PHYS 103

(Thermodynamics)
CSM - LHA
• the study of transformation involving heat, mechanical
work, and other aspects of energy and how these
transformations relate to the properties of matter
9/18/2024 © Souva Chattopadhyay

Which is Which?
• Temperature
• property of an object related to the kinetic energy of atoms
and molecules in that object.
• the higher the temperature, the greater the average speed
of the molecules.
• quantitative measure of hotness and coldness.

• Heat
• is a form of energy that flows as a result of temperature
differences.

*When heat enters an object, it increases its temperature.

*Heat flow is always from the hotter body to the colder body.
• Thermometer
• A device used to measure temperature

**To measure the temperature of a body,

you place a thermometer in contact with
the body. As the two interact, the
thermometer becomes hotter and the
body cools off a little. After the
thermometer settles down to a steady
value, the system has reached an
equilibrium condition. We call this a state
of thermal equilibrium.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Scales based on the freezing and boiling points of water

Fahrenheit Celsius
scale scale
(ºF) (ºC)
Freezing point of water 32 0
Boiling point of water 212 100

9
𝑇𝐹 = 𝑇𝐶 + 32𝑜
5
5
𝑇𝐶 = 𝑇𝐹 − 32𝑜
9
Kelvin scale (K) – based on the relationship of absolute
pressure and temperature of a gas at constant volume.

absolute zero

𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273.15
Example: Show your solutions.

K ºC ºF
Water boils 100
Water freezes 0
Mercury melts 234
CO2 solidifies -78
Oxygen liquefies 298
Absolute zero 0
100
Thermal expansion
• Materials expand when their temperature is increased or
contract when their temperature is decreased.
Linear thermal expansion

α – coefficient of linear expansion [(Cº)-1 or K-1]

∆𝐿 = 𝐿 − 𝐿0
∆𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇0
Sample problem 1:

• The pendulum shaft of a

clock is made up of brass.
What is the fractional
change in length of the
shaft when it is cooled from
19.50ºC to 5.00ºC?

∆𝐿
=?
𝐿0

Ans: -2.9 x 10-4

Sample problem 2:

• A metal rod (metal A) that is 30.0 cm long expands by

0.0750 cm when its temperature is raised from 0ºC to
100ºC. A rod of a different material (metal B) and of the
same length expands by 0.040 cm for same rise in
temperature. A third rod, also 30.0 cm long, is made up of
pieces of each of the above metals placed end-to-end and
expands 0.0550 cm between 0ºC and 100ºC. Find the
length of each portion of the composite bars.

Ans:L0A = 12.9 cm; L0B = 17.1 cm

Volume expansion
We can model atoms in a solid as
being held together by “springs” that
are easier to stretch than to
compress.

β – coefficient of volume expansion [(Cº)-1 or K-1]

Show that
𝛽 = 3𝛼
 Sample problem 3:

• A 200-cm3 glass flask is filled to the brim with mercury at

20ºC. How much mercury overflows when the temperature
of the system is raised to 100ºC? The coefficient of linear
coefficient of the glass is 0.40 x 10-5 K-1.

Ans: 2.7 cm3

• In general, if the length of an object
increases with temperature, so
does its surface area and volume.

• ONLY EXCEPTION: WATER

• Above 4oC, water expands when

heated.

• From 0oC to 4oC, water decreases

in volume with increasing
temperature.

• The coefficient of expansion for

water is not constant for all
temperatures; it will have a negative
value in the range from 0oC to
4oC.
Thermal stress
• developed when one tries to prevent the contraction or
expansion of a material being subjected to temperature
change.

• Recall:
• Young’s modulus Tensile stress
Happens when a rod
with length L0 and cross-section
area A is held at constant length
while the temperature is reduced
(negative ΔT).

Tensile strain
So, is equal to the fractional
change in length
 • Fractional change

If the length is to be constant, the total fractional change in length must be zero, i.e.

Hence,
Sample problem 4:

• A brass rod is 185 cm long and 1.60 cm in diameter. What

force must be applied to each end of the rod to prevent it
from contracting when it is cooled from 120ºC to 10ºC?
Young’s modulus of brass is 0.9 x 1011 Pa.
α of brass is 2.0 x 10-5 /Cº.

Ans. 3.98 x 104 N

Quantity of heat
• Energy transfer that takes place solely because of a
temperature difference is called heat flow or heat transfer,
and energy transferred in this way is called heat.

• An understanding of the relationship between heat and

other forms of energy emerged during the 18th and 19th
centuries. Sir James Joule (1818–1889) studied how
water can be warmed by vigorous stirring with a paddle
wheel.
• We can define a unit of quantity of heat based on
temperature changes of some specific material.

• The calorie (abbreviated cal) is defined as the amount of

heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water
from 14.5°C to 15.5°C.

• A corresponding unit of heat using Fahrenheit degrees

and British units is the British thermal unit, or Btu. One
Btu is the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound (weight) of water 1 F° from 63°F
to 64°F.

• The International Committee on Weights and Measures

recommends using the Joule (J) as the basic unit of
energy in all forms including heat.
Conversion
 Quantity of heat, Q
Heat required for temperature change ΔT of mass m:

where c is the specific heat of the material.

+ Q – heat enters the body and its temperature increases
- Q – heat leaves the body and its temperature decreases

For infinitesimal temperature change dT and corresponding

quantity of heat dQ,
The specific heat of a material
always depends somewhat on
the initial temperature and the
temperature interval.

**In the problems and

examples in this chapter we will
ignore this small
variation.
 Molar heat capacity
• M – molar mass (molecular weight); mass per mole
• m – total mass,

Thus,

The product Mc is called the molar heat capacity (or molar

specific heat) and is denoted by C (capitalized).

Hence, the heat required for temperature change of n moles is

PHASE CHANGE
LATENT HEAT: Heats of Fusion and Vaporization

• Changes of a substance from one phase of matter to another

require large amounts of energy.

• Generally, energy must be taken out from a substance for it to

freeze or condense (gas to liquid).
• Energy must be added to a substance for it to melt or boil.

• In phase changes, the temperature remains CONSTANT.

Heat of Fusion

L – latent heat
• Heat of fusion refers to the amount of heat per unit mass that
has to be removed to cause a phase change from liquid to solid.
(water to ice)

• Remember that the energy of heat of fusion can be positive or

negative:
• Positive = solid to liquid; negative = liquid to solid
Water to Ice process

T = 0oC
T = 0oC

In general, energy must be

taken out from a substance Attractive forces pull molecules into
for it to freeze or condense. place and do work in the process.
Heat of Vaporization

• Heat of vaporization refers to the amount of heat

per unit mass that has to be added to cause a phase
change from liquid to gas. (water to steam)

𝑄 = 𝑚 𝐿𝑣

• Remember that the energy of heat of vaporization

can be positive or negative:
• Positive = liquid to gas; negative = gas to liquid
Water to Steam process
T = 100oC

T = 100oC

In general, energy must be

put into a substance to Energy is needed to counter the forces holding the
molecules in their places. If this force is
cause it to melt or boil.
overcame, the molecules can now behave like
gas molecules.
Both Lf and Lv depend on the strength of the forces between
molecules and hence on the substance.

Energy associated with phase changes is referred to as

latent heat since it does not produce a temperature change.

ALWAYS REMEMBER, QOUT + QIN = 0. (this is handy in

problem solving!!)
Sample problem 5:

• While painting the top of an antenna 225 m in height, a

worker accidentally lets a 1.00-L water bottle fall from his
lunchbox. The bottle lands in some bushes at the ground
level and does not break. If a quantity of heat equal to the
magnitude of the change in mechanical energy of the
water goes into the water, what is the increase in
temperature?

Ans. 3.98 x 104 N

Sample problem 6:

• An engineer is working on a new engine design. One of

the moving parts contain 1.60 kg of aluminum and 0.30 kg
of iron and is designed to operate at 210ºC. How much
heat is required to raise its temperature from 20ºC to
210ºC?

Ans. 3.98 x 104 N

 Sample problem 7:

• How much heat is required to convert 12.0 g of ice at -10.0ºC

to steam at 100ºC?

Ans. 3.98 x 104 N

Sample problem 8:

• An ice cube with mass of 0.060 kg is taken from a freezer,

where the cube’s temperature was -10.0ºC, and dropped
into a glass of water at 0.0ºC. If no heat is gained or lost
from outside, how much water will freeze into cube?

Ans. 3.98 x 104 N

Assignment:

1. A 0.50 kg block of material is heated from 20o to 35o by

the addition of 420 cal of heat. Calculate the specific heat
of the block.

2. How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of a

1.0 kg steel pot containing 2.0 kg of water from 25oC to
the boiling point? (Lv = 540 kcal/kg, cwater = 1.00 kcal/kg
Co, csteel = 0.11 kcal/ kg Co )

3. A copper calorimeter can with a mass of 0.100 kg

contains 0.150 kg of water and 0.012 kg of ice in thermal
equilibrium at atmospheric pressure. If 0.495 kg of lead
at a temperature of 200ºC is dropped into the calorimeter
can, what is the final temperature? Assume that no heat
is lost to the surroundings.
Methods of Heat Transfer
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
1. Conduction
• heat is transferred through stationary matter by physical
contact.
• also defined as the heat transfer by molecular collision, so
the greater the molecular collisions, the faster is the rate of
heat conduction.
Conduction: Heat current, H
• rate of heat flow

k – thermal conductivity
– magnitude of the
temperature gradient
Conduction: Heat current, H
• If the temperature varies in a nonuniform way along the
length of the conducting rod, we introduce a coordinate x
along the length and generalize the temperature gradient
to be dT/dx. The corresponding generalization

The negative sign shows that heat always flows in the direction of decreasing
temperature.
Conduction: Heat current, H
• For thermal insulation in buildings, engineers use the
concept of thermal resistance, denoted by R. The
thermal resistance R of a slab of material with area A is
defined so that the heat current H through the slab is

Where TH and TC are the temperatures on the two sides of the slab

where L is the thickness of the slab.

Sample problem 9:
• A Styrofoam cooler (Fig. 17.24a) has total wall area
(including the lid) of 0.80 m2 and wall thickness 2.0 cm. It
is filled with ice, water, and cans of Omni-Cola, all at 0oC.
What is the rate of heat flow into the cooler if the
temperature of the outside wall is 30oC. How much ice
melts in 3 hours?
Sample problem 10:
• A steel bar 10.0 cm long is welded end to end to a copper
bar 20.0 cm long. Each bar has a square cross section,
2.00 cm on a side. The free end of the steel bar is kept at
100oC by placing it in contact with steam, and the free end
of the copper bar is kept at 0oC by placing it in contact
with ice. Both bars are perfectly insulated on their sides.
Find the steady-state temperature at the junction of the
two bars and the total rate of heat flow through the bars.
Sample problem 11:
• Suppose the two bars of sample problem 10 are
separated. One end of each bar is kept at 100oC and the
other end of each bar is kept at 0oC. What is the total heat
current in the two bars?
1I. Convection
• the transfer of heat by mass
motion of a fluid from one
region of space to another.

• Forced convection
• If the fluid is circulated by a blower or
pump. (ex. Blood circulation)
• Natural convection
• The flow is caused by differences in
density due to thermal expansion. (ex.
Hot air rising, heating water in pan)
III. Radiaton
• the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves such as
visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet radiation.
• Every body, even at ordinary temperatures, emits energy
in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
• As the temperature rises, the wavelengths shift to shorter
values.
Radiation: Heat current, H

T – absolute temperature (K)

e – emissivity (represents the ratio of the rate of radiation from a
particular surface to the rate of radiation from an equal area of an
ideal radiating surface at the same temperature.)
σ – Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
Sample problem 12:
• A thin, square steel plate, 10 cm on a side, is heated in a
blacksmith’s forge to 800oC. If the emissivity is 0.60, what
is the total rate of radiation of energy from the plate?
Radiation and Absorption
• While a body at absolute temperature T is radiating, its
surroundings at temperature are also radiating, and the
body absorbs some of this radiation. If it is in thermal
equilibrium with its surroundings, T=Ts and the rates of
radiation and absorption must be equal. For this to be
true, the rate of absorption must be given in general by
H=AeσTs4. Then the net rate of radiation from a body at
temperature T with surroundings at temperature Ts is

In this equation a positive value of H means a net heat flow out of the body.
Sample problem 13:
• What is the total rate of radiation of energy from a human
body with surface area 1.2 m2 and surface temperature
30oC = 303 K. If the surroundings are at a temperature of
20oC, what is the net rate of radiative heat loss from the
body? The emissivity of the human body is very close to
unity, irrespective of skin pigmentation.
Comparison
Seatwork
• A copper-bottomed saucepan containing 0.8L of boiling
water boils dry in 10min. Assuming that all the heat flows
through the flat copper bottom of diameter 15 cm and
thickness 3.0 mm, calculate the temperature of the
outside of the copper bottom while some water is still
present.
Problem 1: Thermal Expansion
• Steel train rails are laid in 12.0-m-long segments placed
end to end. The rails are laid on a winter day when their
temperature is -2.0°C.
• (a) How much space must be left between adjacent rails if
they are just to touch on a summer day when their
temperature is 33.0°C?
• (b) If the rails are originally laid in contact, what is the
stress in them on a summer day when their temperature
is 33.0°C?

αsteel = 1.2 x 10-5/Co

Ysteel = 20 x 1010 Pa
Problem 2: Calorimetry & Phase Change
• An insulated beaker with negligible mass contains 0.250
kg of water at a temperature of 75.0°C. How many
kilograms of ice at a temperature of -20.0°C must be
dropped into the water to make the final temperature of
the system 40.0°C?
Problem 3: Heat Transfer
• A carpenter builds an exterior house wall with a layer of
wood 3.0 cm thick on the outside and a layer of Styrofoam
insulation 2.2 cm thick on the inside wall surface. The
wood has k = 0.080 W/m-K and the Styrofoam has k =
0.010 W/m-K. The interior surface temperature is 19.0°C,
and the exterior surface temperature is -10.0°C.
• (a) What is the temperature at the plane where the wood
meets the Styrofoam?
• (b) What is the rate of heat flow per square meter through
this wall?