1. Molarity: Molarity is the measure of the concentration of a solute in a solution, expressed as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. mole of solute Volume of solution in litre Molarity (M) = 2. Molality : Molality is the measure of the concentration of a solute in a solution, expressed as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. 3. Limiting Reagent: The limiting reagent is the reactant that is completely consumed in a chemical reaction, thereby limiting the amount of product that can be formed. 4. Bond Order: Bond order is the number of chemical bonds between two atoms in a molecule. It indicates the stability of a bond and is often an indicator of bond length and strength. 5. Bond Enthalpy: Bond enthalpy is the energy required to break a chemical bond in a molecule, typically expressed in kilojoules per mole. 6. Bond Angle: Bond angle is the angle formed between two adjacent chemical bonds in a molecule, measured in degrees. 7. Octet Rule: The octet rule states that atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons in order to achieve a stable electron configuration with eight valence electrons.8. Dipole Moment : Dipole moment is a measure of the polarity of a molecule, defined as the product of the magnitude of the charge and the distance between the charges. Its SI unit is debye (D). 9. Hydrogen Bonding: Hydrogen bonding is a type of intermolecular force that occurs between a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom (such as oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine) and a lone pair of electrons on another electronegative atom. Types of Hydrogen Bonding There are two types of H bonds, and it is classified as the following: + Intermolecular Hydrogen Bonding + Intramolecular Hydrogen Bonding Intermolecular Hydrogen Bonding When hydrogen bonding takes place between different molecules of the same or different compounds, it is called intermolecular hydrogen bonding. For example, hydrogen bonding in water, alcohol, ammonia etc. Intramolecular Hydrogen Bonding The hydrogen bonding which takes place within a molecule itself is called intramolecular hydrogen bonding.10. Open, Closed, and Isolated System: Open System: Allows both energy and matter to be exchanged with its surroundings. Example: A pot of boiling water. Closed System: Allows energy transfer but not the transfer of matter. Example: A sealed container of gas. Isolated System: Neither matter nor energy can be exchanged with its surroundings. Example: A thermally insulated container. 11. First Law of Thermodynamics: The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system; it can only change forms. 12. State and Path Function: State Function: A property whose value depends only on the current state of a system, not on the path taken to reach that state. Example: Temperature, pressure. Path Function: A property whose value depends on the path taken to reach a particular state. Example: Work, heat. 13. Intensive and Extensive Properties: Intensive Properties: Properties that do not depend on the amount of substance present. Example: Temperature, density. Extensive Properties: Properties that depend on the amount of substance present. Example: Mass, volume.14. Entropy: Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system. It tends to increase in natural processes. 15. Third Law of Thermodynamics: The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is zero. 16. Reduction, Oxidation, Reducing Agent, and Oxidizing Agent: + Reduction: Gain of electrons by a substance. + Oxidation: Loss of electrons by a substance. + Reducing Agent: Donates electrons and gets oxidized in a chemical reaction. + Oxidizing Agent: Accepts electrons and gets reduced in a chemical reaction. 17. Disproportionation Reaction: A disproportionation reaction is a chemical reaction in which a single compound is both oxidized and reduced, resulting in the formation of two or more compounds. Example: Disproportionation of Cl, in hot & concentrated alkaline medium 0 4 46 3Clp + 6N@OH > SNaCl + NaCiO3 + 3H,0 A reduction oxidation18. Electrochemical Cell: An electrochemical cell is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy or vice versa through redox reactions. Salt bridge Anode Cathode (ondston cul] eit) (asso, Zn) | Za$0 aq) || CuSO fa) | Cus) 19. Hyperconjugation: Hyperconjugation is a stabilizing interaction in which electrons in a sigma bond are delocalized into an adjacent empty orbital, typically an orbital. It contributes to the stability of certain organic molecules.