INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK MANAGEMENT

Network management means different things to different people. In some cases, it involves a solitary network consultant monitoring network activity with an outdated protocol analyzer. In other cases, network management involves a distributed database, autopolling of network devices, and high-end workstations generating real-time graphical views of network topology changes and traffic. In general, network management is a service that employs a variety of tools, applications, and devices to assist human network managers in monitoring and maintaining networks.

Typical Network Management Architecture Maintains Many Relationships

1. Performance Management The goal of performance management is to measure and make available various aspects of network performance so that internetwork performance can be maintained at an

acceptable level. Examples of performance variables that might be provided include network throughput, user response times, and line utilization. Performance management involves three main steps. First, performance data is gathered on variables of interest to network administrators. Second, the data is analyzed to determine normal (baseline) levels. Finally, appropriate performance thresholds are determined for each important variable so that exceeding these thresholds indicates a network problem worthy of attention.

2. Configuration Management The goal of configuration management is to monitor network and system configuration information so that the effects on network operation of various versions of hardware and software elements can be tracked and managed. Each network device has a variety of version information associated with it. An engineering workstation, for example, may be configured as follows: Operating system, Version 3.2 Ethernet interface, Version 5.4 TCP/IP software, Version 2.0 NetWare software, Version 4.1 NFS software, Version 5.1 Serial communications controller, Version 1.1 X.25 software, Version 1.0 SNMP software, Version 3.1 Configuration management subsystems store this information in a database for easy access. When a problem occurs, this database can be searched for clues that may help solve the problem.

3. Accounting Management The goal of accounting management is to measure network utilization parameters so that individual or group uses on the network can be regulated appropriately. Such regulation minimizes network problems (because network resources can be apportioned based on resource capacities) and maximizes the fairness of network access across all users.

As with performance management, the first step toward appropriate accounting management is to measure utilization of all important network resources. Analysis of the results provides insight into current usage patterns, and usage quotas can be set at this point. Some correction, of course, will be required to reach optimal access practices. From this point, ongoing measurement of resource use can yield billing information as well as information used to assess continued fair and optimal resource utilization.

4. Fault Management The goal of fault management is to detect, log, notify users of, and (to the extent possible) automatically fix network problems to keep the network running effectively. Because faults can cause downtime or unacceptable network degradation, fault management is perhaps the most widely implemented of the ISO network management elements. Fault management involves first determining symptoms and isolating the problem. Then the problem is fixed and the solution is tested on all-important subsystems. Finally, the detection and resolution of the problem is recorded.

5. Security Management The goal of security management is to control access to network resources according to local guidelines so that the network cannot be sabotaged (intentionally or unintentionally) and sensitive information cannot be accessed by those without appropriate authorization. A security management subsystem, for example, can monitor users logging on to a network resource and can refuse access to those who enter inappropriate access codes. Security management subsystems work by partitioning network resources into authorized and unauthorized areas. For some users, access to any network resource is inappropriate, mostly because such users are usually company outsiders. For other (internal) network users, access to information originating from a particular department is inappropriate. Access to Human Resource files, for example, is inappropriate for most users outside the Human Resources department.

Internet Ping Program

"ping" stands for Packet InterNet Groper.We ping a system by sending it ICMP echo requests that it must respond to with ICMP echo replies. ICMP is at the same layer at IP. The operation of ICMPdoesn't depend on the higher level protocols .TCP and UDP. The echo request and echo reply messages are only two of the 13 currently defined ICMP messages.

Traceroute Program
Originally written by Van Jacobson. It is used to determine exactly what route a packet takes to a specified destination.A UDP datagram is sent to the destination, however the first time it is sent, the time-to-live field is set to 1.This causes the first gateway to discard the packet and returnan ICMP "time exceeded".The ICMP reply will have the gateway's IP address as the source IP address, so we know the identify of the first gateway. Additionally, the time required to reveive the ICMP reply is also measured, to give an estimate of the round-trip time (RTT) to the gateway.This procedure is repeated two more times, to give three RTT estimates for this gateway.Next the TTl is set to 2, to determine the identity of the second gateway.

When the UDP datagram finally reaches the destination host an ICMP "port unreachable" reply should be returned, since the destination UDP port number is chosen so that it is unlikely that any process on the destination is using that port (UDP port 33434, by default). Note that the program must be looking for two types of ICMP messages to be returned: "time exceeded" and "port unreachable". This program requires a kernel modification to run under many Berkeley-derived systems. An option also exists to specify a loose source route for the datagram, however many gateways don't handle source routing correctly.

What is a Firewall
A firewall protects networked computers from intentional hostile intrusion that could compromise confidentiality or result in data corruption or denial of service. It may be a hardware device (see Figure 1) or a software program (see Figure 2) running on a secure host computer. In either case, it must have at least two network interfaces, one for the network it is intended to protect, and one for the network it is exposed to. A firewall sits at the junction point or gateway between the two networks, usually a private network and a public network such as the Internet. The earliest firewalls were simply routers. The term firewall comes from the fact that by segmenting a network into different physical subnetworks, they limited the damage that could spread from one subnet to another just like firedoors or firewalls. Figure 1: Hardware Firewall. Hardware firewall providing protection to a Local Network.

Figure 2: Computer with Firewall Software. Computer running firewall software to provide protection

2. What does a firewall do? A firewall examines all traffic routed between the two networks to see if it meets certain criteria. If it does, it is routed between the networks, otherwise it is stopped. A firewall filters both inbound and outbound traffic. It can also manage public access to private networked resources such as host applications. It can be used to log all attempts to enter the private network and trigger alarms when hostile or unauthorized entry is attempted. Firewalls can filter packets based on their source and destination addresses and port numbers. This is known as address filtering. Firewalls can also filter specific types of network traffic. This is also known as protocol filtering because the decision to forward or reject traffic is dependent upon the protocol used, for example HTTP, ftp or telnet. Firewalls can also filter traffic by packet attribute or state. 3. What can't a firewall do? A firewall cannot prevent individual users with modems from dialling into or out of the network, bypassing the firewall altogether. Employee misconduct or carelessness cannot be controlled by firewalls. Policies involving the use and misuse of passwords and user

accounts must be strictly enforced. These are management issues that should be raised during the planning of any security policy but that cannot be solved with firewalls alone. The arrest of the Phonemasters cracker ring brought these security issues to light. Although they were accused of breaking into information systems run by AT&T Corp., British Telecommunications Inc., GTE Corp., MCI WorldCom, Southwestern Bell, and Sprint Corp, the group did not use any high tech methods such as IP spoofing (see question 10). They used a combination of social engineering and dumpster diving. Social engineering involves skills not unlike those of a confidence trickster. People are tricked into revealing sensitive information. Dumpster diving or garbology, as the name suggests, is just plain old looking through company trash. Firewalls cannot be effective against either of these techniques. 4. Who needs a firewall? Anyone who is responsible for a private network that is connected to a public network needs firewall protection. Furthermore, anyone who connects so much as a single computer to the Internet via modem should have personal firewall software. Many dialup Internet users believe that anonymity will protect them. They feel that no malicious intruder would be motivated to break into their computer. Dial up users who have been victims of malicious attacks and who have lost entire days of work, perhaps having to reinstall their operating system, know that this is not true. Irresponsible pranksters can use automated robots to scan random IP addresses and attack whenever the opportunity presents itself. 5. How does a firewall work? There are two access denial methodologies used by firewalls. A firewall may allow all traffic through unless it meets certain criteria, or it may deny all traffic unless it meets certain criteria (see figure 3). The type of criteria used to determine whether traffic should be allowed through varies from one type of firewall to another. Firewalls may be concerned with the type of traffic, or with source or destination addresses and ports. They may also use complex rule bases that analyse the application data to determine if the traffic should be allowed through. How a firewall determines what traffic to let through depends on which network layer it operates at. A discussion on network layers and architecture follows.

Figure 3: Basic Firewall Operation

Basics Of Linux Networking

1.How to Configure Your NIC's IP Address You need to know all the steps needed to configure IP addresses on a NIC card. Web site shopping cart applications frequently need an additional IP address dedicated to them. You also might need to add a secondary NIC interface to your server to handle data backups. Last but not least, you might just want to play around with the server to test your skills. This section shows you how to do the most common server IP activities with the least amount of headaches. 2.Determining Your IP Address Most modern PCs come with an Ethernet port. When Linux is installed, this device is called eth0. You can determine the IP address of this device with the ifconfig command. [root@bigboy tmp]# ifconfig -a eth0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:08:C7:10:74:A8 BROADCAST MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1 RX packets:0 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0 TX packets:0 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 collisions:0 txqueuelen:100 RX bytes:0 (0.0 b) TX bytes:0 (0.0 b) Interrupt:11 Base address:0x1820 lo Link encap:Local Loopback inet addr:127.0.0.1 Mask:255.0.0.0 UP LOOPBACK RUNNING MTU:16436 Metric:1 RX packets:787 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0 TX packets:787 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 collisions:0 txqueuelen:0 RX bytes:82644 (80.7 Kb) TX bytes:82644 (80.7 Kb) wlan0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:06:25:09:6A:B5 inet addr:192.168.1.100 Bcast:192.168.1.255 Mask:255.255.255.0 UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1 RX packets:47379 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0 TX packets:107900 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 collisions:0 txqueuelen:100 RX bytes:4676853 (4.4 Mb) TX bytes:43209032 (41.2 Mb) Interrupt:11 Memory:c887a000-c887b000

3.Changing Your IP Address If you wanted, you could give this eth0 interface an IP address using the ifconfig command. [root@bigboy tmp]# ifconfig eth0 10.0.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 up The "up" at the end of the command activates the interface. To make this permanent each time you boot up you'll have to add this command in your /etc/rc.local file which is run at the end of every reboot. Fedora Linux also makes life a little easier with interface configuration files located in the /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts directory. Interface eth0 has a file called ifcfg-eth0, eth1 uses ifcfg-eth1, and so on. You can place your IP address information in these files, which are then used to auto-configure your NICs when Linux boots. See Figure 3-1 for two samples of interface eth0. One assumes the interface has a fixed IP address, and the other assumes it requires an IP address assignment using DHCP.

4.How to Activate/Shut Down Your NIC The ifup and ifdown commands can be used respectively to activate and deactivate a NIC interface. You must have an ifcfg file in the /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts directory for these commands to work. Here is an example for interface eth0: [root@bigboy tmp]# ifdown eth0 [root@bigboy tmp]# ifup eth0

5. How to View Your Current Routing Table The netstat -nr command will provide the contents of the touting table. Networks with a gateway of 0.0.0.0 are usually directly connected to the interface. No gateway is needed to reach your own directly connected interface, so a gateway address of 0.0.0.0 seems appropriate. The route with a destination address of 0.0.0.0 is your default gateway. In this example there are two gateways, the default and one to 255.255.255.255 which is usually added on DHCP servers. Server bigboy is a DHCP server in this case. [root@bigboy tmp]# netstat -nr Kernel IP routing table

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Introduction to Red Hat Package Manager

RPM command is used for installing, uninstalling, upgrading, querying, listing, and checking RPM packages on your Linux system. RPM stands for Red Hat Package Manager. With root privilege, you can use the rpm command with appropriate options to manage the RPM software packages. In this article, let us review 15 practical examples of rpm command. Let us take an rpm of Mysql Client and run through all our examples.

1. Installing a RPM package Using rpm -ivh

RPM filename has packagename, version, release and architecture name. For example, In the MySQL-client-3.23.57-1.i386.rpm file: MySQL-client Package Name 3.23.57 Version 1 Release i386 Architecture When you install a RPM, it checks whether your system is suitable for the software the RPM package contains, figures out where to install the files located inside the rpm package, installs them on your system, and adds that piece of software into its database of installed RPM packages. The following rpm command installs Mysql client package.
# rpm -ivh MySQL-client-3.23.57-1.i386.rpm Preparing... ########################################### [100%] 1:MySQL-client ########################################### [100%]

rpm command and options -i : install a package -v : verbose -h : print hash marks as the package archive is unpacked.

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2. Query all the RPM Packages using rpm -qa

You can use rpm command to query all the packages installed in your system.
# rpm -qa cdrecord-2.01-10.7.el5 bluez-libs-3.7-1.1 setarch-2.0-1.1

-q query operation -a queries all installed packages To identify whether a particular rpm package is installed on your system, combine rpm and grep command as shown below. Following command checks whether cdrecord package is installed on your system.
# rpm -qa | grep 'cdrecord'

3. Query a Particular RPM Package using rpm -q

The above example lists all currently installed package. After installation of a package to check the installation, you can query a particular package and verify as shown below.
# rpm -q MySQL-client MySQL-client-3.23.57-1 # rpm -q MySQL package MySQL is not installed

Note: To query a package, you should specify the exact package name. If the package name is incorrect, then rpm command will report that the package is not installed.

4. Query RPM Packages in a various format using rpm queryformat

Rpm command provides an option queryformat, which allows you to give the header tag names, to list the packages. Enclose the header tag with in {}.
# rpm -qa --queryformat '%{name-%{version}-%{release} %{size}\n' cdrecord-2.01-10.7 12324 bluez-libs-3.7-1.1 5634 setarch-2.0-1.1 235563 #

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5. Which RPM package does a file belong to? Use rpm -qf
Let us say, you have list of files and you would want to know which package owns all these files. rpm command has options to achieve this. The following example shows that /usr/bin/mysqlaccess file is part of the MySQL-client3.23.57-1 rpm.
# rpm -qf /usr/bin/mysqlaccess MySQL-client-3.23.57-1

-f : file name

6. Locate documentation of a package that owns file using rpm -qdf

Use the following to know the list of documentations, for a package that owns a file. The following command, gives the location of all the manual pages related to mysql package.
# rpm -qdf /usr/bin/mysqlaccess /usr/share/man/man1/mysql.1.gz /usr/share/man/man1/mysqlaccess.1.gz /usr/share/man/man1/mysqladmin.1.gz /usr/share/man/man1/mysqldump.1.gz /usr/share/man/man1/mysqlshow.1.gz

-d : refers documentation.

7. Information about Installed RPM Package using rpm -qip

rpm command provides a lot of information about the installed pacakges.
# rpm -qip MySQL-client-3.23.57-1.i386.rpm Name : MySQL-client Relocations: (not relocatable) Version : 3.23.57 Vendor: MySQL AB Release : 1 Build Date: Mon 09 Jun 2003 11:08:28 PM CEST Install Date: (not installed) Build Host: build.mysql.com Group : Applications/Databases Source RPM: MySQL-3.23.571.src.rpm Size : 5305109 License: GPL / LGPL Signature : (none) Packager : Lenz Grimmer URL : http://www.mysql.com/ Summary : MySQL - Client Description : This package contains the standard MySQL clients.

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-i : view information about an rpm -p : specify a package name

8. List all the Files in a Package using rpm -qlp

To list the content of a RPM package, use the following command, which will list out the files without extracting into the local directory folder.
$ rpm -qlp ovpc-2.1.10.rpm /usr/bin/mysqlaccess /usr/bin/mysqldata /usr/bin/mysqlperm . . /usr/bin/mysqladmin

q : query the rpm file l : list the files in the package p : specify the package name

9. List the Dependency Packages using rpm -qRP

To view the list of packages on which this package depends,
# rpm -qRp MySQL-client-3.23.57-1.i386.rpm /bin/sh /usr/bin/perl

10. Find out the state of files in a package using rpm -qsp
The following command is to find state (installed, replaced or normal) for all the files in a RPM package.
# rpm -qsp MySQL-client-3.23.57-1.i386.rpm normal /usr/bin/msql2mysql normal /usr/bin/mysql normal /usr/bin/mysql_find_rows normal /usr/bin/mysqlaccess normal /usr/bin/mysqladmin normal /usr/bin/mysqlbinlog normal /usr/bin/mysqlcheck normal /usr/bin/mysqldump normal /usr/bin/mysqlimport normal /usr/bin/mysqlshow

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normal normal normal normal normal

/usr/share/man/man1/mysql.1.gz /usr/share/man/man1/mysqlaccess.1.gz /usr/share/man/man1/mysqladmin.1.gz /usr/share/man/man1/mysqldump.1.gz /usr/share/man/man1/mysqlshow.1.gz

11. Verify a Particular RPM Package using rpm -vp

Verifying a package compares information about the installed files in the package with information about the files taken from the package metadata stored in the rpm database. In the following command, -v is for verification and -p option is used to specify a package name to verify.
# rpm -vp MySQL-client-3.23.57-1.i386.rpm S.5....T c /usr/bin/msql2mysql S.5....T c /usr/bin/mysql S.5....T c /usr/bin/mysql_find_rows S.5....T c /usr/bin/mysqlaccess

The character in the above output denotes the following: S file Size differs M Mode differs (includes permissions and file type) 5 MD5 sum differs D Device major/minor number mismatch L readlink(2) path mismatch U User ownership differs G Group ownership differs T mTime differs

12. Verify a Package Owning file using rpm -vf

The following command verify the package which owns the given filename.
# rpm -vf /usr/bin/mysqlaccess S.5....T c /usr/bin/mysql #

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13. Upgrading a RPM Package using rpm -Uvh

Upgrading a package is similar to installing one, but RPM automatically un-installs existing versions of the package before installing the new one. If an old version of the package is not found, the upgrade option will still install it.
# rpm -Uvh MySQL-client-3.23.57-1.i386.rpm Preparing... ########################################### [100%] 1:MySQL-client ###########################################

14. Uninstalling a RPM Package using rpm -e

To remove an installed rpm package using -e as shown below. After uninstallation, you can query using rpm -qa and verify the uninstallation.
# rpm -ev MySQL-client

15. Verifying all the RPM Packages using rpm -va

The following command verifies all the installed packages.
# rpm -va S.5....T c S.5....T c S.5....T c S.5....T c . . S.5....T c S.5....T c /etc/issue /etc/issue.net /var/service/imap/ssl/seed /home/httpd/html/horde/ingo/config/backends.php /home/httpd/html/horde/ingo/config/prefs.php /etc/printcap

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How DNS works

Domain Name System (DNS) is the default name resolution service used in a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 network. DNS is part of the Windows Server 2003 TCP/IP protocol suite and all TCP/IP network connections are, by default, configured with the IP address of at least one DNS server in order to perform name resolution on the network. Windows Server 2003 components that require name resolution will attempt to use this DNS server before attempting to use the previous default Windows name resolution service, Windows Internet Name Service (WINS).

Typically, Windows Server 2003 DNS is deployed in support of Active Directory directory service. In this environment, DNS namespaces mirror the Active Directory forests and domains used by an organization. Network hosts and services are configured with DNS names so that they can be located in the network, and they are also configured with DNS servers that resolve the names of Active Directory domain controllers.

Windows Server 2003 DNS is also commonly deployed as a non-Active Directory, or standard, Domain Name System solution, for the purposes of hosting the Internet presence of an organization, for example.

1.DNS Architecture DNS architecture is a hierarchical distributed database and an associated set of protocols that define: A mechanism for querying and updating the database. A mechanism for replicating the information in the database among servers. A schema of the database.

DNS originated in the early days of the Internet when the Internet was a small network established by the United States Department of Defense for research purposes. The host names of the computers in this network were managed through the use of a single HOSTS file located on a centrally administered server. Each site that needed to resolve host names on the network downloaded this file. As the number of hosts on the Internet 17

grew, the traffic generated by the update process increased, as well as the size of the HOSTS file. The need for a new system, which would offer features such as scalability, decentralized administration, support for various data types, became more and more obvious.

The Domain Name System introduced in 1984 became this new system. With DNS, the host names reside in a database that can be distributed among multiple servers, decreasing the load on any one server and providing the ability to administer this naming system on a per-partition basis. DNS supports hierarchical names and allows registration of various data types in addition to host name to IP address mapping used in HOSTS files. Because the DNS database is distributed, its potential size is unlimited and performance is not degraded when more servers are added.

The original DNS was based on Request for Comment (RFC) 882 (Domain Names: Concepts and Facilities) and RFC 883 (Domain NamesImplementation and Specification), which were superseded by RFC 1034 (Domain NamesConcepts and Facilities), and RFC 1035 (Domain NamesImplementation and Specification). Additional RFCs that describe DNS security, implementation, and administrative issues later augmented the original design specifications.

The implementation of DNS Berkeley Internet Name Domain (BIND) was originally developed for the 4.3 BSD UNIX Operating System. The Microsoft implementation of DNS became a part of the operating system in Microsoft Windows NT Server 4.0. The Windows NT 4.0 DNS server, like most DNS implementations, has its roots in RFCs 1034 and 1035.

The RFCs used in Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows Server 2003 operating systems are 1034, 1035, 1886, 1996, 1995, 2136, 2308, and 2052.

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2.DNS Domain Names

The Domain Name System is implemented as a hierarchical and distributed database containing various types of data, including host names and domain names. The names in a DNS database form a hierarchical tree structure called the domain namespace. Domain names consist of individual labels separated by dots, for example: mydomain.microsoft.com.

A Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN) uniquely identifies the hosts position within the DNS hierarchical tree by specifying a list of names separated by dots in the path from the referenced host to the root. The next figure shows an example of a DNS tree with a host called mydomain within the microsoft.com. domain. The FQDN for the host would be mydomain.microsoft.com.

3.Understanding the DNS Domain Namespace

The DNS domain namespace, as shown in the following figure, is based on the concept of a tree of named domains. Each level of the tree can represent either a branch or a leaf of the tree. A branch is a level where more than one name is used to identify a collection of named resources. A leaf represents a single name used once at that level to indicate a specific resource.

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4. DNS Domain Name Hierarchy

The previous figure shows how Microsoft is assigned authority by the Internet root servers for its own part of the DNS domain namespace tree on the Internet. DNS clients and servers use queries as the fundamental method of resolving names in the tree to specific types of resource information. This information is provided by DNS servers in query responses to DNS clients, who then extract the information and pass it to a requesting program for resolving the queried name. In the process of resolving a name, keep in mind that DNS servers often function as DNS clients, querying other servers in order to fully resolve a queried name.

5.How the DNS Domain Namespace Is Organized

Any DNS domain name used in the tree is technically a domain. Most DNS discussions, however, identify names in one of five ways, based on the level and the way a name is commonly used. For example, the DNS domain name registered to Microsoft (microsoft.com.) is known as a second-level domain. This is because the name has two parts (known as labels) that indicate it is located two levels below the root or top of the

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tree. Most DNS domain names have two or more labels, each of which indicates a new level in the tree. Periods are used in names to separate labels.

The five categories used to describe DNS domain names by their function in the namespace are described in the following table, along with an example of each name type.

6. Types of DNS Domain Names

Name Type Description Root domain

Example

This is the top of the tree, A single period (.) or a period representing an unnamed level; it is used at the end of a name, such as sometimes shown as two empty example.microsoft.com. quotation marks (""), indicating a null value. When used in a DNS domain name, it is stated by a trailing period (.) to designate that the name is located at the root or highest level of the domain hierarchy. In this instance, the DNS domain name is considered to be complete and points to an exact location in the tree of names. Names stated this way are called fully qualified domain names (FQDNs).

Top level A name used to indicate a .com, which indicates a name domain country/region or the type of registered to a business for organization using a name. commercial use on the Internet. Second Variable-length names registered to microsoft.com. , which is the

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level domain

an individual or organization for use on the Internet. These names are always based upon an appropriate top-level domain, depending on the type of organization or geographic location where a name is used. Additional names that

second-level domain name registered to Microsoft by the Internet DNS domain name registrar.

Subdomain

an example.microsoft.com.

organization can create that are which is a fictitious subdomain derived from the registered second- assigned by Microsoft for use in level domain name. These include documentation example names. names added to grow the DNS tree of names in an organization and divide it into departments or geographic locations. Host or Names that represent a leaf in the resource DNS tree of names and identify a name specific resource. Typically, the leftmost label of a DNS domain name identifies a specific computer on the network. For example, if a name at this level is used in a host (A) RR, it is used to look up the IP address of computer based on its host name. hosta.example.microsoft.com., where the first label (host-a) is the DNS host name for a specific computer on the network.

7. DNS and Internet Domains

The Internet Domain Name System is managed by a Name Registration Authority on the Internet, responsible for maintaining top-level domains that are assigned by organization

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and by country/region. These domain names follow the International Standard 3166. Some of the many existing abbreviations, reserved for use by organizations, as well as two-letter and three-letter abbreviations used for countries/regions are shown in the following table:

Some DNS Top-level Domain Names (TLDs)

DNS Domain Name com edu org net gov mil arpa xx

Type of Organization Commercial organizations Educational institutions Non-profit organizations Networks (the backbone of the Internet) Non-military government organizations Military government organizations Reverse DNS Two-letter country code (i.e. us, au, ca, fr)

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What is Telnet and Its Working

Telnet is a protocol that allows you to connect to remote computers (called hosts) over a TCP/IP network (such as the Internet). You use software called a telnet client on your computer to make a connection to a telnet server (i.e., the remote host). Once your telnet client establishes a connection to the remote host, your client becomes a virtual terminal, allowing you to communicate with the remote host from your computer. In most cases, you'll need to log into the remote host, which requires that you have an account on that system. Occasionally, you can log in as guest or public without having an account.

Telnet clients are available for all major operating systems.

Command-line telnet clients are built into most versions of Mac OS X, Windows, Unix, and Linux. To use them, go to their respective command lines (i.e., the Terminal application in Mac OS X, the shell in Unix or Linux, or the DOS prompt in Windows), and then enter: telnet host Replace host with the name of the remote computer to which you wish to connect.

1.Settings

It is very easy to configure Telnet Service: RCI (Remote Control Interface) settings Address: here you should provide an address of the system where HostMonitor is installed (keep the default '127.0.0.1' if HostMonitor and Telnet Service are installed on the same system)

Port: please provide TCP port that is used by HostMonitor's Remote Control Interface (1054 by default)

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Timeout: the maximum amount of time (in seconds) that Telnet Service will keep waiting for the reply from HostMonitor before returning an error response to the client.

Telnet server settings Port: TCP port which Telnet Service utilizes to listen for incoming connections from the telnet client (default TCP port for telnet protocol is 23. You may need to change it in case you already have a regular telnet server running on the same system). Application status: set "Active" to activate Telnet service (it will then start listening for incoming connections and will respond to requests from any telnet client). If you start the software as a Win32 service then telnet server will be activated regardless of this option at the system startup.

Win32 service mode: How to do (Quick start) To allow remote management of HostMonitor via telnet client follow these simple steps: start HostMonitor configure HostMonitor's Remote Control Interface on RCI page in the Options dialog setup user accounts: use HostMonitor's menu "User"->"Operators" start the Telnet Service. You can start it on the same system where HostMonitor is running or on any system that has TCP/IP connection with HostMonitor's system. E.g. HostMonitor can be installed on the server inside of a corporate network but Telnet Service can be running on your home computer.

Configure Telnet Service: provide an address of the HostMonitor's system and TCP port that you had specified for RCI That's it. Now you can start telnet client (e.g. standard client included in Windows) and connect to HostMonitor using an address of the system where Telnet Service is running (e.g. 209.173.80.15 or www.mycompany.com).If you are running regular telnet server and our Telnet Service is installed on the same system, change the TCP port of our Telnet Service from 23 (default) to any other. In this case you will need to specify this port number for telnet client as well. .

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3. Commands of Telnet

When you start telnet client and establish a connection with Telnet Service, you will be asked for your user name and password. You will then get the rights and permissions that are specified in your user account. E.g. "Admin" can perform any operations, "Guest" can only view test statuses, modify, change, alter and can configure it in any way.. After logging in you may type commands that Telnet Service will execute.

Here are some common rules for the commands: commands are not case sensitive (e.g. "stop monitoring" and "STOP Monitoring" mean the same); parameters of the commands (e.g. <test name> or <group name>) are indeed case sensitive; parameters shown in [..] are optional, you may use them or not; symbol '|' means either one or another (e.g. <test name> | <group name> means that you may provide the name of the test or the name of the special group); if some parameter (e.g. <test name>) includes spaces, conclude parameter into double or single quotation marks (e.g. TestInfo 'Main Router').

List of available commands: Command Parameter(s) Description

- management commands: Getstatus Retrieves information about HostMonitor (version, status of the application, parameters). Starts monitoring. Accomplishes the same action as clicking the Start button on the Main window of HostMonitor. Stops monitoring. HostMonitor will still remain running as an application (or as Win32 service) but will not perform any tests. Enable alerts Enables alert actions of HostMonitor.

Start monitoring

Stop monitoring

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Disable alerts PauseMonitoring <interval>

Disables alert actions of HostMonitor. Pauses monitoring for specified time (time should be specified in minutes). Pause alerts for interval specified in minutes. In other words, all action profiles that usually were triggered by the change of test(s) status will not be executed within N minutes. All scheduled actions (those that are executed by built-in Scheduler) will continue to execute anyway.

PauseAlerts

<interval>

ExecuteHMScript

<pathtoscript>

Executes

specified

HM

Script.

Example: ExecuteHMScript "C:\Program Files\HostMon\pause3backuptests.hms" ImportFromFile <filename> Imports test items from special Text file. [SkipDuplicates] SkipDuplicates - optional parameter, HostMonitor [WriteLog] will skip item when test item with the same name already present in the TestList. WriteLog - optional parameter, HostMonitor will record to the system log file information about all errors and warnings during the import process. SaveTestList Saves the current test settings using current file name. Reloads HostMonitor (as a service if it was started in Win32 service mode or as an application if it was started as a regular application). Reload cfg Forces the HostMonitor to re-read its` settings from INI file (hostmon.ini by default). Terminates HostMonitor.

Reload app

Terminate - folder/test lists: CD | ChangeFolder <folder

Sets the current folder. All commands affect tests

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name>|<path>

only from the current folder. You may specify the name of the folder without the full path if it is a subfolder of the current folder. You may specify the full path to the folder which you want to make current. You may use ".." instead of a folder name when you want to step up one level. This command actually uses similar syntax as MS-DOS or UNIX command interpreter. Examples: CD CD "Main office" Root\USA\Office ..

CD ChangeFolder ..\..\pingtests\ FL | ShowFolders [-r]

Displays the list of subfolders within the current folder. The numbers of Good/Bad/Unknown tests are displayed for each folder. If an optional parameter "-r" was provided then all descendant subfolders would be displayed as well.

TL | ShowTests

[-r] [-s:<sort Displays the list of all tests (ID, name, status, mode>] reply) within the current folder. If an optional parameter "-r" was provided then the tests from all descendant subfolders would be displayed. Another optional parameter "-s:<sort mode>" defines the sorting order. <sort mode> could be one of the following: name, status, testtime, reply, method. Examples: TL TL -r -s:name ShowTests -r

TI | TestInfo

<test name>

Displays detailed information about specified test. It tries to find specified test in a current folder, if

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the test was not found there, HostMonitor continues to check all available folders until it finds the test with the specified name. TID | TestInfoByID <testID> Displays detailed information about specified test item. Similar to TestInfo command but you should provide test item ID instead of test name.

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What is FTP And Its Working

When you want to copy files between two computers that are on the same local network, often you can simply "share" a drive or folder, and copy the files the same way you would copy files from one place to another on your own PC and other terminals. What if you want to copy files from one computer to another that is halfway around the world? You would probably use your Internet connection. However, for security reasons, it is very uncommon to share folders over the Internet. File transfers over the Internet use special techniques, of which one of the oldest and most widely-used is FTP. FTP, short for "File Transfer Protocol," can transfer files between any computers that have an Internet connection, and also works between computers using totally different operating systems. Transferring files from a client computer to a server computer is called "uploading" and transferring from a server to a client is "downloading".

1.Requirements for using FTP

An FTP client like Auto FTP Manager installed on your computer Certain information about the FTP server you want to connect to: a. The FTP server address. This looks a lot like the addresses you type to browse web sites.Example : Server address is "ftp.videodesk.net".Sometimes the server address will be given as a numeric address, like "64.185.225.87".

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b. A user name and password. Some FTP servers let you connect to them anonymously. For anonymous connections, you do not need a user name and password.To transfer files, provide your client software (Auto FTP Manager) with the server address, user name, and password. After connecting to the FTP server, you can use Auto FTP Manager's File Manager to upload, download and delete files. Using the File Manager is a lot like working with Windows Explorer and other browsers like Mozilla, Firefox, chrome. 2. FTP and Internet Connections with the help of LIST and other Commands

FTP uses one connection for commands and the other for sending and receiving data. FTP has a standard port number on which the FTP server "listens" for connections. A port is a "logical connection point" for communicating using the Internet Protocol (IP). The standard port number used by FTP servers is 21 and is used only for sending commands.

Since port 21 is used exclusively for sending commands, this port is referred to as a command port. For example, to get a list of folders and files present on the FTP server, the FTP Client issues a "LIST" command. The FTP server then sends a list of all folders and files back to the FTP Client. So what about the internet connection used to send and receive data? The port that is used for transferring data is referred to as a data port. The number of the data port will vary depending on the "mode" of the connection. (See below for Active and Passive modes.)

3.Active and Passive Connection Mode

The FTP server may support Active or Passive connections, or both. In an Active FTP connection, the client opens a port and listens and the server actively connects to it. In a Passive FTP connection, the server opens a port and listens (passively) and the client connects to it. You can grant FTP Manager access to choose the right type of Connection Mode. Most FTP client programs select passive connection mode by default because server administrators prefer it as a safety measure. Firewalls generally block connections that 31

are "initiated" from the outside. Using passive mode, the FTP client (like Auto FTP Manager) is "reaching out" to the server to make the connection. The firewall will allow these outgoing connections, meaning that no special adjustments to firewall settings are required. If you are connecting to the FTP server using Active mode of connection you must set your firewall to accept connections to the port that your FTP client will open. However, many Internet service providers block incoming connections to all ports above 1024. Active FTP servers generally use port 20 as their data port.

It's a good idea to use Passive mode to connect to an FTP server. Most FTP servers support the Passive mode. For Passive FTP connection to succeed, the FTP server administrator must set his / her firewall to accept all connections to any ports that the FTP server may open. However, this is the server administrator's problem (and standard practice for servers). You can go ahead, make and use FTP connections.

Once the FTP Client manages to open the internet connections, one for command and one for data, it starts communicating with the FTP server and configure it accordingly.

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You are now ready to transfer your files and folders between the two connected computers with Auto FTP Manager.

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Red Hat Installation

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Select Appropriate Language and skip Installation Number and other warnings

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Then Installation Process is started

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And then insert disk 2 and 3 when required

Now Rebooting is Done

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After rebooting Welcome screen Comes

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Set the Selinux, Kdump , Date and Time Settings, Software Updates, Create User, Sound Card, Additional Cds and Red Hat Linus Is installed

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