EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS AND EVALUATION

Basic concepts
Test and testing
A test is a measuring tool or instrument in education used to find out something about a
person. It is an instrument given by the teacher to obtain data on which learners are judged.
Testing on the other hand is the process of administering the test on the learners in order to
obtain a quantitative representation of the cognitive or non-cognitive traits one possess.
Assessment
The term assess is derived from a Latin word “asoidere” meaning “to sit by” in judgment.
Assessment is a systematic basis or making inference/judgments about the learning and
development of students.
Measurement
It is a systematic assignment of numerical values or figures to a trait or an attribute in a
person or object. For instance what is the height, weight, length etc. In education, the
numerical value of scholastics ability, aptitude, achievement etc can be measured and
obtained using instruments such as paper and pencil test. It means that the values of the
attribute are translated into numbers by measurement.
Evaluation
It is a process wherein the parts, processes, or outcomes of a programme are examined to see
whether they are satisfactory, particularly with reference to the stated objectives of the
programme, our own expectations, or our own standards of excellence. It is an examination
conducted to assist in improving a programme.
Types of Evaluation
The different types of evaluation are: placement, formative, diagnostic and summative
evaluations.
Placement Evaluation
This is a type of evaluations carried out in order to fix the students in the appropriate group or
class. It is a type of evaluation made by the teacher to find out the entry behaviour of his
students before he starts teaching. This may help the teacher to adjust his lesson plan. Tests
like readiness tests, ability tests, aptitude tests and achievement tests can be used.
Formative Evaluation

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This is a type of evaluation designed to help both the student and teacher to pinpoint areas
where the student has failed to learn so that this failure may be rectified. It provides a
feedback to the teacher and the student and thus estimating teaching success e.g. weekly tests,
terminal examinations etc.
Diagnostic Evaluation
This type of evaluation is carried out most of the time as a follow up evaluation to formative
evaluation. As a teacher, you must have used formative evaluation to identify some
weaknesses in your students. You have also applied some corrective measures which have
not showed success. What you will now do is to design a type of diagnostic test, which is
applied during instruction to find out the underlying cause of students persistent learning
difficulties. These diagnostic tests can be in the form of achievement tests, performance test,
self rating, interviews observations, etc.
Summative evaluation:
This is the type of evaluation carried out at the end of the course of instruction to determine
the extent to which the instructional objectives have been achieved. It is called a summarizing
evaluation because it looks at the entire course of instruction or programme and can pass
judgment on the teacher and students, the curriculum and the entire system. It is used for
certification by examination bodies such as KNEC
Importance of Measurement and Evaluation.
The main purposes of measurement and evaluation are:
i. Placement of student, which involves bringing students appropriately in the
learning sequence and classification or streaming of students according to ability or
subjects.
ii. Selecting the students for different courses.
iii. Certification: This helps to certify that a student has achieved a particular level of
performance.
iv. Stimulating learning: this can be motivation of the student or teacher, providing
feedback, suggesting suitable practice etc.
v. Improving teaching: by helping to review the effectiveness of teaching arrangements.
vi. For research purposes.
vii. For guidance and counseling services.
viii. For modification of the curriculum purposes.

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 ix. For the purpose of selecting students for employment
x. For the purposes of promotions to the student.
IMPORTANCE AND FUNCTIONS OF TESTS IN EDUCATION
Functions of Tests in Education
According to Nwana (1981) a test can fulfill a variety of functions. These are:
(a) Motivate pupils to study.
(b) Determine how much the pupils have learned.
(c) Determine the pupils’ special difficulties.
(d) Determine the pupils’ special abilities.
(e) Determine the strength and weakness of the teaching Method.
(f) Determine the adequacy or otherwise of instructional Resources.
(g) Determine the extent of achievement of the objectives etc.
Measurement Scales
Measurement exists in several levels depending on what is to be measured, the instrument to
be employed, the degree of accuracy or precision desired and the method of measurement.
There are four levels of measuring scales. These are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
scales.
Nominal Scale
Some of the times, you are involved in the classification of objects, things, human beings,
animals, etc. For instance, you can classify human beings as males and females, you can also
classify living things as plants and animals. It is the simplest of the measurement scales
involves only the assignment to classes or groups and does not imply magnitude. It is used
when we are interested in knowing if certain objects belong to the same or different classes.
Ordinal Scale
In this case there is order. One real number may be greater than or equal to or less than
another real number. For instance, the number 5 is greater than the number 3. There is
classification, as well as indication of size and rank. In your class, you rank your students
using their test result from first, second, third to nth positions.
Interval Scale
This is the next scale after ordinal scale. You remember that we said that in the ordinal scale
equal intervals do not represent equal quantities. But the reverse is the case in the interval
scale. In other words, equal intervals represent equal quantities here. The amount of

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difference between adjacent intervals on the scale is equal. Take the calendar as an example,
days on it, represent equal amounts of time. You will observe that equal amount of time
separates 2, 4, 6, and 8 days.
Ratio
This is the highest level or scale of measurement. It has all the characteristics of the others. In
addition, there is an absolute zero here. Most of the arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division are involved in this scale. Let us use the meter rule as
an example of ratio scale. This scale has equal intervals as in the intervals scale. It has a zero
mark, which implies that at this point there is complete absence of what the meter rule
measures. If it is used to measure height, it means that at zero, there is no height at all. This is
not the case with the interval. If you give a test in your class and a student scores zero, does
it imply that the student does not know anything at all? Take the case of the calendar
again as an example. Look at the calendars you have from different sources and places. Is
there any one with zero point? Can there be any zero day or time?
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Objectives generally indicate the end points of a journey. They specify where you want to be
or what you intend to achieve at the end of a process. An educational objective is that
achievement which a specific educational instruction is expected to make or accomplish. It is
the outcome of any educational instruction. It is the purpose for which any particular
educational undertaking is carried out. It is the goal of any educational task. In this unit we
shall look at the difference role educational objectives assume at different settings.
Educational objectives can be specified at various levels. These levels include the national
level, the institutional level and the instructional level.
Importance of Instructional Objectives.
Instructional objectives can be used as a feedback on how much the institutional objectives
have been achieved and how appropriate these objectives are. Objectives start from broad
goals at the national level to the instructional level. In the same way when evaluating these
objectives, we use the instructional level objectives. From this, evaluation goes to the
institutional to the national levels.
In other words, the feedback got from the assessment of the instructional objectives is
translated into finding out how much the national educational objectives have been achieved
in respect to the particular type of institution, and their appropriateness. In the final analysis,

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the findings may lead to revising the objectives of any level or all the levels. They may lead
to curriculum modification at the institution level. At the instructional level, they may lead to
the adjustment of teaching methods or provision of instructional materials. From the small
things, activities, tests, examinations, projects, assignments, exercises, quizzes, home works
etc. done in the classroom setting, we can use to evaluate, in a general process, the national
policy at the national level.
Apart from the feedback instructional objectives are also important because the teacher’s
plans of what to teach and how to teach it is based on the objectives specified to be achieved.
The evaluation of pupils’ learning outcome will make him know whether the objectives are
being achieved or not. It means therefore that the instructional objectives give meaning and
direction to the educational process.
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
Bloom’ Benjamin’s has put forward a taxonomy of educational objectives, which provides a
practical framework within which educational objectives could be organized and measured.
In this taxonomy Bloom et al (1956) divided educational objectives into three domains. These
are cognitive domain, Affective domain and psychomotor domain.
Cognitive domain
The cognitive domain involves those objectives that deal with the development of intellectual
abilities and skills. These have to do with the mental abilities of the brain. The domain is
categorized into six hierarchical levels namely: knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation. These levels are of hierarchical and increasing
operational difficulties that achievement of a higher level of skill assumes the achievement of
the previous levels. This implies that a higher level of skill could be achieved only if a certain
amount of ability called for by the previous level has been achieved. For instance, you cannot
apply what you do not know or comprehend, can you now understand what it means to be
hierarchical.
KNOWLEDGE (or Memory)
It is the first, the lowest and the foundation for the development of higher order cognitive
skills. It involves the recognition or recall of previous learned information. There is no
demand for understanding or internalization of information. For measurement purposes,
memory or knowledge involves bringing to mind the appropriate material. This cognitive
level emphasizes the psychological process of remembering. Action verbs which can serve as

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appropriate signals, cues and clues that can effectively bring out stored information in the
mind include: define, name, list, tell, recall, identify, remember, who, which, where,
when, what, recognize, how much, how many etc.
Comprehension Level
Comprehension is all about internalization of knowledge. It involves making memory out of
what is stored in the brain file. It is on this basis that what is stored in the brain can be
understood and translated, interpreted or extrapolated. It is only when you have known
something that you can understand it. Again it is only when you know and understand that
you can re-order or re-arrange. Action verbs here include explain, represent, restate,
convert, interpret, re-arrange, re-order, translate, rephrase, transform etc.
Application Level
The use of abstractions in a concrete situation is called application. These abstractions can be
in the form of general ideas, rules, or procedures or generalized methods, technical terms,
principles, ideas and theories which must be remembered, understood and applied.
You must understand before correct application. Ability to apply what is learned is an
indication of a more permanent acquisition of learning. Application skills are developed
when the learner uses what he knows to solve a new problem, or in a new situation.
Application involves the ability to the learner to grasp exactly what the problem is all about
and what generalization or principles are relevant, useful, or pertinent for its solution. Some
action verbs here include: apply, build, explain, calculate, classify, solve, specify, state,
transfer demonstrate, determine, design, employ, predict, present, use which,
restructure, relate, employ, organize etc. it involves the principles of transfer of learning.
Analysis Level
This is the breaking down of communication into its constituent parts or elements in order to
establish the relationship or make the relations between ideas expressed to be clear or
explicit. It means breaking a learnt material into parts, ideas and devices for clearer
understanding.
It goes beyond application and involves such action verbs as analyse, detect, determine,
establish, compare, why, discriminate, distinguish, check consistency, categories,
establish evidence etc.
Synthesis Level

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Synthesis is concerned with the ability to put parts of knowledge together to form a new
knowledge. It involves categorizing of items, composing of poems, and songs, writing etc. it
involves divergent thinking. It calls for imaginative, original and creative thinking. You will
note that creative – though process results in discovery of knowledge that is new or
something that is tangible. It calls for creative answers to problems and for the development
of questioning mind, spirit of inquiry or inquisitive mind.
It requires fluency of novel ideas and flexible mind. It allows students great freedom at
looking for solutions, using many possible approaches to problem solving. Action verbs
include: plan, develop, devise, write, tell, make, assemble, classify, express, illustrate,
produce, propose, specify, suggest, document, formulate, modify, organize, derive,
design, derive, create, combine, construct, put together, constituted, etc.
Evaluation Level
It is the highest in the hierarchy. It involves making a quantitative or qualitative judgment
about a piece of communication, a procedure, a method, a proposal, a plan etc. Based on
certain internal or external criteria alternatives abound, choice depends on the result of
judgment which we make consciously or unconsciously based on values we held. Every day,
we make judgments such as good or bad, right or wrong, agree or disagree, fast or slow etc.
These are simple evaluations. They may not base on logical or rational judgment. In
education, evaluation as a cognitive objective involves the learners’ ability to organize his
thought and knowledge to reach a logical and rational decision which is defendable.
Evaluation is the most complex of human cognitive behaviour. It embodies elements of the
other five categories. Action verbs here include: agree, assess, compare, appraise, choose,
evaluate, why, validate, judge, select, conclude, consider, decide, contract etc. evaluation
can be subdivided into (a) judgment in terms of internal criteria and (b) judgment in terms of
external criteria.
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
Affective domain has to do with feelings and emotions. These are the emphatic characteristic
of this domain of acceptance or rejection. It is concerned with interests, attitudes,
appreciation, emotional biases and values. The function of the affective domain in the
instructional situation pertains to emotions, the passions, the dispositions, the moral and the
aesthetic sensibilities, the capacity for feeling, concern, attachment or detachment, sympathy,
empathy, and appreciation.

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Affective domain has five hierarchical categories namely receiving, responding, valuing,
organization and characterization.
1. Receiving
This is the lowest level of the learning outcomes in the affective domain. It means attending.
It is the learner’s willingness to attend to a particular stimulus or his being sensitive to the
existence of a given problem, event, condition or situation. It has three sub-levels.
These are:
i. Awareness: which involves the conscious recognition of the existence of some
problems, conditions, situations, events, phenomena etc. take for instance as a teacher, you
come into your class while the students are making noise. You will notice that the atmosphere
will change. This is because the students have become aware of your presence. They are
merely aware.
ii. Willingness: This is the next stage which involves the ability to acknowledge the object,
event, problem instead of ignoring or avoiding it. The students in your class kept quite
because they noticed and acknowledged your presence. If they had ignored your presence
they would continue to make noise in the class.
iii. Controlled or selected attention: This involves the learner selecting or choosing to pay
attention to the situation, problem, event or phenomenon. When you teach in the class, the
learner is aware of your saying or the points you are making. In that case he will deliberately
shut off messages or speeches or sounds as noises. Receiving in a classroom situation
involves getting, holding and directing the attention of the learners to whatever the teacher
has to say in the class.
2. Responding
In this case the learner responds to the event by participating. He does not only attend, he also
reacts by doing something. If in your class you set a test for your students, first the students
become aware of the test, they are willing to take the test, they now select to do it and they
react by doing it. Responding has three sub-levels too. These are:
i. acquiescence in responding: which involves simple obedience or compliance.
ii. Willingness to respond: This involves voluntary responses to a given situation.
iii.Satisfaction in response: if he is satisfied with the response he enjoys reacting to the type
of situation.
3. Valuing

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This is concerned with the worth or value or benefit which a leaner attaches to a particular
object, behaviour or situation.
This ranges in degree from mere acceptance of value or a desire to improve group skills to a
more complex level of commitment or an assumption of responsibility for the effective
functioning of the group. As usual, there are three sub-levels of valuing:
i.Acceptance of a value: This is a situation where the learner believes tentatively in a
proportion, doctrine, condition or situation a denomination says that women should be
ordained priest in the e.g churches; the members accept the doctrine.
ii.Preference for a value: In this case the learner believes in the desirability or necessity of
the condition, doctrine, proposition etc. and ignores or rejects other alternatives and
deliberately looks for other people views where the issues are controversial, so as to form his
own opinion.
iii. Commitment to a value: In this stage the learner is convinced and fully committed to the
doctrine, principle or cause. In consequence, the learner internalizes a set of specific values,
which consistently manifest themselves in his event behaviour, attitudes and appreciation.
4. Organization
In this level the learner starts to bring together different values as an organized system. He
determines the interrelationships and establishes the order of priority by comparing, relating
and synthesizing the values. He then builds a consistent value system by resolving any
possible conflicts between them. If the learner tries to successfully internalize the value, he
may encounter some situations which may demand more than one value. In this case, he has
to organize the values into a system in order to decide which value to emphasis.
There are two sub-levels of organization . These are:
i. Conceptualization of a Value
This involves the understanding of the relationship of abstract elements of a value to these
already held or to new values which are gaining acceptance. In other words you may have to
evaluate the works of arts which you appreciate or to find out in order to clarify some basic
assumptions about codes of ethnics. It may be in the area of music where you may have to
identify the characteristics of two types of music such as classical and hip up music,
which you admire or enjoy in relation to the others such as jazz or highlife which you do
not like. We have used works of arts and music as examples. Can you think of any other
examples? Think of different types of vehicles, songs, colours, designs, prints etc.

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ii. Organization of Value System.
This involves the development of a complex value system, which includes those values that
cannot be compared for the purpose of making choices in order to promote public
welfare, instead of the sheer aggrandizement of special personal interest. For instance, you
may be in a position to relate your interest in the works of arts against other value. You may
be in situation where you compare alternative social policies and practices against the
standards of public welfare. It is this level that leads individuals to develop vocational plan
which can satisfy their needs for economic security and social welfare. It leads the
individual to develop philosophy of life, which helps him to avoid dependence upon others,
especially to avoid a situation where one becomes a public nuisance. You can see that this
level is a very important one.
5. Characterization by a Value or a Value Complex
At this stage the value system is so internalized by the people of individuals so that they act
consistently in accordance with such values, beliefs or ideals that comprise their total
philosophy or view of life. A life-style which reflects these beliefs and philosophy are
developed. The behaviour of such individuals or groups can be said to be controlled by the
value system.
This is true, as one can almost predict with accuracy how an individual would behave or
respond. There are two levels here:
i. Generalized set: This involves a situation where the orientation of the individual enables
him to reduce to order a complex environment and to act consistently and effectively in it.
There may be room for the individual to revise his judgments and to change his behaviour
as a result of available new and valid evidence.
ii. Characterization: In this case, the internalization of a value system is such that the
individual is consistently acting in harmony with it.
The value system regulates the individual’s personal and civil life according to a code of
behaviour based on ethical principles.
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
Psychomotor domain has to do with motor skills or abilities. It means therefore that the
instructional objectives here will make performance skills more prominent. The psychomotor
domain has to do with muscular activities. It deals with such activities which involve the use

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of the limbs (hand) or the whole of the body. These tasks are inherent in human beings and
normally should develop naturally.
Can you think of such abilities or skills. Consider the skills in running, walking, swimming,
jumping, eating, playing, throwing, etc. One would say that these skills are material.
Yet, for affective performance or high level performance of a wide variety of tasks, it is
necessary for educators to develop various skills of more complex nature in addition to the
inherent ones. For instance, more complex skills can be developed through learning in such
areas as driving, drawing, sports, etc. like the cognitive and affective, psychomotor domain is
sub divided into hierarchical levels. From the lowest, we have (i) Reflex movements
(ii) Basic Fundamental movements (iii) Perceptual abilities (iv) Physical abilities (v)
Skilled movements and (vi) Non-discursive communication. Now let us take them one after
the other and discuss them briefly.
Reflex Movements
At the lowest level of the psychomotor domain is the reflex movements which every normal
human being should be able to make. The movements are all natural, except where the case is
abnormal, in which case it may demand therapy programmes.
Apart from the abnormal situations, educators are not concerned with these movements. Now
let us think of some examples.
Can you mention some of them? Your mind may have gone to; the twinkling of the eyes,
trying to dodge a blow or something thrown at you, jumping up when there is danger,
swallowing things, urinating or stooling by a child, etc.
Basic Fundamental Movements
Like the case of reflex movements, these are basic movements which are natural. Educators
have little or nothing to do with them, except in an abnormal cases where special educators
step in to assist. There are three sub-categories at this stage. These are:
i. Loco motor movement: which involves movements of the body from place to
place such as crawling, walking, leaping, jumping etc.
ii. Non-loco motor movements: which involves body movements that do not
involve moving from one place to another. These include muscular movements,
wriggling of the trunk, head and any other part of the body. They also include
turning, twisting etc of the body.

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 iii. Manipulative movements: which involves the use of the hands or limbs to move
things to control things etc.
1. Perceptual abilities
This has to do with the senses and their developments. It means therefore that
educators have not much to do here except to direct the use of these sense in association with
certain conditions. Perceptual abilities are concerned with the ability of the individuals to
perceive and distinguish things using the senses. Such individuals recognise and compare
things by physically tasting, smelling, seeing, hearing and touching. You can identify the
sense organs associated with these activities. With the use of particular taste, smell, sound,
appearance and feeling, you can associate and understand certain objects or situations will
and feelings in your mind. These senses with now help you to determine conditions and
necessary course of action.
2. Physical abilities
These abilities fall in the area of health and physical education. You know that in athletics
and games or sports in general, you need physical abilities and that these abilities can be
developed into varying degrees of perfection with the help of practices. This is why sports
men and women always practice in other to improve on their skills of endurance,
strength, flexibility and agility. For instance, if you are a goal keeper, you will need to
improve on these skills to perform.
3. Skilled Movements
This is a higher ability than the physical abilities. Once you have acquired the physical
abilities, you now apply various types of these physical abilities in making or creating things.
You can combine skills in manipulative, endurance and flexibility in writing and drawing.
You can combine the neuromuscular movements together with flexibility to help you in
drawing. An individual can combine strength, endurance, flexibility and manipulative
movements in activities like combat sports such as wrestling, boxing, karate, tackwando,
Judoka, weight lifting, etc.
For skills like drumming, typing or playing the organ or the keyboard in music, you will need
a combination of manipulative movements and some perceptive abilities and flexibility.
There are three sub-levels of the skilled movements. These are simple adaptive skills,
compound adaptive skills and complex adaptive skills.
4. Non-discursive Communication

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This is the highest level which demands a combination of all the lower levels to reach a high
degree of expertise. Everybody that is normal can move his limbs and legs. But you must
have some level of training, practice and the ability to combine a variety of movements and
some perceptive abilities in order to do diving, swimming, typing, driving, cycling etc.
At the same time, you will also need these in other to read or interpret different writings, long
or shorthand. You need them to be able to manipulate your computer set accurately to give
you what you want. You need training to be able to browse on the Internet and to derive
maximum benefits from the use of modern information and communication technologies.
There are two sub-levels of the non-discursive communication. They are expressive
movement and interpretive movement.
TYPES OF TESTS
CLASSROOM TESTS
The classroom test, which is otherwise called teacher-made test is an instrument of
measurement and evaluation. It is a major technique used for the assessment of students
learning outcomes. The classroom tests can be achievement or performance test and/or any
other type of test like practical test, etc prepared by the teacher for his specific class and
purpose based on what he has taught. The development, of good questions or items writing
for the purpose of classroom test, cannot be taken for granted. An inexperienced teacher may
write good items by chance. But this is not always possible. Development of good questions
or items must follow a number of principles without which no one can guarantee that the
responses given to the tests will be relevant and consistent. In this unit, we shall examine the
various aspects of the teacher’s own test.
As a teacher, you will be faced with several problems when it comes to your most important
functions – evaluating of learning outcomes. You are expected to observe your students in the
class, workshop, laboratory, field of play etc and rate their activities under these varied
conditions. You are required to correct and grade assignments and home works. You are
required to give weekly tests and end of term examinations. Most of the times, you are
expected to decide on the fitness of your students for promotion on the basis of continuous
assessment exercises, end of term examinations’ cumulative results and promotion
examination given towards the end of the school year. Given these conditions it becomes
very important that you become familiar with the planning construction and administration of

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good quality tests. This is because in the next few years when you graduate as a teacher your
tests will be used to play a very important role in the growth and progress of Nigerian Youth?
Some Pit Falls In Teacher – Made Tests

i. Most teacher-test are not appropriate to the different levels of learning outcomes. The
teachers specify their instructional objectives covering the whole range simple recall
to evaluation. Yet the teacher’s items fall within the recall of specific facts only

ii. Many of the test exercises fail to measure what they are supposed to measure. In other
words most of the teacher-made tests are not valid. You may wonder what validity is.
It is a very important quality of a good test, which implies that a test is valid if it.
iii. Measures what it is supposed to measure. You will read about in details later in this
course.
iv. Some classroom tests do not cover comprehensively the topics taught. One of the
qualities of a good test is that it should represent all the topic taught. But, these
tests cannot be said to be a representative sample of the whole topic taught.
v. Most test prepared by teacher lack clarify in the wordings. The questions of the tests
are ambiguous, not precise, not clear and most of the times carelessly worded. Most
of the questions are general or global questions.
vi. Most teacher-made tests fail item analysis test. They fail to discriminate properly
and not designed according to difficulty levels.

Types of Test Forms used in The Classroom

There are different types of test forms used in the classroom. These can be essay test,
objectives test, norm-referenced test or criterion referenced test. But we are going to
concentrate on the essay test and objectives test. These are the must common tests which you
can easily construct for your purpose in the class.
Essay Test
This is the type of test where the testees or the students have the responsibility of thinking out
the answers to the questions asked. They have the freedom to express or state the answers in
their own words. It is a free- answer kind of test.

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It is used by teachers to measure achievement, performance etc from classroom instruction.
Features of essay tests.
i. Students answer a small number of questions. Because of time limits, usually not
more than 2 or 3 hours of examination, students are required to answer in their
own words.
ii. It is not always that all the topics covered are covered by the tests.
iii. The script are written in the students own style, words and usually in his own
handwriting.
iv. In some cases spelling errors as well as poor language and handwriting affect students
results.
v. The students are considerably free to organize their own answers. This implies that
answers with varying degrees of accuracy and completeness.
vi. It encourages creativity by allowing their own unique way.
vii. It discourages guess-work and encourages good study habits in students.

Essay tests are of two variations. These are Extended – response type and Restricted response
type.
Extended Response or Free Response Essay Test
In this type, questions are asked in a way that the answers demand that the student is not
limited to the extent to which he has to discuss the issues raised or question asked. The
student has to:
i. Plan and organize his thoughts in order to give his answer.
ii. Put his ideas across by expressing himself freely, precisely and clearly using his own
words and his own writing.
iii. Discuss the questions at length, giving various aspects of his knowledge on the
question asked or issue raised.
Restricted – Response Type
In this type, the questions are so structured that the students are limited, the scope of the
response is defined and restricted. The answers given are to some extent controlled.
Advantages of Essay tests

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 i. The essay test permits a freedom of response, which in turn allows the
students to prevent their ideas as detailed as they choose so as to show how deep
knowledge they have in the subject area covered by the question.
ii. The free response form allows the student to express himself in his own words
making use of his proficiency in the language being used to his advantage.
iii. Essay tests promotes the development of problem – solving skills. This is
because the student has to think out the answer himself and put it down in organized
form.
iv. It helps students to improve their writing skills such as writing speed, legibility etc
because they write in their handwriting.
v. The essay test is easy to construct. This is why it is very popular.
Limitations of the essay test
i. Subjectivity in scoring is the greatest disadvantage here. The scoring is not reliable
because different examiners can grade the score answer differently. In fact, the same
examiner can grade the same question differently at different times.
ii. Grading of essay tests is time-consuming.
iii. Essay questions do not cover the course content and the objectives as
comprehensively as possible.
iv. Good command of language places individual students at an advantage while poor
command places some students at a disadvantage.
How to make essay test less subjective
i. Avoid open-ended questions.
ii. Let the students’ answer the same questions. Avoid options/choices.
iii. Use students’ numbers instead of their names, to conceal their identity.
iv. Score all the answers to each question for all students at a time.
v. Do not allow score on one question to influence you while marking the next.
vi. Always rearrange the papers before you mark.
vii. Do not allow your feelings or emotions to influence your marking.
viii. Avoid distractions when marking.

Objective tests

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The objective test otherwise regarded as the new type of test derives its name from the fact
that the marking is done with a standard key. This key concept is that the students are
provided with a problem to which a limited numbers of choices are presented for them to
select the wanted answer.
It is so much structured that even where the student is to supply the answers, he is strictly
limited to give specific and short answers. But students are given the opportunity to react to a
large sample of questions which may cover the entire content area.
Types of Objectives tests Items
 Short answers
 Completion
 Arrangements
 True-false
 Matching and
 Multiple choice items.
Advantages of Objective Test
i. Objective test enhances the assessment of learner’s response to test items because the
scoring is not influenced by the scorer’s bias or disposition at the time of scoring
but by the correctness of the answer. By overcoming the subjectivity of the essay
test, the reliability of the test as measuring instrument is enhanced.
ii. Scoring of objective test is easy and takes little time. It is also scored by a machine
and facilitates high efficiency in testing a large number of examinees.
iii. The result of objective test especially the multiple choice items can be used for
diagnostic purposes since they provide clues for factual errors and misunderstanding
that need remediation.
iv. It is adequate for sampling the subject matter and instructional objectives of the
course because the relatively large number of items set enhances effective coverage of
the content areas on which the test is based. The result provides a more valid and
reliable ability of the examinees performance.
v. It is efficient for measuring knowledge of facts. It can also be designed to
measure understanding, thinking skills and other complex outcomes.
vi. Objective test items can be pre-test, refined through item analysis, standardized and
reused a number of times if properly handled.

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vii. It is fair to all examinees since it does not call on other skills outside the skill it is
intended to measure. That is, its validity is not affected by good handwriting, bluffing
or the verbiage.
Disadvantages of Objective Test
i. It does not encourage the development of examinees originality in desirable skills
such as the ability to select, organize or synthesize ideas and to present them correctly
in a logical and coherent form. The complete structuring of task is not suitable for
assessing learning abilities in this form.
ii. It tends to measure only factual knowledge. This disadvantage can be overcome by
developing items for the objective items rigorously following the steps involved in
item development process. Development of good objective test items requires training
of test developers in the skills necessary for constructing effective, valid and reliable
items.
iii. It needs time, commitment and adequate planning.
iv. Objective test items lend themselves to guessing especially when the test items are not
skillfully developed. An examinee can guess correctly on few items and earn some
undeserved points even in a well-constructed objective test.
v. It is also easier to cheat in an objective test than in essay test if the test is poorly
administered.
When to use objective test
i. It is used when highly structured task are needed to limit the type of response the
examinees can make and to obtain correct answers from learners by demonstrating the
specific knowledge or skill called for in the item.
ii. It is used to appraise more effectively the achievement of any of the educational
objectives of simple learning outcomes as well as the complex outcomes in the
knowledge, understanding, and application and even in higher levels covering large
content areas if skillfully constructed. It is possible to set as many as 120 objective
tests spread over many lesson units and several cognitive levels of educational
objective for one hour or two hours.
iii. It is used when objective, quick, easy and accurate scoring is desired especially when
the number of examinees is large.

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 iv. It is used to measure understanding, thinking skills and other complex learning
outcomes of the learners.
v. It can also be used for diagnosis of learning deficiency and the result used for
remediation process.

Intelligence Test (or General Mental Ability Test)

Intelligence is the ability to reason and learn from experience. It is thought to depend both on
inherited ability (nature) and on surroundings in which a person is brought up (nurture). The
first intelligence tests were devised by Alfred Binet in 1905 to give an Intelligence Quotient
(IQ). Intelligence test provides an indication of an individual’s general mental capacity. An
Intelligence test usually includes a wide variety of tests so as to sample several aspects of
cognitive function. Some people believe that Intelligence can be expressed only in speech and
writing and therefore cannot be tested.
Aptitude Tests (Separate Ability)
When we talk about aptitude, we refer to the natural talent or ability especially specified.
Thus, aptitude tests measure specialized abilities and the potential to learn or perform new
tasks that may be relevant to later learning or performance in a specific area. Hence they are
future oriented. Can you mention any one of such tests that is familiar to you? An example is
the Common Entrance Examination into Vocational Schools and even Secondary Schools.
Achievement Test
Achievement tests are designed to measure the effects of a specific programme of instruction
or training which the learners attained usually by their effort. Generally, they represent a
terminal evaluation of the learner’s status on the completion of a course of study or training.
That is, it is used to determine how much the learner has learned from specified content via
systemic and controlled instructions. End of term examinations and classroom tests are
mostly achievement tests.
TEST DEVELOPMENT – PLANNING THE CLASSROOM TEST
The development of valid, reliable and usable questions involves proper planning. The plan
entails designing a framework that can guide the test developers in the items development
process. This is necessary because classroom test is a key factor in the evaluation of learning
outcomes. The validity, reliability and usability of such test depend on the care with which

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the test are planned and prepared. Planning helps to ensure that the test covers the pre-
specified instructional objectives and the subject matter (content) under consideration.
Hence, planning classroom test entails identifying the instructional objectives earlier stated,
the subject matter (content) covered during the teaching/learning process. This leads to the
preparation of table of specification (the test blue print) for the test while bearing in mind the
type of test that would be relevant for the purpose of testing. An outline of the framework for
planning the classroom test is as prescribed below.
Considerations in Planning a Classroom Test.
To plan a classroom test that will be both practical and effective in providing evidence of
mastery of the instructional objectives and content covered requires relevant
considerations. Hence the following serves as guide in planning a classroom test.
i. Determine the purpose of the test;
ii. Describe the instructional objectives and content to be measured. Determine the
relative emphasis to be given to each learning outcome;
iii. Select the most appropriate item formats (essay or objective); Develop the test blue
print to guide the test construction;
iv. Prepare test items that is relevant to the learning outcomes specified in the
v. test plan;
vi. Decide on the pattern of scoring and the interpretation of result; Decide on the length
and duration of the test, and
vii. Assemble the items into a test, prepare direction and administer the test.
Scrutiny of the Instructional Objectives
The instructional objectives of the course are critically considered while developing the test
items. This is because the instructional objectives are the intended behavioural changes or
intended learning outcomes of instructional programmes which students are expected to
possess at the end of the course or programme of study. The instructional objectives usually
stated for the assessment of behaviour in the cognitive domain of educational objectives are
classified by Bloom (1956) in his taxonomy of educational objectives into knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The objectives are also given
relative weight in respect to the level of importance and emphasis given to them. Educational
objectives and the content of a course form the nucleus on which test development revolves.
Content Survey

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This is an outline of the content (subject matter or topics) of a course of programme to be
covered in the test. The test developer assigns relative weight to the outlined content – topics
and subtopics to be covered in the test. This weighting depends on the importance and
emphasis given to that content area. Content survey is necessary since it is the means by
which the objectives are to be achieved and level of mastering determined.
Planning the table of specification/test blue print
The table of specification is a two dimensional table that specifies the level of objectives in
relation to the content of the course. A well- planned table of specification enhances content
validity of that test for which it is planned. The two dimensions (content and objectives) are
put together in a table by listing the objectives across the top of the table (horizontally) and
the content down the table (vertically) to provide the complete framework for the
development of the test items. The table of specification is planned to take care of the
coverage of content and objectives in the right proportion according to the degree of
relevance and emphasis (weight) attached to them in the teaching learning process. A
hypothetical table of specification is illustrated in the table below:
A Hypothetical Test Blue Print/Table of Specification.
Content Objectives Total
Area Weight Knowledge Comprehensi Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation
on
Set A 15% - 1 - 2 - - 3
Set B 15% - 1 - 2 - - 3
Set C 25% 1 - 1 1 1 1 5
Set D 25% 1 - 1 1 1 1 5
Set E 20% - 1 1 - - 2 4
Total 100% 2 3 3 6 2 4 20

The first consideration in the development of Test Blue –Print is the weight to be assigned to
higher order questions and the lower order questions (That is, to educational objectives at
higher and at lower cognitive levels). This is utilized in the allocation of numbers of
questions to be developed in each cell under content and objective dimensions.

vii. The development of table of specification is followed by item writing. Once the table
of specification is adhered to in the item writing, the item would have appropriate content
validity at the required level of difficulty.
Item Writing

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The next task in planning the classroom test is to prepare the actual test items. When doing
this, keep the test blueprint in mind and in view as you are writing the test items. The
blueprint represents the master plan and should readily guide you in item writing and review.
Avoid ambiguous language so that the demands of the item would be clearly understood
Moderation of Test Items
One of the important stages of item development is to have test exercise examined and
critiqued by one or more colleagues and experts. This process is known as “moderation” of
items. After the item development phase, the test items are moderated by an expert or panel
of experts before using them especially for school wide or class wide test such as end of term
test. Before sending the items to external moderators (assessors), the items are to be given
first to the subject head who should read through the items. Make intelligent input and some
modifications on areas of need identified. The subject expert may also deem it necessary to
engage others in the department who are knowledgeable in hat discipline to carry out similar
exercise (subject experts’ validation)before selecting the most appropriate one for external
assessors (subject specialists and evaluation experts) to make final input before use.

The marking scheme and the marks allocated to various sections of the content covered
should be sent along the test items to the external assessors. When this process is effectively
carried out, the resulting items (items that survived the hurdles of moderation exercise)
would have face, construct and content validity as test measuring instrument.
Assembling the Test items
You are to assemble the test items for use after the moderation process. The following are
guides to enable you prepare and assemble both essay and objective test items for use.
i. Arrange the items on the test so that they are easy to read. Plan the layout of the test in
such a way as to be convenient for recording answers and also scoring of the test
items on separate answer sheets..
ii. Arrange the test items in progressive order of difficulty starting from simple to
complex questions.
iii. Ensure that one item does not provide clues to the answer of another item or items in
the same or another section of the test.

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 iv. Ensure that the correct responses form essentially a random pattern and in each of the
possible response positions about the same percentage of the time for multiple choice
items.
v. The test items should not be too many or two lengthy for the testees to answer in the
time available
vi. Ensure that a range of complexity and difficulty are in the test items especially when
several essay items are given.

THE ADMINISTRATION AND SCORING OF CLASSROOM TEST

Test Administration
Test Administration refers to the procedure of actually presenting the learning task that the
examinees are required to perform in order to ascertain the degree of learning that has taken
place during the teaching-learning process. This procedure is as important as the process of
preparing the test. While administering test all examinees must be given fair chance to
demonstrate their achievement of the learning outcomes being measured. This
requires the provision of a physical and psychological environment which is conducive to
their making their best efforts and the control of such factors such as malpractices and
unnecessary threat from test administrators that may interfere with valid measurement.
Ensuring Quality in Test Administration
Quality and good control are necessary components of test administration. The following are
guidelines and steps involved in test administration aimed at ensuring quality in test
administration.
 Collection of the question papers in time from custodian to be able to start the test at
the appropriate time stipulated.
 Ensure compliance with the stipulated sitting arrangements in the test to prevent
collision between or among the testees.
 Ensure orderly and proper distribution of questions papers to the testees.
 Do not talk unnecessarily before the test. Testees’ time should not be wasted at the
beginning of the test with unnecessary remarks, instructions or threat that may
develop test anxiety.
 It is necessary to remind the testees of the need to avoid malpractices before they start
and make it clear that cheating will be penalized. Stick to the instructions regarding

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 the conduct of the test and avoid giving hits to testees who ask about particular items.
But make corrections or clarifications to the testees whenever necessary. Keep
interruptions during the test to a minimum.
Credibility and Civility in Test Administration
Credibility deals with the value the eventual recipients and users of the results of assessment,
while civility enquires whether the persons being assessed are in such conditions as to give
their best. This can be captured by:
i. Instructions: These explain how the test is to be administered. The language used for the
instruction should be appropriate to the level of the testees.
ii. Duration of the Test: This is the time for accomplishing the test. It should reflect the
age and attention span of the testees and the purpose of the test.
iii.Venue and Sitting Arrangement: The test environment should be learner friendly with
adequate physical conditions such as work space, good and comfortable writing desks,
proper lighting, good ventilation, moderate temperature, conveniences within reasonable
distance and serenity necessary for maximum concentration.
Scoring the Test
In the evaluation of classroom learning outcomes marking schemes are prepared alongside
the construction of the test items in order to score the test objectively. The marking scheme
describes how marks are to be distributed amongst the questions and between the various
parts of the question. This distribution is dependent on the objectives stated for the learning
outcome during teaching and the weight assigned to the questions during test preparation and
construction of the test item. The marking scheme takes into consideration the facts required
to answer the questions and the extent to which the language used meets the requirement of
the subject. The actual marking is done following the procedures for scoring essay questions
(for essay questions) and for scoring objective items (for objective items)
Scoring Essay Test
For the essay test result to serve useful purpose as valid measurement instrument conscious
effort is made to score the test objectively by using appropriate methods to minimize
the effort of personal biases and idiosyncrasies on the resulting scores.
Scoring Objective Test.

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Objective test can be scored by various methods with ease unlike the essay test. Various
techniques are used to speed up the scoring and the techniques to use sometimes depend on
the type of objective test. Some of these techniques are as follows:
i. Manual Scoring
In this method of scoring the answer to test items are scored by direct comparison of the
examinees answer with the marking key
ii. Stencil Scoring
A scoring stencil is prepared by pending holes on a blank answer sheet where the correct
answers are supposed to appear. Scoring is then done by laying the stencil over each answer
sheet and the number of answer checks appearing through the holes is counted. At the end of
this scoring procedure, each test paper is scanned to eliminate possible errors due to
examinees supplying more than one answer or an item having more than one correct answer.
iii. Machine Scoring
Usually for a large number of examinees, a specially prepared answer sheets are used to
answer the questions. The answers are normally shaded at the appropriate places assigned to
the various items. These special answer sheets are then machine scored with computers and
other possible scoring devices using certified answer key prepared for the test items.

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