences. The ancient man learned to roll logs of wood,
tried to communicate through verbal and non-verbal ways, evolved language and gradually
then wrltten and printed materials were developed. Later on, thertechnology of software based
on psychology and sociology came into being. Now, we have mass learning, group learning,
and individual learning in operation. In all these new ventures we have used many technologies.
These technologies have evolved through the past decades of the nineteenth century. They can
be placed in four phases as follows:
i) Audio-visual phase
ii) Cybernetic phase
iii) Psychology-Sociology based phase and
iv) Computer and Teleco~l~municationphase
4.6.1 Audio-visual Phase
Before the 1950's the term audio-visual education was used (and riot E.T.). There were
various teaching aids like blackboard, maps, radio, films, etc. These were mainly media
through which a teacher presented his messages. The materials developed were not
systematically based on any psychological principles. Education was viewed primarily as a
p k e s s , of transmitting by a teacher, the messages which he considered important, to students.
In this transmission, he used aids which highlighted the messages. In a sense, this tradition
started with priilting technology - books, maps, charts, etc. Although a good teacher in his
F,duc:~tin~~nl
Tecb~mology: transactions with students, asked then1 questions etc.; and encouraged interaction with them,
St:~trof the Art
aids like hooks, radio or film were primarily non-interactive. This can be represented by the
following figure.

Teacher-
Radio
- Students

Fig. 4.1 : One-way Communication

4.6.2 Cybernetic Phase

While steering a ship; the sailor needs to know in which direction his boat is sailing, how far
the hoat is from the either bank of the riverlsea etc. In other words, he needs information
about the process in relation to the goal to be achieved - the end result to be obtained. This
require "feedback". The cybernetics tradition which lays emphasis on feedback is traced
back to the Second World War where there was a need for a systematic communication and
control system. Cybernetics has been defined as the comparative study of the human (or
biological) control mechanism and electro-mechanical control systems such as computers.
The wdrd Kybernetes in Greek, means "steersman", which emphasises the principle of feedback
control. The feedback refers to a kind of reciprocal interaction between two or more events
in which one activity generates a secondary action which, in turn redirects the primary action.
The feedback system has three functions:
a) It generates moveinent of the system towards a target or in a defined path, I
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h) It conlpares the effect of this action with the true path and detects error, and
C) It utilises error signal to redirect the system. A simple form of the cybernetic model is
pfeselited in figure 4.2. i

)xpGz--+
A f
Remedial
Guidance
7 Output

Comparison with
l expected results and
Feedback identification of
, deviatio

Fig. 4.2: Cybernetic Model

(Sourae Kulkami, S S.(1986) Introduction to Educational Technology, New Delhi .

I
Oxford & IBH Publishing Co )

In most of the industrial processes or machines which emerged during and after World War 11,
the concept of feedback became operational for correcting any deviant steps. For example, in
a reffigerator, the thermostat informs the system of cooling whether a certain temperature has
been reached or not reached and instructs it to perform accordingly.

This informati011for remedial action (steering the boat according to the charted path avoiding
any deviations) was crucial not only in industry but also in education. Out of this emphasis arose
the drogrammed learning instruction movement where it was emphasized that at every step a
student should be told/reinforced about his progress (or deviation).

This furthex led to a complex systems approach where each component of a system provides
feedback to other components so that the totality -the system keeps on moving in &specified
path towards a pre-determined goal. ,
Cybernetic principles have some implications for learning Evolution ol Educational
Technolody: Technology of
Education and Technology
a) The activity involved is geared to the learner's stage of growth -physical and cognitive. in Education

h) The learner is given an opportunity to perceive meaningful relationships among the elements
of the goal towards which he is working.

c) The learner is provided with some criterion for indicating to h i specifically what progress
he is making.
d) The learner is presented the activity both in verbal and non-verbal context in varied situations
and practice conditions.

4.6.3 Psychology-Sociology Based Phase

This phase has a long history. It can be traced back to the learning theory given by Thorndike in
1913. Based on his theory, Pressey (1 926) developed a teaching machine. It provided an automatic
scoring device to the learners on immediate feedback basis. So, this was the first step towards
the formulation of systematiclearning. Subsequently, the theory of B.F. Skinner (1953) i.e.,
operant conditioning and the work of Norman A. Crowder opened new chapters in developing
Programmed Learning Materials. Their main contribution was that human behaviour can be
shaped. The following are the principles of operant conditioning:

1. Immediate reinforcement to student's response,

2. Gradual progression to establish complex repertoires, and
3. Revision or modification of the programme to fit the students.
In addition to the contributions by this behaviouristic psychology (Skinner et. al.) cognitive
psychology has also thrown morelight on how learning takesplace. Piaget and Bruner, later day
constructivist psychologists, have pointed out that a human individual is not only "taught" by
external forces, but he also learns, constructs his own world -e.g. concept maps etc., organises
his own learning, masters the environment around and changes/modifies his b&aviour/steers
his ship at his own initiative, etc.
Sociologists,particularly the School of Group Dynamics also added insights regarding how an
individual learns in a group, through interaction with peers and others.

In brief, the social sciences -psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc. have also contributed a
lot to understanding of the teaching-learning process and in turn influenced educational
technology.

4.6.4 Computer and Telecommunication Phase

In the last decade, the world has been deluged with software technology which has been also
used amply for education and training. Multimedia, E-mail, internet, intranet and website are
used extensively today. There are telecommunication modes through which instructional materials
can be given to students. There are many computer software pachges developed for school
children in many of the school subjects. These packages also have been used and proved to be
effective in terms of time and level of students achievement. There are also several organisations
established in different parts of the world for the development of softwarepackages. For example,
in India we have Audio-Visual Research Centres, Educational Media Research Centres and
different Departments of Education and Educational Technology which have been developing
softwarepackages for the education of children. Many audio-visualprogrammesare also telecast
by Delhi Doordarshan for school children. Many of our progressive schools are also developing
educational software packages for children. School libraries also have such packages which are
used by teachers and students for teaching and learning. These packages are based on immediate
feedback principles which help students to learn effectively. In addition, many of these packages
are interactive, that is, as in a live teacher-student transaction a student can also ask a question,
do a pro-ject,revert back to a teacher/computer, make further inquiries/explore on his own, and
thus learn from different sources more or less on his own (without the help of a live teacher).
(More details about computers software development are given in Unit 11, Block 3).
1 Eclucetional Technology: Note that the evolution of educational technology has been presented in four phases for the sake
State of the Art of understanding it in a better way. But you may see that these phases do not have watertight
compartnients. The different phases are intermingled and can help each other to grow.
Check Your Progress
1 Notes : a ) Write your. answer in the s],acc give11 b.cIc>w, 1
i b) Compare your answer w ~ t l lthe one givcu a t the erln of f h s i!n:L
5~ Stat4 the d~fferenceb e t ~ e e ntho 11rst pl1a5e (prror to i 0 5 0 ~a t i t l (I?c i;:ci111 pi1c~.4
I
13 ~

ELlacarlonal Technology evolut~on.

4.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have learned that educational technology is a science of techniques and
methods by which educational goals can be realised. Educational technology, as you have
learned, has two aspects i.e., hardware and software. Hardware technology is based on the
principl* of engineering and software technology is based on the principles of social sciences.
In our educational system, there is a wide scope for educational technology i.e., to educate the
masses, istore historical information, collect large amount of information, use as alternative to
hazardous, costly, or non-feasible experiments by simulation. It also provides us the facility
of distdce education methodology and research by manipulating large amounts of data. The
evollutiob of educational technology can be seen in four phases viz., Audio-visual phase,
Cyberndtic phase, Psychology or Social Sciences phase, and Computer Software and modern
telecommunication technology phase. In this process of evolution you learnt that many different
discipliqes of studies have played a great role.

4.8 (JNIT-END ACTIVITIES

1. Visilt a secondary school in your locality, meet the seniormost teacher (with more than 25
yews of service) and ask him to tell you how educational technology has evolved in his
school.
2. Fihd out from different subject teachers in a secondary school how they change their
methods of teaching over the years.

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Lmking into the evolution process of educational technology what can be its future?
2. What is the contribution of psychology towards the development of educational technology?
3. Hc/w is educational technology a science?
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 Evolution of Educational
4.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Technology:Technology of
Education and Technology
1. Educational Technology is a science of techniques and methods by which educational in Education
goals can be achieved.
2. Technology of education deals with systematic application of the resources of scientific
knowledge of the processes of learning that each individual has to pass through in order
to acquire and use knowledge. Technology in education refers to the use of technological
hardware in education.
3. Hardware aspect of educational technology refers to machine aspect of educational
technology which includes tape recorder, computer, OHP, etc. Software aspect of
educational technology includes audiolvideo cassettes, microfilm, slides, etc. while the
former is based on engineering principles, the latter is based on psychological and
sociological prin~iples.
4. The applications of educational technology are in the following areas:
i) mass education
ii) historical information
iii) costly and hazardous experiments
iv) gaming and simulation
v) distance education
vi) collection, storing, retrieving of information
vii) research
5. Educational technologies like blackboards, books, maps, films, etc. which were used
before the 1950's during the first phase were non-interactive in nature, whereas educational
technologies like computer, e-mail, internet which are used in the fourth phase of the
evaluation of Educational Technology are interactive in nature.

4.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Alan C. et. al. Educational Technology: Implications for Early and Special Education, John
Wiley & Sons, London.
Hilgard E.R.and Richey H.G. (ed.) (1964): Theories of Learning and Instruction, National
Society for the Study of .Education, Chicago.
Mohanty J., (1992): Educational Technology and Communication Media, Nalanda, Cuttack.
Mohanty J., (1992): Educational Technology, Deep and Deep Publication, Rajouri Garden,
New Delhi.
Philips J.S. and Rock Well D.M. (ed.) (1976): Instructional Media and Technology: A
Professional Resource, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross Inc., USA.
Mukhopadhaya M. (ed.) (1990): Educational Technology: Challenging Issues, Sterling
Publishers, New Delhi.
Richmond W.R. (ed.) (1970): The Concept of Educational Technology: A Dialogue with
YourseK Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 5, Winsley Street, London.