MODULE 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE AND

SOFTWARE

INTRODUCTION

COMPUTER GENERATIONS

The computer of each generation is smaller, faster and more powerful than preceding
generation. There are five computer generations.

➢ First Generation: The vacuum tubes were used for computation. Magnetic
drums were used for memory requirements. It consumed lot of space, power and
generated lot of power. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) used
18000 vacuum tubes, 1800 acquired sq. ft. room space and consumed 180KW of power.
The machine level language (0s and 1s) was used. Punched cards were used for input
and Paper for output. They were used forscientific work.

➢ Second Generation: The transistors was the most important component which
replaced vacuum tubes. Magnetic cores were used for memory. It were more reliable
than first generation computer. The assembly or symbolic language was used. The input
and output mechanism remained same. The stored program concept was introduced
which stores both data and program.

➢ Third Generation: The Integrated circuits(IC) was the most important

component. The transistors, diodes, resistors, capacitors were integrated on a single
chip. The high-level language was used like BASIC, C, C++ and JAVA. Memory capacity
increased and magnetic hard disk was used for secondary generation. The third
generation computers also had OS and computer could rum programs invoked by multi
users.

➢ Fourth Generation: The Microprocessor was the most important component.

With the help of LSI (Large Scale Integration) and VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)
the entire CPU is on a single chip. OS have moved from MSDOS to GUI (Graphical User
Interface) like windows. The networking technology has also been improved. The size
was reduced and the speed was increased.
 ➢ Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence and use of natural languages are the
main features of this generations. These systems are expected to interact with users in
natural language. Speech recognition and speech output should also be possible.
Computers must be

able to perform parallel processing. The quad-core and octa-core was also introduced.
Neural networks and expert systems have been developed.

COMPUTER TYPES

Apart from being classified by generations, computers can also be categorized by their
size. Thesize of a computer is often an indirect indication of its capabilities.

➢ Supercomputers: These are huge machines having most powerful and fastest
processors. It uses multiple CPUs for parallel data processing. Speeds are measured in
flops (floating point operations per second). The fastest operates at 34 petaflops. They
are used for weather forecasting, analysis of geological data. They have enormous
storage, uses more power and generate lot of heat. They are used by government
agencies.

➢ Mainframes: These are multi-user machines that support many users using the
feature of time sharing. It can run multiple programs even with a single CPU. The
processor speed is measured in MIPS (Million instructions per second). It is used to
handle data, applications related to organization and online transactions in banks,
financial institutions and large corporations.

➢ Minicomputers/Midrange computers: It was introduced by DEC (Digital

Equipment Corporation). They can serve hundreds of users and are small enough to
partially occupy a room. They are used in smaller organizations or a department of a
large one. They are not affordable to be used in home.

➢ Microcomputers: The microcomputer or PC is introduced by Apple and

endorsed by IBM. This is a single-user machine powered by a single-chip
microprocessor. They are very powerful machines having gigabytes of memory. They
are both used in standalone mode and in a network. A microcomputer takes the form of
desktop, notebook (laptop) or a netbook (smaller laptop). PCs today are powered by 3
types of OS – windows (7, 8 or 10), Mac OS X (Apple) and Linux. They are used for
engineering and scientific applications and for software development.
 ➢ Smartphones and Embedded Computers: The smartphone is a general
purpose computer i.e., capable of making phone calls. It has a powerful processor, with
multiple cores, supports GBs of memory, and runs developed OS (Android or iOS). It
can be operated with keyboard, touch or stylus.
Embedded Computers or micro-controllers are very small circuits containing a CPU,
non- volatile memory, input and output handling facilities. They are embedded into
many machines that we use – cars, washing machines, cameras etc. The processor here
runs a single unmodifiable program stored in memory.
BITS, BYTES AND WORDS
➢ Computer can understand only two states: 0 and 1.
➢ A digit can have only two states or values known as a binary digit, abbreviated
as bit (b).
➢ The name nibble was coined to represent four bits.
➢ The name byte (B) was coined to represent eight bits.
➢ The byte is the standard unit of measurement of computer memory, data
storage andtransmission speed.
➢ The CPU handles memory data in larger units, called words and it is
usually evenmultiple of bytes (two bytes, four bytes etc.).
➢ When referred to a computer it has 32-bit (4 bytes) machine i.e., size of word is 32
bits.

Unit Equivalent to Remarks

1 kilobyte (KB) 1024 bytes Space used by 10 lines of text
1 megabyte (MB) 1024 kilobytes Memory of the earliest PCs
1 gigabyte (GB) 1024 megabytes Storage capacity of a CD-ROM
1 terabyte (TB) 1024 gigabytes Capacity of today’s hard disks
1 petabyte (PB) 1024 terabytes Space used for rendering of film
Avatar

CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)

Figure 1: Functional Components of Computer

The CPU comprises of following components:
➢ ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)
➢ CU (Control Unit)
➢ Special-purpose registers
➢ A clock

The ALU is a “super calculator” carrying out all arithmetic tasks and Boolean
operations(like AND, OR and NOT). The CU controls the way data is moved between
the variouscomponents of computer. Both ALU and CU use the service of clock for
synchronizing their Operations.
The CPU uses a few high-speed registers to store the current instruction and its
data. One of the registers, program counter, stores the address of next instruction to be
executed. All program instructions are executed using the fetch-decode-execute
mechanism. An instruction is first fetched from memory, decoded and then executed by
CPU. The CPU can execute one instruction in one clock pulse. Hence, faster the clock,ter
is the execution. The CPUs today are rated in GHz (gigahertz).
PRIMARY MEMORY
Memory: Collection of chips on motherboard, where all computer processing and
programinstructions are stored.
Primary Memory: It is the main memory, which stores data and programs, which are
currently needed by CPU. The size is less than the secondary memory and it is costly.
1. RAM (Random Access Memory): It is the main memory, where the user can
write information into RAM and read information from it. It is accessible to users.
The RAM is randomly accessible by user. It is a volatile memory, which means the
data, or information is retained as long as power supply is ON. There are two types
of RAM: SRAMand DRAM.

SRAM (Static) DRAM (Dynamic)

Stores information as long as power Loses data in a very short time.
supply is on, reloads every 2ms.
Multiple transistors are used to store 1 One transistor is used to store 1 bit.
bit.
It is expensive, faster, bigger. It is inexpensive, slower, smaller.
It requires more power. It requires less power.
It is not required to be refreshed. It requires refresh.
 2. ROM (Read Only Memory): It is a permanent memory that can be read but not
written. It is a non volatile memory, which means the data or information is
retained even power supply is not there. It contains a startup program BIOS
(Basic Input Output System) which transfers control to OS.
➢ PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): It is programmed as per
requirement of customer’s choice. The programmer burns the data into PROM.
The data once written cannot be changed.

➢ EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): It can be rewritten

(but only once) even though it has been previously burned. It is erased by
exposing it to UV-rays.

➢ EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): It can

be erased and rewritten multiple times. The electric voltage is used to erase the
data. Thepen drive we use today is of EEPROM.

3. Cache Memory: It holds those portions of program that are frequently used by
CPU. It acts as a buffer between CPU and RAM. The CPU first looks for the
instructions in cache. It executes faster than RAM, expensive and limited in size. It
has multiple levels:
➢ L1 (Level 1) – smallest and fastest – 32 KB
➢ L2 (Level 2) – present closer to CPU – 256 KB
➢ L3 (Level 3) – shared by cores – 8 MB

4. Registers: The small number of ultra-fast registers integrated into the CPU
represent the fastest memory of the computer. The CPU does all its work here.
Each register has the length of the computer. The data is loaded into register
before processing. Registers are numbered and a program instruction specifies
these numbers. Ex: OR1R2R3 which means multiplication operation is performed
on R1 and R2 is performed and stored in R3.

SECONDARY MEMORY
Secondary memory is not directly connected to CPU. It exists inside the machine and
also externally. It is a non-volatile, offline and long-term storage memory. It is slower,
cheaper thanprimary memory but the capacity is higher.
1. Hard disk/ Hard drive/ Fixed disk: It is the oldest secondary storage device. It
has more capacity but, the cost is less comparatively. It is commonly present in
laptop with 500GB and desktop with 1TB. It contains a spindle, which holds one
or more platters made up of non-magnetic material. It has two surfaces which is
coated with magnetic material. Each surface has serially numbered tracks and
further broken into sectors or blocks. The disk runs with the speed of 5400 and
7200 rpm.

2. Magnetic tape: The magnetic tape is made up of plastic film with one side coated
with magnetic material. It supports 1 TB or more, but 200 TB are also expected.
The device is not fully portable though because, a separate tape drive is required.
The data is accessedsequentially. This makes it unsuitable for backup.

3. Optical Disks (CD-ROM, DVD ROM, Blu-ray Disk): It is non-volatile read-only

memory. The CD-ROM and DVD-ROM, can hold large volumes of data (700MB to
8.5 GB). The Blu-

ray disk has the capacity upto 50 GB. A laser beam in their drives controls the
read and write operations. A laser beam is used to construct pits and lands by
burning selected areas along its tracks.
CD-R, DVD-R: Data can be recorded only once.
CD-RW, DVD-RW: Data can be recorded multiple times.

4. Flash Memory: It doesn’t have any moving parts, is based on the EEPROM. It is
available in various forms- pen drive, magnetic card (SD Card), solid state disk
(SSD). They are portable, need little power and quite reliable.
The memory stick or pen drive is the most common type of flash memory
used on the computer. It is a small, removable piece of circuit and it connects to
the USB port of computer.
The solid state disk is a bigger device meant to replace the traditional
magnetic hard disk.
The magnetic card is used mainly in cameras and the most popular is the
micro- SD card.

5. Floppy Diskette: This is represented by a rectangular plastic case containing a

thin magnetic disk. It was available in two sizes (5.25” and 3.5”), offering
capacities of 1.2 MBand 1. MB. It is unsuitable for backup purpose.

✓ Difference between Primary memory and Secondary memory

 Primary Memory Secondary Memory
The size of the primary memory is The size of the secondary memory is
small. larger.
Stores the programs and data currently It is used to store large amount of data
needed by the CPU. andprograms
Expensive. Inexpensive.
Volatile in nature. Non-volatile in nature.

PORTS AND CONNECTORS

Devices like scanners, printers are connected to a computer through docking points
called ports. It is impossible to use wrong connector for a port. At present systems offer
only fewer types compared to old ones.
➢ USB (Universal Serial Bus): This replaced serial and parallel ports in
motherboard. Most computers offer four USB ports to support scanners, printers and
mice. It has four lines, two each for data and power. The current USB 3.0 can transfer 1
GB file in 20 seconds. The smaller variant, the micro-USB port is used in smartphones.

➢ SERIAL PORT: This port transfers one bit at a time serially. They are offered in 9-
pin and 25-pin configuration. They were used for connecting keyboard, mice, and
modems.

➢ PARALLEL PORT: This port is used to transfer data parallelly 8 bits at a time.
This is implemented using 25 pins and usually for printers.

➢ VGA (Video Graphics Array): This 15-pin port allows transfer of analog video
data to the monitor. This is replaced with DVI (Digital Video Interface) which uses
digital data i.e. usedby flat LCD panels.

➢ RJ45 port: This port is used by Ethernet network. Even though computer
connects wirelessly, the wired RJ45 remains as a useful option.

➢ PS/2 port: This port has replaced serial port. It has 6 pins but occurs as a pair in
two different colors. The ports and connectors for keyboard are purple, while the mouse
uses greenport. USB has invaded this area also.

➢ HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface): This is used for transferring

audio andvideo between computers and HDTVs, projectors and home theaters.
INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are needed to interact with the OS to perform tasks. Ex: Keyboard,
Mouse,Joystick, Stylus, Scanner etc.

➢ Keyboard: Every computer supports a keyboard – either a physical or

touchscreen. The keyboard has QWERTY layout and contains large number of symbols.
Each letter, numeral or symbol is known as a character, which represents smallest piece
of information. Each character has a unique values called the ASCII (American Standard
Code for Information Interchange) value.

➢ Pointing Devices: GUI (Graphical User Interfaces) like windows need a pointing
device to control the movement of cursor on the screen. This is implemented as mouse
in desktop and touchpad in laptop. The earliest form has a rotating ball and two buttons.
The left button is used for selecting (by clicking once) and execute (by clicking twice).
The right button is used to check and change attributes. The optical mouse uses infrared
laser/LED, the wireless mouse uses radio frequency technology.

➢ Scanner: A scanner is a device that creates a digital image of a document by

optically scanning it. The flatbed scanner doesn’t exceed more than A4 size. It is
operated with by using special software. The document to be scanned is placed on a
glass plate covered by lid. Modern

scanners have OCR (Optical Character Recognition) facility which extracts text as a
stream of characters i.e. converting image file to text file and MICR (Magnetic Ink
Character Recognition) reads the codes using hand held barcode readers.

OUTPUT DEVICES
The information produced can be heard or seen with the help of output devices.
Some of theoutput devices are monitor, speaker, printer, plotter etc.
➢ Monitor: The monitor is an integral part of computer which displays both text
and graphics. The performance is measured in terms of image quality, resolution,
energy consumption.
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitors: The CRT monitors have a rarefied tube containing
three electron guns. The guns emit electrons create images. They usually have
resolution of 640*840 pixels. They are large, heavy, energy efficient and produces lot of
heat.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitors: The image is formed by applying voltage on
crystals. The backlight is provided by fluorescent light. They consume less power,
generate less heat andhave increased life span.

➢ Impact Printers: It produces the hardcopy of output. The impact printers are old,
noisy.But, still dot-matrix printer is in usage.
Dot-Matrix Printer: The print head of the dot-matrix printer has either 9 or 24 pins.
When the pins fire against the ribbon, an impression is created on the paper. The speed
is 300 cps and doesn’t produce high quality output. It can produce multiple copies.
Daisy-wheel Printer: It employs a wheel with separate characters distributed along its
outer edge. The wheels can be changed to obtain different set of fonts.
Line Printer: For heavy printing, the line printer is used. It uses a print chain
containing the characters. Hammers strike the paper to print and it rotates at the speed
of 1200 lpm. It is alsonoisy and is of low-quality.

➢ Non-Impact Printers: They are fast, quiet and of high resolution. The most
commonly used non-impact printers are laser and ink-jet printers. The thermal printer
is not discussed here because it uses heat to print on high-sensitive paper.
Laser Printer: It works like a photocopier and uses toner i.e. black magnetic powder. The
image is created in the form of dots and passed from drums on to the paper. It has built-
in RAM which acts as buffer and RAM to store fonts. The resolution varies from 300 dpi
to 1200 dpi and the speed is about 20 ppm.
Ink-jet Printer: These are affordable printers. It sprays tiny drops of ink at high
pressure as it moves along the paper. The separate cartridges are available for different
colors. The resolutionis about 300 dpi, can print 1 to 6 pages/min.
 ➢ Plotters: The plotter can make drawings. It uses one or more automated pens.
The commands are taken from special file called vector graphic files. Depending on type
of plotter either paper or pen moves. It can handle large paper sizes and it is used for
creative drawings like buildings and machines. They are slow and expensive.

COMPUTERS IN A NETWORK
Most organizations, large or small, no longer have standalone computers. Computers
cooperate with one another by being connected in a network. The hardware resources
can also be shared. A printer can be used by several users if it is connected to a network.
Servers form the backbone of the largest network of all – Internet. Ethernet, token ring
hardware technologies are used to connect.
➢ Network Topology: The ways used to connect the computers. The different
types are: Bus, Star, Ring, and Mesh.

Figure 2: Network Topologies

1. Bus Topology: It uses a single cable called as bus to which all computers are
connected.The failure of one single node doesn’t disturb other nodes.
2. Star Topology: It uses a central hub to which all nodes are connected. If the
hub fails,entire network fails and the nodes cannot be added easily.
3. Ring Topology: It is connected in the form of closed loop without hub. Data
moves fromnode to node. For unidirectional rings, if one node fails, the network fails.
4. Mesh Topology: Nodes are connected to one another offering multiple paths. If
nodebreaks down, then data passing changes its route. It is expensive.

➢ Network Types: Networks are also classified on their size. The most common
types areLAN and WAN. And some other types are: MAN, CAN and PAN.
1. LAN (Local Area Network): They are used in smaller organizations usually
using Ethernet. The usual speed will be 100Mbps.
 2. WAN (Wide Area Network): They are used in cities and can connect larger
distance.They use optic fiber cables. Banks, Airline and Hotel reservations use WANs.
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): It is sandwiched between LAN and WAN
and usedfor interconnecting in same cities.
4. PAN (Personal Area Network): This is the smallest network and can connect
only fewmeters. It connects small devices like phones, laptops through Bluetooth.

➢ The Internet and internet: The internet (net) is the largest wide area network on
planet which runs with the help of network protocols. It grows continuously without
disturbing the existing structure. Intranet is a network of computers designed for a
specific group of users and can be accessed from Internet but with restrictions. Internet
is wide network of computers and is open for all and itself contains a large number of
intranets.
Note: The Internet (uppercase-I) is the set of all networks which are interconnected
and interoperate using the IETF standard protocols. An internet (lowercase-i) is any
network of devices which can communicate with each other.

NETWORK HARDWARE
Connecting computers in a network require additional devices that are not part of the
computer’s basic configuration.
➢ Hub and Switch: Computers in a single network is connected to a central device
called hub or switch. HUB accepts network data from computer and broadcasts to the
nodes by checking destination address. SWITCH will have a table which contains MAC
addresses of connected devices. The data is sent after looking up the table for
destination.

➢ Bridge and Router: The network supports many nodes which leads to
congestion. Hence, the network may be split into a number of segments, with a BRIDGE
connecting them. It connects two networks using the same protocol. ROUTER connects
two similar or dissimilar networks separated by long distance. It is a part of two
networks and thus have two addresses.It has a routing table to store address.

SOFTWARE BASICS
➢ Software is a collection of code that drives a computer to perform related group of
tasks.
➢ Programs in software use a language.
➢ The source code is created by programmer using programming languages like
C, C++,Java, Python etc.
 ➢ The software is developed to operate on multiple platforms.
SOFTWARE TYPES

Computer software can be broadly classified into two types: System software and
ApplicationSoftware.
➢ System Software: Software run by the computer to manage the hardware
connected toit is known as system software. System software examples:
BIOS- It checks the hardware devices and peripherals at boot time.
OS: It manages both hardware and programs running on the computer.

➢ Application Software: Software not directly connected with hardware but

related to aspecific application is known as application software. Application
software examples: Office software: This comprises of three separate
applications: word processing, spreadsheet and presentations.
Database software: It allows data to have a uniform structure to be stored in a
database.

System Software Application Software

System software is used for Application software is used by
operating user to
computer hardware. perform specific task.
System softwares are installed on the Application softwares are installed
computer when operating system is according
installed. to user’s requirements.
In general, the user does not interact In general, the user interacts with
with system software because it application softwares.
works in the
background.
System software can run Application software can’t run
independently. It provides platform for independently. They can’t run without
running application the presence of system
softwares. software.
Some examples of system softwares Some examples of application
softwares are
are compiler, assembler, debugger,
word processor, web browser, media
driver, etc. player, etc.
 MODULE 1 CHAPTER 2:
OVERVIEW OF C

Pseudocode
➢ Pseudocode is a type of structured English written in natural language, to describe
set of rules for step-by-step processes, problem solving operations or other
calculations.
➢ It is informal, high level description of a computer program intended for human
reading rather than machine reading.
➢ The aim for writing pseudocode is to get idea quickly.
➢ There are no structure rules for writing pseudocode and it doesn’t require
program syntax.
➢ It is used in planning of computer program development, for sketching out the
structure of the program before the actual coding takes place.
dvantages:
1. It can be written easily
2. It can be read and understood easily
3. Modification is easy
4. It implements structured concepts easily

Disadvantages:

1. It is not visual
2. There is no standardized style or format, so one pseudocode may vary from other
for same problem statement
Examples:

Pseudocode: To compute addition of two Pseudocode: To compute area of

numbers rectangle

Start Start
Get the values of number1 and number2 Get length and width
Calculate addition=number1+number2 Calculate area=length*breadth
Print addition Print area
Stop End
HISTORY OF C
➢ C is a general purpose, procedural, structured computer programming
languagedeveloped by Dennis Ritchie in the year 1972 at AT&T Bell
Labs.
➢ C language was developed on UNIX and was invented to write
UNIX systemsoftware.
➢ C is a successor of B language.
➢ There are different C standards: K&R C std,
ANSI C, ISO C.Characteristics of C:
➢ C is easy to learn.
➢ C is a general purpose language.
➢ C is a structured and procedural language.
➢ It is portable.
➢ It can
extend itself.
Examples of C:
➢ Operating system
➢ Language compilers
➢ Assemblers
➢ Text editors
➢ Databases
C Character Set:
➢ A C character set defines the valid characters that can be used
in a sourceprogram. The basic C character set are:
1. Letters: Uppercase: A,B,C,….,D
Lowercase: a,b,c,…..,d
2. Digits: 0,1,2,…..,9
3. Special characters: ! , . # $ ( ) } { etc
4. White spaces: Blank space, Horizontal tab space, carriage
return, new linecharacter, form feed character.
Basic structure of C Program
➢ C program consists of different sections. The structure of C program is
as shownbelow.
➢ Documentation Section: It consists of “comments” which increases
the readability of program. The comments are not processed by the
compiler. Thereare two types of comments:

a) Multi line comment /*Multi line comment*/

➢ Link Section: It provides instruction to the compiler to link
functions fromsystem library.
➢ Definition Section:

Documentation section
Link section
Definition section
Global declaration section
main() Function Section
{
Declaration
part
Executable
part
}

Sub program section

Function 1
Function 2
-
-
Function n
Pseudo code solution to problem:
Most of the programming problems are too long and complex to be
translated directly. As a problem solving tool, programmers usually
introduce at least one intermediate step between English and C the one we
use is called pseudo code.
Pseudo code: Pseudo code is a restatement of the problem as list of
steps in an english like statements that are used to define a solution for a
given problem.
Main use of pseudo code is to help us to translate from English to C language.
It is also an outline of the basic structure or logic of the program.
The advantage of pseudo code is that it enables the programmer to
focus on algorithms without concerning about all the syntactic details of
specific programming language.Basic concepts in C program:
This section will introduce a number of features of the C language which
must be included inevery program, even though they do not appear in the
pseudo code. The basic
Structure of C program is shown below

Documentation section
Link section
Definition section
Global declaration section
main() section
{
Declaration part
Executable part
}

Sub program section

Function 1
Function 2
-
-
Function n
very c program is made up of one or more preprocessor commands, global
declarations, and one or more functions.
* Documentation section consists of a set of comment line giving the name
of the program, the author, and other details. Compiler ignores these
comments when it translates the program into executable code. C uses 2
different formats
1. Block comments /*this is multi line comments*/
2. Line comments //this is single line comments
* The Link section provides instruction to the compiler to link functions from
system library
* The definition section defines all symbolic constants
* Global Declaration section: there are some variables that are used in
more than one function, such a variable are called global variable and are
declared in the global declaration section that is outside of all functions.
* Every C program must have one main ( ) function section. This section
contains two parts declaration part and executable part
* Declaration part declares all the variables used in the executable part
* There is at least one statement in an executable part. These two part must
appear at the beginning of the brace and ends at the closing brace. All
statement in the declaration and executable part ends with semicolon.
* The sub program section contains all the user defined functions that are
called in the main function

Here is a small program that displays a sentence “Welcome to C world ” on the

monitor screen:
/* C program to display welcome to C
world */#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
printf(“Welcome to C World”);
}
• This program doesn’t have all the parts of typical C program.
• The first line begins with /* and ending with */ is the comment line
which is used to enhance program readability and understanding.
• The second line It has preprocessor directive #include which includes
a header file stdio.h, the standard input /output headerfile . The
definitions of printf and scanf functions are defined in this headerfile.
Hence this line we need to include.
 • The third line is main(), this is the special function used by C system to
tell where the program starts. Every program have exactly one main
function. The empty pair of parenthesis following main indicates that
main has no arguments. Void indicates that main function does not
return any value to operating system. By default main returns integer
value to operating system.
• The opening brace “{ “ in the 4th line marks the beginning of the
function main and closing brace “}” at the last line indicates the end of
the function.
• All the statements between these braces form the function body. The
function body contains set of instruction to perform the given task.
• n this program the function body contains only one executable
statement printf. The printf is a predefined function for printing
output. It prints everything within the double quote. In this it will print
Welcome to C World on the monitor.

C Tokens: In C program the smallest logically meaning full individual units

are known as c tokens. C has 6 Different types of tokens. C programs are
written using these tokens and syntaxof the language.
1. Identifier Example :sum ,amount
2. Keywords Example: float, while
3. Constants Example: -15.5, 100
4. Strings Example: “abc”, “hello”
5. Special symbols Example: {},[]
6. Operator Example:+,-,/

Let us discuss each one of them in detail:

Identifiers: Identifier are name given by programmers to data objects and
other objects such as variables, functions, and arrays in C. These are user
defined names and consist of sequence letters, digits or underscore. To
frame identifiers we have to follow certain rules.
Here are the important rules:
1. Identifier should contain only alphabets (A-Z), (a-z), numerals(0-9) and
underscore (_)
2. Identifier should start with alphabet or underscore, but not numeric
character
3. First 31 characters in an identifier are significant, rest of characters are
neglected
4. No reserve words (keywords) of C language can be used as identifiers
 5. Identifiers are case sensitive

Examples of valid identifier

food, counter_7, max_1, min_1
Examples of Invalid identifier
$num //$ is special character
int //keyword
name 1 //space not
allowedIdentifiers can be further
classified as:
1. Keywords
2. Standard identifiers Ex: printf, scanf
3. programmer defined identifier Ex: sum, avg

Keyword: Keyword or reserved word have predefined meanings and these

meanings cannot be changed. Keyword serves as building blocks for program
statements. All keywords are in lowercase letters. Below table shows all
keywords in ANSI C.

auto double int struct

break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static while
he keywords const, signed, and volatile are new with the ANSI standard;
enum and voidare new since the first edition, but in common use.

Constants: They are data values that do not change during program
execution. Main types ofconstants are:
1. Integer constants
2. Real constants
3. Character constants
4. Enumeration-constant
5. Coding constants
a. Literal constants
b. Defined constants
c. Memory constants
Integer constants are numerals without decimal portions. By default all C
language integers are of signed integer type. An integer constant consisting
of a sequence of digits is taken to be octal if it begins with 0 (digit zero),
decimal otherwise. Octal constants do not contain the digits 8 or 9. A
sequence of digits preceded by 0x or 0X (digit zero) is taken to be a
hexadecimal integer. The hexadecimal digits include a or A through f or F
with values 10 through 15.
An integer constant may be suffixed by the letter u or U, to specify that
it is unsigned. It may also be suffixed by the letter l or L to specify that it is
long. Various integer constants examples are given in the table:

Example Value Type

+564 564 signed int/ just int
789U 789 unsigned int
037 Octal 37 int
Real constants A floating constant consists of an integer part, a decimal
part, a fraction part, an e or E, an optionally signed integer exponent and an
optional type suffix, one of f, F, l, or
L. The integer and fraction parts both consist of a sequence of digits. Either
the integer part, or
the fraction part (not both) may be missing; either the decimal point or the e
and the exponent (not both) may be missing. The type is determined by the
suffix; F or f makes it float, L or l makes it long double. By default all C
language real numbers are of double type. Following table describes various
examples of real constants:

Example Value Type

564.35 564.35 double
789.555f 789.555 float
0.65e5 65000 double

Character constants can be single character enclosed within single quotes

or a ‘\’ (backslash) followed by any character. ‘\’ is called escape character as
it alters the meaning of character following it. Following are the complete list
of escape sequence.
String constants: String constants are sequences of characters enclosed in
double quotes. Thecharacter may be letters, numbers, special characters and
blank space.
Following table gives some examples of character constants and string
constants

Example Value Type

‘C’ Character constant char
with
ASCII value 67
‘\n’ New line character char
(controlskips to next
line)
ASCII value=10
‘\t’ Leaves a tab space char
ASCII value=9
“hello” String constant char

Enumeration constant: An enumeration is a list of constant integer

values. Exampleenum boolean { NO, YES };
The first name in an enum has value 0, the next 1, and so on, unless explicit
values are specified. If not all values are specified, unspecified values
continue the progression from thelast specified value. Names in different
enumerations must be distinct. Values need not bedistinct in the same
enumeration.
Enumerations provide a convenient way to associate constant values with
names, an alternative to #define with the advantage that the values can be
generated for you.
Coding constants:
First let us discuss literal constants, Literal constants are unnamed
constants usually used in C expressions. Some examples are given in
following table:
Example Value Type
6 6 Integer literal constant
A+7 7 Integer literal constant
7.5+c+d 7.5 Real/double constant
‘A’ + 10 ASCII value of A and 10 Character and
integer
constants

Next is define constants, they are defined in the beginning of program along
with preprocessordirectives like #include<stdio.h>
Examples: #define PI 3.147
#define RATE_INTEREST 10
Once we define such values, we can use names like PI, SQR throughout the C
programs with the specified values. That is wherever PI is used it is
substituted with 3.147 and RATE_INTEREST with 10.

The final member of coding constants is memory constants. Memory

constants are specifiedwith help of a type specifier called const.
Example:
const float pi =3.147

const keyword makes memory location called ‘pi’ to have a constant value
3.147 throughoutprogram execution

Data Types: A data type defines the type of data that is stored in a variable.
A data in a variable can be any type for example data can be either numeric
or string. A data type determines how much storage memory should be
allocated to a variable. ANSI C supports three classes of data type
1. Primary or build in or fundamental data type (int, char, float, double,
void)
2. Derived data type (arrays, structures, functions, pointers, unions)
3. User defined data type (typedef, enum)
Here we will be discussing only fundamental datatype. Other will be
discussed in latter units.All C compiler support five fundamental data types
namely
 1. Integer (int)
2. Floating point (float)
3. Character (char)
4. Double precision floating point (double) and
5. void

Integer type: Integers are whole numbers with range of values supported
by particular machine. Data type that can store non-decimal numbers in
memory. The keyword int is used todeclare variables of integer type. For 16
bit machine the range of integer is -32768
to
+32767. In order to control over the range of numbers and storage space, C
has three classes of
ntegers.

Data Keywor Size in Size in Maximum

type d Bytes Bits Rang
eof value that
can
be stored
Short short 1 8 28 =0-255
integer int
integer int 2 16 216= 0-65535
Long long int 4 32 232=
integer 4294967295
Signed Numbers:
Data type Keywor Size in Size in Bits Maximum Range of
d Bytes value
that can be stored
Signed signed 1 8 bits(7 bits 27 = -128 to 0-127
short short formagnitude
integ int 1 bit for sign)
er
Integer signed 2 16 bits (15 bits 215=-32768 to 0-
int formagnitude 1 32767
bit for
sign)
Long long int 4 32 231=-2147483648
integer To 0-2147483648
Sign bit=1 means negative number
Sign bit=0 means positive number

Floating point type: data type that can store decimal numbers in memory
locations are called float/real data types. The floating point numbers are
defined in C by the keyword float. If the accuracy provided by float number is
not sufficient, double type can be used. It gives double precision. Following
table gives various sizes available in floating data types.

Data Keywor Size in Size in Maximum

type d Bytes Bits Rang
eof value that
can
be stored
Float float 4 32 232
Double double 8 64 264
Long long 10 80 280
double double

floa
t
doub
le
long double
Character type: Data type used to store single character in memory
locations is called character type. The keyword char is used for character
type Each of these characters has numerical value associated with them
called ASCII values. (ASCII stands for American Standard Code for
Information Interchange.)

for example: letter ‘a’ has ASCII value 97 (binary equivalent is 0110 0001)
and letter ‘b’ has value 98 (binary equivalent is 0110 0010). In same order
ASCII value of ‘x’ is 120 (0111 1000).
Here are some of the important ranges within the ASCII
character set:48 – 57: the digits ‘0’ through ‘9’
65 – 90: the capital letters ‘A’ through ‘Z’
97 – 122: the lowercase letters ‘a’ through ‘z’

Following table represents the size of character type

and its keyword.Some important range s within ASCII
character set

Data Keywor Size in Size in Maximum

type d Bytes Bits Rang
eof value that
can
be stored
Charact char 1 8 28=256
er

Void type: It is a special data type that has no value but can be used for only
one operation thatis assignment. It can also be used as generic type.

Declaration of variables
There are two methods of declaration of
variables1 . Primary type declaration
2. User defined type declarationVariables
Variables are named memory locations that have type such as integer or
character to store data values, these data values will change during program
execution. Variables are also called identifier, because it is used to identify
value.
Rules for naming variable
1) The first character must be an alphabetic character (lower-case or capital
letters) or an underscore ‘_’.
2) All characters must be alphabetic characters, digits, or underscores.
3) The first 31 characters are significant; however length should not be
more than 8characters.
4) Cannot duplicate a reserved word. A reserved word is one which has
special meaning to C.
5) Uppercase and lowercase are significant.
6) White space is not allowed

Primary Variable declaration: All variables must be declared before use,

although certain declarations can be made implicitly by content. A
declaration specifies a type, and contains a list of one or more variables of
that type.
Syntax of variable
declarationdata-type
v1,v2,---vn ;
Where data-type can be any basic datatype,and v1, v2 .. vn are the names
of the variable.Variables are separated by commas. A declaration ends with
semicolon(;).
example
int lower, upper, step;
Variables can be distributed among declarations in any fashion; the lists
above could well be written as
int lower;
int upper;
int step;

The latter form takes more space, but is convenient for adding a comment
to each declarationfor subsequent modifications.

Variable Initialization: Once you declared variable, the next step is to

assign value to variable. The process of assigning values to a variable is
called initialization of variable. You can assign values to a variable by using
(= ) assignment operator.
Syntax:
Variable _name=value;
Following examples illustrates
the same:int a=25, x=55,c=77;
float p=25.5,
q=30.55;char
ch=’A’;

a 25 x 55 p 25.5 ch A

User defined type declaration

C supports a feature known as “type definition” that allows user to define an
identifier that
would represent an existing data type. The user-defined data type identifier
can later be used todeclare variables.
Syntax
typedef type identifier;
Where
typedef is a keyword
type refers to an existing data type
identifier refers to new name given to the datatype

Examples
1. typedef int units;
2. typedef float marks;
units symbolizes int and marks symbolizes float. i.e., units batch1,batch2; and
marks n1, n2;

Another user-defined data type is enumerated data type provided

by ANSI standard .It is defined as follows(syntax).
enum identifier {value1, value2,… ........ valuen};
The “identifier” is a user-defined enumerated data type which can be used to
declare variables
that can have one of these values enclosed with in braces(known as
enumeration constants).Example
enum day {Monday, Tuesday, Sunday};
enum day week_st, week_end;

Operators and expressions

Expressions: An expression is a sequence of Operands and Operators that
reduces to singlevalue. An expression can be simple or complex.
• An operator is a syntactical token that requires an action to be taken
 • An operand is an object on which an operation is performed. It
receives an operationaction.
• Simple expression contains only one operator. Ex 1+6
• A complex expression contains more than one operator. Ex 3*5+7
In C language we can formulate different types of expressions based on
operators used. Variousimportant operators available in C language are:
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Relational Operators
3. Logical Operators
4. Assignment Operators
5. Increment / Decrement operators
6. Bitwise Operators
7. Conditional operator
8. Special operator

1. Arithmetic operator: C provides all basic arithmetic operators. Here

is a briefsummary of different operators.

Arithmet Name Example

ic
Operator
s

+ Addition or unary plus C=A+B

- Subtraction or unary minus Z=X-Y
* Multiplication R=P*Q
/ Division (The result given is Quotient) S=P/Q
% Modular division (The result given is D=A%B
remainder) Note: modular operation is Here A and
possible only on integerdata types Bshould
be integers

Arithmetic expressions are of three types:

1. Integer Arithmetic
2. Real Arithmetic
3. Mixed mode Arithmetic

Integer Arithmetic: It is an expression evaluation where all the

operands are of integerdata type. Let us take an example:
int
a=10,b=5,c;
 c=a/b;
printf(“%d”,
c);
c will contain quotient value 2

Real Arithmetic: It is an expression evaluation where all the operands

are of float datatype. Here is an example:
float x=2.5,
y=10.0,z;z=y/x;
printf(“%f”, z);
z will contain value 4.000000

Mixed Mode Arithmetic: In an expression if some operands are of

integer type and others are of float type it is called mixed mode
arithmetic expression. Here the data type of small size gets automatically
converted to data type of bigger size.
Here is an example for such expression:
int a=25;
float
x=4,z;
z=a/x;
printf(“%f”,z);
Here ‘a’ is of integer data type and ‘x’ is of float type, therefore ‘a’
automatically getsconverted to float type and output is: 6.25

2. Relational operator: Relational operators are often used to compare

two quantities on their relation, take certain decision. An expression
that uses relational operators are called relational expressions. The
value of relational expression is either 1 or 0. 1 means true, 0 means
false. C supports 6 relational operators

Relational Name Example

Operators
> Greater Than A >B
< Less Than X<Y

>= Greater Than or Equal to (A+B) > =(X-Y)

<= Less Than or Equal to (P+Q) < =(R-S)
== Equal to (X+Y) = = Z
!= Not Equal to Z != A
3. Logical operator: Logical operators are used to test more than one
condition mad makedecision. C provides 3 logical operators as shown below

The truth table of Logical operators is as follows:

&&( Logical AND | |( Logical OR operator) !( Logical NOT

operator ) operator)
A B A&&B A B A| |B A B
0 0 0(False 0 0 0(False) 0(False) 1(True)
)
0 1 0(False 0 1 1(True) 1(True) 0(False)
)
1 0 0(False 1 0 1(True)
)
1 1 1(True) 1 1 1(True)

Note: 1. In Logical AND operator output is TRUE only if both inputs are TRUE.
2. In Logical OR operator output is TRUE if any of the inputs are TRUE.
3. In Logical NOT operator output is TRUE if input is FALSE
and vice versa.Here are some examples on logical expressions:
Example1: int A=5, B=10, X=20, Y=5;
What is truth value of expression: ( A ) && ( B )?
(5) && (10) both are non-zero number: 1 && 1
= 1 (True)(Note: Any non-zero number is treated as
1)

4. Assignment operator (=): Assignment operators are used to assign

the result of anexpression to a variable. There are three types of assignment
1. Simple assignment. Ex a=5;
2. Shorthand assignment. Ex a+=5;
3. Multiple assignments Ex a=b=c=100;
An expression such as
i = i + 2;
in which the variable on the left side is repeated immediately on the right,
can be written in thecompressed form
i += 2;
The operator +=is called a shorthand assignment operator.
Note: the left-hand side of the assignment operator should
always have variableA+b=5 is illegal.
5. Increment and Decrement operators: C uses two useful operators
generally not found in other languages. These are increment and decrement
operator. The operator ++ adds 1 to the operand and - - subtract 1. Both are
unary operator and takes the form
++m or m++; equivalent to m=m+1
--m or m--; equivalent to m=m-1
These are extensively used in loops(while, for, do while)

6. Bitwise operators:C has a distinction of supporting special operator

known as bitwise operators for manipulation of data at bit levels. These
operators are used for testing the bits, or shifting them right or left. Bitwise
operators may not be applied to float or double. Table below shows bitwise
operators and their meaning.

Bitwise Meani Example

Operators ng s
& Bitwise AND A& B
| Bitwise OR X|Y
>> Bitwise Right Shift P>>2

<< Bitwise Left Shift Q<<2

^ Bitwise Ex-OR X^Y
~ Bitwise ones ~5
complement

Examples for bitwise AND, OR and XOR:

A B A& B A|B A^B
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0

Example for Bitwise Left shift:

A 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
A<<2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

Note: Meaning is to left shift bits by 2

positionsExample for Bitwise Right
shift:
A 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
A>>2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Note: Meaning is to right shift bits by 2 positions

7. Conditional Operators [ ?: ] Or Ternary Operator

1. They are also called as Ternary Operator.
2. It takes 3 Arguments as shown in

the syntaxSyntax: Expression 1 ? Expression 2 : Expression 3

Where
Expression1 is Condition
Expression2 is Statement Followed if
Condition is TrueExpression2 is Statement
Followed if Condition is False

Meaning of Syntax:
1. Expression1 is nothing but Boolean Condition i.e it results into either TRUE
or FALSE
2. If result of expression1 is TRUE then expression2 is executed
3. Expression1 is said to be TRUE if its result is NON-ZERO
4. If result of expression1 is FALSE then expression3 is executed
5. Expression1 is said to be FALSE if its result is ZERO

Example : Check whether Number is

Odd or Even
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int num;
printf("Enter the
Number : ");
scanf("%d",&num);
flag =
((num%2==0)?1:0);
if(flag==0)
printf("\nEve
n");else
printf("\nOdd");
}
8 Special operator: a) Comma Operator b) sizeof
operatorComma operator:
1. Comma operator has lowest precedence. [Priority] i.e., evaluated at last.
2. Comma operator returns the value of the rightmost operand.
3. Comma operator can acts as
- Operator: In the Expression
- Separator: Declaring Variable, In
Function CallParameter List
#include<stdi
o.h>void
main()
{
int
a=1,b=2;
int k;
k = (a,b);
printf("%d"
,k);
}
Output: 2

In the Above Example - 1 : Comma as

SeperatorIt can acts as Separator in -

2 : Comma as
Operatork = (a ,
b);
Different Typical Ways of Comma as Operator :
int
a=1,b=2,c;
Way 1 :
c = (a , b);
c = Value Stores in b = 2

Way 2 :
c = a , b;
c = Value Stores in a = 1

sizeof( ) operator: It is a compile time operator and when used with an

operand it returns the number of bytes the operand occupies the operand
may be variable or constant or data type qualifier.
Example:
int sum;
M=sizeof(sum); //M
has 2N=sizeof(long int);
//N has
4

Operator Precedence and Associativity:

In previous section we came across expressions and various operators used
in an expression. For instance if an expression consists of different category
of operators such expression is evaluated using Precedence (priority) of
operators and Associativity of operators.

Precedence: The order in which the operators in a complex expression are

evaluated is determined by set of priorities known as precedence. If an
expression contains Arithmetic operators ‘+’ , ‘*’ and ‘/ ‘operators as shown
below:
A=B+C*D/F
In this expression RHS of expression contains B+C*D/F, here first preference
is given to ‘*’ and ‘/ ‘and then to ‘+’. This is decided by operator precedence
given in C Language.

Let us say: B=5, C=7, D=9 and F=3, then value of A is:
A= 5+7*9/3
This expression is evaluated in following steps:
A=5+
(7*9)/3A=
5+(63/3)
A=5+21
A=26
Associativity: If two operators with same precedence accur in a complex
expression, another attribute of an operator called associativity takes
control. Associativity is the parsing direction used to evaluate an expression.
It can be either left to right or right to left .
For example: X= Y/Z*P%Q
Here ‘/’, ‘*’, and ‘%’ are operators at same level. But we evaluate this
expression from LEFTto RIGHT (i.e. Associativity is from Left to Right).

Following table provides the Precedence and Associativity of operators

discussed in this unit.
Operator Description Associativity Precedence(Ra
nk)
() Function call Left to right 1
[] Array element
reference
+ Unary plus Right to left 2

- Unary minus
++ Increment
-- Decrement
! Logical
~ negation Ones
* complement
& Pointer to
Sizeo reference
f Address
(typ Size of an object
e) Type cast
(conversion)
* Multiplication Left to right 3
/ Divisio
% n
Modul
us
+ Addition Left to right 4
- Subtraction
<< Left shift Left to right 5
>> Right Shift
< Less than Left to right 6
<= Less than or
> equal toGreater
>= than
Greater than or
equal to
== Equality Left to right 7
|= Inequality
& Bitwise AND Left to right 8
^ Bitwise XOR Left to right 9
| Bitwise OR Left to right 10
&& Logical AND Left to right 11
|| Logical OR Left to right 12
?: Conditional Right to left 13
expression
= Assignment Right to left 14
*= /= %= operators
+= -= &=
^= |=
<<= >>=
, Comma operator Left to right 15

Evaluation of Expressions
Based on the Precedence and Associativity of operators here we discuss
evaluating varioustypes of expressions.
int a=10, b=7, c=8, d=2;
– a + b / c - d

2 1 3
10 + (7/8) – 2
(10+ 0) - 2
(10 – 2)
8

Note: In this example 7/8 gives 0 as answer as it is integer division the

decimal portion istruncated.
Example-2:
int a=10, b=7, c=8,
d=2;

– a + b && c - d

3
1 2

(10+7) && 8-2

 (17) && (8-2)

(17) && (6)

Answer: TRUE
(1)
Note: Any non-zero number is treated as 1 (TRUE) whenever Logical operators
are used.

Example-3:
int a=10, b=7, c=8,
d=2;

(a+b)* (c-d)

1 2

3
(10+7)*(8-2)

1 2
Types of Conversions: Whenever mixed data occurs ‘type conversion’ comes into
picture.Two types of data type conversions are:
1. Automatic type conversions (Implicit conversions)
2. Manual type conversions (Explicit conversions)
In automatic conversion the operand/variable of smaller data type is automatically
converted todata type of larger size.
That is: char int long int float double- long double

Example:
int a=25; float
x=5,z; z=x/a;
printf(“%f”,z);

In this example ‘x’ is float and ‘a’ is integer, a gets automatically converted to float and
answeris: z= (5.0/25.0) 0.2

Side effects of automatic conversion:

int a=7, b;float x;
b=a%x
In the example given above we are using modulus or remainder (%) operator.
Here ‘a’ is integer type and ‘x’ is float. But the catch is % can be used only with integers.
So ‘x’ has to be automatically converted to float. But it is impossible as float is bigger
than integer. Asa result Complier gives syntax error.
If we have to convert a variable of bigger size to smaller type we have to use manual
conversion (explicit conversion).
Here is how we can use explicit conversion and overcome the syntax error in
previousexample:
Example:
int a=7, b; float
x=4.0;b=a%(int) x

‘x’ gets converted to

integer type manually

Output is: b=7%4 3

Note: This type of explicit conversion is also referred to as TYPE CASTING in ‘C’
Another example of side effects in type conversions is
here:Example:
float a=25, b=4;
int x; x=a/b;
The problem here is though 25.0/4.0 will result in 6.25, it is stored in an
integer variable ‘x’. As a result 6.25 is truncated to 6! Therefore we have to be careful
when mixed data types are used.