Differential Calculus

Functions and Graphs pt. 2

August 23 & 25, 2023

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Operations on Functions
If f (x) and g (x) are two functions, then for all x in the domain of both
functions the sum, difference, product, and quotient are defined as follows.

(f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x)

(f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x)
(fg )(x) = f (x) · g (x)
 
f f (x)
(x) = , g (x) ̸= 0
g g (x)

Another way to combine two functions to create a new function is called

the composition of functions. In the composition of functions, we
substitute an entire function into another function.

(f ◦ f )(x) = f (f (x))
(g ◦ g )(x) = g (g (x))
(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x))
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x))
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Examples:

2x−4
1.) If g (x) = 12 , what value of x makes g (x) = 8.

2x − 4
g (x) =
12
2x − 4
8=
12
96 = 2x − 4 [cross multiply 12 and 8]
96 + 4 = 2x [transpose 4 to the other side]
100 2x
= [divide both sides by 2 to find x]
2 2
50 = x

2.) Given f (x) = x 2 + 5x and g (x) = 4x + 5, find (fg )(x).

(fg )(x) = f (x) · g (x) = (x 2 + 5x)(4x + 5) = 4x 3 + 25x 2 + 25x

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3.) Given f (x) = x 3 + 3x 2 and g (x) = 3x − 5, find (f + g )(2).

(f + g )(2) = f (2) + g (2) = [23 + 3(22 )] + [3(2) − 5]

= (8 + 12) + (6 − 5)
= 20 + 1 = 21

4.) Given f (x) = −2x 2 − 4x, find (f ◦ f )(−2).

(f ◦ f )(−2) = f (f (−2))
f (−2) = −2(−2)2 − 4(−2) = −2(4) + 8 = −8 + 8 = 0
⇒ f (0) = −2(02 ) − 4(0) = −2(0) − 0 = 0

5.) Given f (x) = x + 4 and g (x) = x 2 − 1, find (f ◦ g )(9).

(f ◦ g )(9) = f (g (9))
g (9) = 92 − 1 = 81 − 1 = 80
⇒ f (80) = 80 + 4 = 84

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Function

Definition
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly
one element, called f (x) (read “f of x”), in a set E .

We usually consider functions for which the sets D and E are sets of real
numbers. The set D is called the domain of the function. The number
f (x) is the value of f at x. The range of f is the set of all possible values
of f (x) as x varies throughout the domain.

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The most common method for visualizing a function is its graph. If f is a
function with domain D, then its graph is the set of ordered pairs
{(x, f (x)) | x ∈ D}
Note that these are input-output pairs. In other words, the graph of f
consists of all points (x, y ) in the coordinate plane such that y = f (x) and
x is in the domain of f . The graph of a function f gives us a useful picture
of the behavior of a function. Since the y −coordinate of any point (x, y )
on the graph is y = f (x), we can read the value of f (x) from the graph as
being the height of the graph above the point x.

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The graph of f also allows us to picture the domain of f on the x−axis
and its range on the y −axis.

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Domain Convention
If the domain of a function f is not explicitly given, then by convention we
take as domain the set of all numbers for which f (x) is a real number.

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Examples
Find the domain and range of each function: f (x ) = 2x − 1
Solution. The equation of the graph is y = 2x − 1, and we recognize
this as being the equation of a line with slope 2 and
y -intercept −1. (Recall the slope-intercept form of the
equation of a line: y = mx + b.)

The expression 2x − 1 is defined for all real numbers, so the

domain of f is the set of all real numbers, which we denote
by R. The graph shows that the range is also R.
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Find the domain and range of each function: f (x ) = x
2

Solution. Since f (2) = 22 = 4 and f (−1) = (−1)2 = 1 we could plot

the points (2, 4) and (−1, 1), together with a few other
points on the graph, and join them to produce the graph
below.

The equation of the graph is y = x 2 , which represents a

parabola. The domain of f is R. The range of f consists of
all values of f (x), that is, all numbers of the form x 2 . Note
that x 2 ≥ 0 for all numbers of x and any positive number y
is a square. So, the range of f is {y | y ≥ 0} = [0, ∞).

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 √
Find the domain and range of each function: f (x ) = x +2
√
Solution. The function is f (x) = x + 2. Because the square root of
a negative number is not defined (as a real number), the
domain of f consists of all values of x such that x + 2 ≥ 0.
This is equivalent to x ≥ −2, so the domain is the interval
[−2, ∞). The range of f consists
√ of all values of
√ f (x), that
is, all numbers of the form x + 2. Note that x + 2 ≥ 0
for all numbers of x and any positive number y is a root (we
take positive roots only since for each x, there has to be
exactly one y ). So, the range of f is {y | y ≥ 0} = [0, ∞).

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Find the domain and range of each function: f (x ) = √1 +5
2−x

1
√
Solution. The function is f (x) = √2−x + 5. Since f (x) = 2 − x is a
√ if and only if 2 − x ≥ 0, we need x ≤ 2. But at
real number
x = 2, 2 − x = 0 and its reciprocal is not defined. So, we
must restrict x to x < 2. Thus, the domain of function f is
(−∞, 2). √ For the range, observe that as x runs through
(−∞, 2), 2 − x takes on all positive values and so does its
reciprocal. So, the range of f is (5, ∞).

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Different Types of Functions and their respective Graphs

I.) Piecewise-defined Function: Function described by using different

formulas on different parts of its domain. One example is the absolute
value function. The absolute value function has domain (−∞, ∞)
and range [0, ∞). It is of the form

x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if x < 0

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II.) Linear Function: Function of the form f (x) = mx + b, where m and
b are both constants. The figure below shows an array of lines
f (x) = mx where b = 0, so these lines pass through the origin.

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III.) Power Function: Function of the form f (x) = x a , where a is a
constant. There are several important cases to consider. One is when
a = n, a positive integer. The graphs of f (x) = x n , for n = 1, 2, 3, are
shown below. These functions are defined for all real values of x.
Notice that as the power n gets larger, the curves tend to flatten
toward the x−axis on the interval (−1, 1), and also rise more steeply
for |x| > 1. Each curve passes through the point (1, 1) and through
the origin.

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Another case is when a = −1 or a = −2. The graphs of f (x) = x −1 = x1
and g (x) = x −2 = x12 are shown below. Both functions are defined for all
x ̸= 0 (you can never divide by zero). The graph of y = x1 is the hyperbola
xy = 1 which approaches the coordinate axes far from the origin. The
graph of y = x12 also approaches the coordinate axes.

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 1 √
Last case is when a = 12 or a = 13 . The functions f (x) = x 2 = x and
1 √
g (x) = x 3 = 3 x are the square root and cube root functions,
respectively. The domain of the square root function is [0, ∞), but the
cube root function is defined for all real x. Their graphs are shown below.

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IV.) Polynomial Function: Function of the form
p(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + ... + a1 x + a0 , where n is a nonnegative
integer and the numbers a0 , a1 , a2 , ..., an are real constants (called the
coefficient of the polynomial). All polynomials have domain
(−∞, ∞). If the leading coefficient an ̸= 0 and n > 0, then n is called
the degree of the polynomial. Linear functions with m ̸= 0 are
polynomials of degree 1. Polynomials of degree 2, usually written
p(x) = ax 2 + bx + c, are called quadratic functions. Likewise, cubic
functions are polynomials p(x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d of degree 3.

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V.) Rational Function: A rational function is a quotient or ratio of two
polynomials. It is of the form
p(x)
f (x) =
q(x)
where p and q are polynomials. The domain of a rational function is
the set of all real x fow which q(x) ̸= 0. For example, the function
2 −3
f (x) = 2x 4
7x+4 is a rational function with domain {x | x ̸= − 7 }.

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VI.) Algebraic Function: A function constructed from polynomials using
algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
and taking roots). Rational functions are special cases of algebraic
functions. The figure below shows the graphs of two algebraic
functions.

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VII.) Trigonometric Function: A trigonometric function of a real number
x corresponds to that function of an angle measuring x radians. The
graphs of the sine and cosine functions are shown below.

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VIII.) Exponential Function: Function of the form f (x) = ax , where the
base a > 0 is a positive constant and a ̸= 1. All exponential functions
have domain (−∞, ∞) and range (0, ∞). The graphs of some
exponential functions are shown below.

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IX.) Logarithmic Function: Function of the form f (x) = loga x, where
the base a ̸= 1 is a positive constant. They are the inverse functions
of the exponential functions. The figure below shows the graphs of
four logarithmic functions with various bases. In each case the
domain is (0, ∞) and the range is (−∞, ∞).

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Examples

Identify each given function as one of the types of functions discussed.

a.) f (x) = − 12 x 5 + x + 1
b.) g (x) = 7x
c.) h(x) = x 7

Solution.
a.) f (x) = − 12 x 5 + x + 1 is a polynomial function of degree 5.
b.) g (x) = 7x is an exponential function with base 7. We note
that the variable x is the exponent.
c.) h(x) = x 7 is a power function.

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Identify each function given here as one of the types of functions we have
discussed.
d.) f (x) = log8 x
e.) f (x) = x 2 − 2x + 1
3+2x
f.) f (x) = x−1

Solution.
d.) f (x) = log8 x is a logarithmic function with base 8.
e.) f (x) = x 2 − 2x + 1 is a polynomial function/quadratic
function with degree 2.
3+2x
f.) f (x) = x−1 is a rational function.

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Summary of Domain and Range

Absolute Value Function, y = |x| ⇒ Domain: (−∞, ∞), Range: [0, ∞).
1
Power Function, y = x ⇒ Domain: x ̸= 0, Range: y ̸= 0.
1
Power Function, y = x2
⇒ Domain: x ̸= 0, Range: y > 0.
√
Power Function, y = x ⇒ Domain: [0, ∞), Range: [0, ∞).
√
Power Function, y = 3 x ⇒ Domain: (−∞, ∞), Range: (−∞, ∞).
Exponential Function, f (x) = ax ⇒ Domain: (−∞, ∞), Range: (0, ∞).
Logarithmic Function, f (x) = loga x ⇒ Domain: (0, ∞),
Range: (−∞, ∞).

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Polynomial Function ⇒ Domain: (−∞, ∞)
Function of the form p(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + ... + a1 x + a0 , where n is
a nonnegative integer and the numbers a0 , a1 , a2 , ..., an are real constants
(called the coefficient of the polynomial). If the leading coefficient an ̸= 0
and n > 0, then n is called the degree of the polynomial.

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