THE EARTH ‘S STRUCTURE

1. List and describe the three layers of that comprise the earth’s structure.

The main characteristics of the crust (also known as lithosphere)

Continental crust/plate Oceanic crust

Silica and aluminum (SIAL) Silica and Magnesium (SIMA)
Density is 2.7/lighter Heavier/density of 3.0
Brittle old rock Very young rocks
Granite rocks Basaltic/igneous rocks
35-40 km thick 6-10 km thick

The main characteristics of the mantle (also known as mesosphere)

 Consists of silicate rocks

 The rocks are in a semi molten state
 This is where magma is found
 Extends up to the depth of 2900km

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The main characteristics of the core (also known as barysphere)

 Consists of Iron and Nickel (NIFE)

Inner core Outer core

Solid Semi molten state
Intense pressure Less pressure
Temp 3700oC

 Moho-discontinuity/mohorovic discontinuity: the junction between the earth’s crust and the
mantle
 Gutenberg discontinuity: the junction between the mantle and the outer core

2. Explain the forces of compression and tension in relation to the theory of plate tectonics.
3. Explain the formation of related landforms for example, fold mountains and lakes, rift valleys and
block mountains.
4. Discuss the impact of the above landforms on human activities.

Plate Tectonics
 The idea was put forward by Alfred Wegner
 According to the plate tectonic model, the surface of the Earth consists of a series of relatively thin,
but rigid plates (huge slabs of rock) which are in constant motion.
 The main tectonic plates are: African plate, American plate, Eurasian plate, Indo-Australian plate
(India & Australia), Pacific plate and Antarctic plate
 Minor plates are: Nazca plate and the Arabian plate
 Plates move at different velocities, The African plate moves about 25 mm per year, whereas the
Australian plate moves about 60 mm per year.

What causes plates to move?

 Convection currents from the core make plates move. This movement has led to the continental
drift-the splitting of the super continent (Pangea) into the various continents we see today.

 Plate movements produce changes in plate margins/boundaries-a place where two plate
meet/move apart from each other.
 There are three types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent and transform boundaries.

Types of Plate Margins

i. Divergent/constructive Margins: place where two plates move away from one another/diverge
due to force of tension.
ii. Convergent margins/destructive margin: place where two plates move toward one
another/collide/converge due to compression force.
Q: What happens at destructive plate margin?

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  There is plate movement /converge due to compression
 The plates move towards each other/collide
 Then the heavier oceanic plate submerge/sink underneath the lighter continental plate
(subduction) or the lighter continental plate override the heavier oceanic plate (overriding)
 Trench/geosyncline forms
 Accumulation of sediments/sedimentation
 Formation of sedimentary rocks
 Folding/bending/crumpling of sedimentary rocks
 Fold mountains are formed
 Eruption of volcanoes
 Earthquakes occur

iii. Conservative/Transform/ margins: Plates move past one another on transform faults that cut
through the lithosphere.

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  Earth movements cause sedimentary rocks to be displaced i.e. to be pushed out of the
horizontal plane so that the rocks are tilted or inclined.
 Earth movements can also cause forces of tension and compression resulting in folding and
faulting of the sedimentary rocks/crustal rocks.

Folding

This is the bending of the crustal rocks, which result from the lateral/horizontal movement of the crustal
rocks due to force of compression.

Types of folds

The nature of folds

The layers of rock which bend up form an up fold or anticline. Those which bend down form a down
fold or syncline. The sides of a fold are called the limbs. If compression continues the simple folds are
changed first to a symmetrical folds, then into over folds and finally into over thrust folds.

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 NB: make sure that your labeling also show the movement, that is an up fold/anticline arrow should
point upwards while a down fold/syncline arrow must point downwards.

i. Simple/Symmetrical fold
This type of fold has two limbs of equal steepness. It results when the two opposing forces moving
towards each other are of equal strength.

ii. Asymmetrical fold

This fold has one limb steeper than the other. It results when one opposing force is greater than the
other.

iii. Overturned fold/over fold

This fold has one limb pushed over the other limb, until the axis of fold is almost horizontal and the two
limbs are almost parallel. This is formed when one opposing force is very much greater than the other.

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Fold Mountains

The formation of Fold Mountains

Fold Mountains can either be formed when:

 two continental plates move towards each other or

 a continental plate move towards an oceanic plate

Theory 1(a continental plate move towards an oceanic plate)

 The convection currents make the rigid/stable plates move

 A zone of instability is created due to compression
 The oceanic and the continental crusts collide/converge/move towards each other
 The heavier oceanic crust/plate sinks underneath the lighter continental plate OR the lighter
continental crust override the heavier oceanic plate
 Trench/geosyncline is formed where sediments accumulate
 The sediments will be compacted into sedimentary rocks over time
 Continued forces of compression make the sedimentary rocks bend/crumble/fold.

Theory 2 (two continental plates move towards each other)

 The convection currents make the rigid/stable plates move or causes earth movements
 A zone of instability is created due to compression
 The continental plates collide/converge/move towards each other
 Continued force of compression causes erosion of original continents
 Sedimentary rocks /horizontal layers form
 deposition of sediments in a trench/geosyncline formed
 There will be sagging/bending of the floor due to great weight
 There will be downward dragging
 The less resistant rocks/strata bend/crumble/fold/buckle or are uplifted

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Examples of young Fold Mountains

 Himalaya (Asia)
 Alps (South Europe)
 Atlas (Africa)
 Rockies (North America)
 Andes (South America)
 Verkhoyansk

Examples of old Fold Mountains

 Appalachians (North America)

 South West Cape Ranges (South Africa)
 Welsh (Europe)
 Scandinavian (Europe)

Characteristics/Physical Features of Fold Mountains

 High/very tall
 Steep sided/steep slopes
 Deep narrow valleys/gorges

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 Parallel ranges
 Bare rocks -young Fold Mountains while the old are forested
 Glaciated/ice capped/snow caps
 Cirques (a steep bowl-shaped hollow)/caldera
 Cordilleras (an extensive chain of mountains/mountain ranges)/ridges
 Peaks/rugged/mountain knots

The distribution of fold Mountains

They are found in the following areas:

 Along plate boundaries/zone of instability

 West of North America
 West of South America
 South of Europe
 Southern Asia
 Southeast Asia/Indonesia
 Northeast Asia
 Northwest Africa/Morocco i.e. Atlas Mountains

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Reasons why there are no young fold mountains in Africa south of the Sahara

 The rocks are stable/no earth movements

 Away from plate boundaries
 Ancient rocks/brittle rocks

The influence of Fold Mountains on human activity

 They are a communication barrier

 Brings relief rainfall which brings water for different use such as domestic use, irrigation etc.
 Minerals are brought near the surface for mining
 It promotes tourism/tourist attraction/recreation/
 Forest for lumbering/timber production
 Can be used for research/education
 heavy rainfall on windward side resulting in the development of rivers/dams for water supply

Formation of the Mid Oceanic Ridge

 It forms at constructive plate margin, where plates are moving apart from each other
 Faulting occurs at the ocean/sea bed
 Pressure builds up
 Molten rock wells up between plates
 Lava hardens/solidifies to form new crust in the form of an ocean ridge

Faulting

Faulting is the cracking/fracturing/breaking of the crustal rocks. This may be a result of either lateral or
vertical forces of tension or compression cause faulting. Faulting leads to an upward or downward
displacement of the crustal rocks. The area where the breakage occurs is called a fault plane.

Types of faults

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Normal fault

This is the downward displacement of one part of the crustal rock due to tension.

Reverse fault

This is the upward displacement of one part of the crustal rock due to compression.

Tear/transcurrent fault

It is the horizontal displacement of the crustal rock due to lateral movements.

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Thrust fault

This is where rocks fracture/crack and one side is thrown over the other due to compression. A thrust
fault usually forms from continued compression force on the reverse fault.

Features produced by faulting

1. Block Mountains/Horst

Formation of block Mountains

 Crustal tension/compression occurs

 Two parallel faults are made
 When faulting occurs a large mass of crustal rock is pushed up/uplifted between two parallel faults
 This would be the horst/block mountain-usually steep sided & have flat tops

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Examples of Block Mountains

 Karasberg-Namibia
 Black Forest-Germany
 Ethiopian Scarp-Ethiopia
 Vosqes-France

2. Rift Valleys

Formation of Rift Valleys

Rift Valleys can either be formed by tensional forces or compressional forces

Theory 1 (tensional force)

 When tectonic plates diverge/move apart tensional force is created

 Then parallel faults develop
 If tension continues the outer blocks will be pulled apart leaving the central block
 The central block sinks creating a depression called a rift valley/graben

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Theory 2 (compressional force)

 When tectonic converge/move towards each other compressional force is created

 Then parallel faults develop
 As compression continues the outer blocks are pushed over the central block
 The central block remains on its original place creating a depression called a rift valley/graben

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The Great East African Rift Valley was formed due to tension and compression forces on these plates:

Characteristics/Physical Features of Rift Valleys

 Have steep escarpments along fault lines

 Parallel faults
 Block Mountains/faulted highlands
 Volcanoes/volcanic pipes
 Rivers/Lakes
 Geysers/hot springs

The distribution of Block Mountains and Rift Valleys

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The influence of Rift Valleys on human activity

 Fertile volcanic soils for arable farming

 Lakes supply water for farming/irrigation/domestic uses/ fishing/hydro-electricity production
 Minerals for mining
 Promotes tourism/scenic beauty for tourism/recreation
 Water for transport
 Forest for lumbering
 Hot springs & geysers can be used to produce geothermal power
 Grazing land/pasture for pastoral farming
 Rainfall on windward side for water supply which is used for different purposes
 Barrier to construction of infrastructure

5. Explain how volcanoes are formed and their impact on human beings and the environment.

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Vulcanicity
This is a process through which the molten rock material/magma is released into the earth’s structure or
onto the earth’s surface.

Types of vulcanicity
Intrusive vulcanicity
This is when magma cools and solidifies within the earth’s crust forming intrusive volcanic features-
features formed when magma cools and solidifies within the earth’s crust. These include: batholith,
laccolith, sill and dyke. They may be exposed to the earth’s surface through the process of erosion.

Extrusive vulcanicity
This is when lava-magma outside the earth’s crust cools and solidifies on the earth’s crust forming
extrusive volcanic features- features formed when lava cools and solidifies on the earth’s crust. These
are volcanoes (which have different types).

Volcano
A volcano is an opening in the crust through which hot magma, volcanic ash and gases escape from the
mantle. The substance that is ejected from a volcano is called lava.

Formation of a volcano
 Earth movements create zones of instability
 Faulting occurs
 Pressure is released
 Magma forces its way through the cracks out on the earth’s surface

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 Violent eruptions may occur
 Ashes are released
 Lava is released
 Lava accumulates on the earth’s surface
 Lava cools and solidifies forming a volcano/volcanic mountain

Examples of volcanic mountains in Africa

 Mt Kilimanjaro-Tanzania
 Mt Kenya-Kenya
 Mt Elgon-Kenya
 Mt Cameroon-Cameroon
 Mt Nyiragongo-DRC

Types of Volcanoes

There are 3 different types of volcanoes:

i. Active - eruptions can be anytime and often.

ii. Dormant - has been a while since it has erupted, but could at any time.
iii. Extinct, meaning it hasn't erupted in a very long, long time so it probably won't ever again.

There are two types of lava: basic and acid lava. The difference lies in their chemical composition and the
nature of volcanic eruption depends on the type of lava.

The difference between basic and acid lava

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 Basic lava Acid lava
Fluid lava and thin Viscous lava and thicker
Lava flows long distances/ Lava flow faster and Lava flows short distances/cools and solidify faster
spread widely
Quiet/gentle eruption Violent eruptions
Dark in colour Light in colour
Poor in silica Rich in silica
Low melting point High melting point
Basic Acidic
Gives rise to a more gently sloping volcano Gives rise to volcanoes with steeper slopes

Shape/classification of Volcanoes

Volcanoes are classified in terms of the cone shape which is influenced by the type of lava released and
deposited on the earth’s surface.

Q: How many different shapes of volcano are there?

The type of magma in the earth creates four different shapes of volcanoes:

i. shield volcanoes
ii. composite volcanoes
iii. cinder cones
iv. lava domes

Shield Volcano - flat

If the magma is runny, the gas can escape easily and there will not be an explosion. The magma just comes
out of the mountain and flows down the sides. Shield volcanoes are shaped like a bowl or shield in the
middle with long gentle slopes made by the lava flows. Examples include the volcanoes in Hawaii and
Mount Etna.

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Composite Volcano - tall and thin

If the magma is thick and sticky (like honey), the gas cannot escape, so it builds up and up until it explodes
sending out huge clouds of burning rock and gas. Composite volcanoes are steep-sided volcanoes
composed of many layers of volcanic rocks, usually made from thick sticky lava, ash and rock debris
(broken pieces). Composite volcanoes are also known as strato-volcanoes. Examples include Mount Fuji in
Japan, Mount Cotopaxi in Ecuador, Mount Shasta and Lassen in California, Mount Hood in Oregon, Mount
St. Helens and Mount Rainier in Washington and Mt. Etna in Italy

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Ash and Cinder cones

Cinder cones are circular or oval cones built from erupting lava that breaks into small pieces as it shoots
into the air. As small pieces fall back to the ground, they cool and form cinders around the vent. They have
very small craters and steep slopes. The lava is viscous.

Lava domes

Lava domes are formed when erupting lava is too thick to flow and makes a steep-sided mound as the lava
piles up near the volcanic vent or when fluid lava produces cones with gentle slopes.

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Hot springs and Geysers

Emission of gases and steam periodically take place from dormant volcanoes. In a hot spring super-hot
water flows quietly and in a geyser water is thrown out with great force accompanied by steam

Impacts of volcanic activity on the environment

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 Pollution
 Acid rain/acid soils
 Loss of vegetation
 Loss of wild animals
 Eruption of fires
 Landslides/mudflows
Impacts of volcanic activity on human activities
 Loss of lives
 Destruction of infrastructure
 Destruction of farm land
 Volcanoes bring about fertile soils foe arable farming
 Minerals foe mining
 Promotes tourism
 Forests foe lumbering
 Grazing land for pastoral farming
 Relief rainfall for water supply
 Geothermal power production from geysers and hot springs

There are people who may settle in some volcanic slopes because”
 The volcanoes may be extinct
 The slopes are gentle
 There are fertile soils
 Minerals for mining
 Tourism
 High rainfall on the windward side

Some slopes are free from settlements because:

 There are active volcanoes
 Steep slopes
 Salty/saline soils
 Acidic/thin/infertile sols
 Little or no rainfall on the leeward side
 Poisonous/toxic gases/thin air
 Extremely cold

Measures used to reduce the impacts of volcanoes

 Evacuation/rescue teams
 Early warning systems
 Education/research
 Relocation

Global distribution of volcanoes

Q: Where do volcanoes occur most frequently?
Volcanoes generally occur
 Along destructive and constructive plate boundaries.
 along the Mid-Atlantic Ocean ridge (which is a constructive plate)
 where there is a thinning of the earth’s crust in the interior of plates, e.g. in the East African Rift
Valley

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 southern Europe
 southeast Asia
 Caribbean Islands
 Philippines
 Indonesia
 Madagascar
 Japan
 New Zealand
 West coast of North and South America
 Along the boundaries of the Pacific plate which makes up the Pacific Ring of Fire the Pacific Ring of
Fire refers to the boundaries of the Pacific plate. It is surrounded by the Pacific Ocean. More than
50% of the world’s volcanoes occur here. Magma is caused to rise through lines of weaknesses in
the crust and erupt, forming these violent chains of volcanoes – referred to as the Pacific Ring of
Fire. Frequent earthquakes are also common along the Pacific Ring of Fire. The Pacific Ring of Fire
stretches from New Zealand to eastern Asia, to Alaska and along western North and South America.

The Pacific Ring of Fire

6. Explain how earthquakes are formed and their impact on human beings and the environment.
Earthquakes

An earthquake is a sudden shake in the earth’s crust, caused by the movement of tectonic plates. It is
sometimes accompanied by a very loud noise or rumbling which sounds terrifying.
Earthquakes mostly occur along collision, destructive and shear plate boundaries.

Formation of an earthquake
Theory 1
 As two plates collide against each other, or move past each other along a fault
 The jagged edges of the plates hook onto each other/one plate sticks or gets trapped

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 Pressure and large amounts of energy build up
 The rock bends and stretches
 when the hooked rocks snap
 the plates jolt
 sends out shock waves or seismic waves
 Seismic waves are the strongest at the point where the earthquake originates

Theory 2
 As two plates collide, or move past each other
 Faulting
 Pressure and large amounts of energy build up
 the energy is released very suddenly (at the focus)
 Shock waves or seismic waves radiates towards the epicenter
 Vibrations are felt on the surface

 In the diagram above two plates are sliding along each other in opposite directions.
 The point inside the crust where the earthquake originates is called the focus.
 The point on the surface of the earth directly above the surface/point where the earthquake first hit
the earth surface is called the epicenter.
 The energy released by an earthquake travels through the crust and is felt as seismic waves, which
spread out in all directions from the epicenter.
 As the seismic waves travel further from the epicenter they become less strong, meaning the ground
shakes less. Thus the impact of an earthquake is greater at the epicenter.
 Earthquakes could result in devastating effects such as many deaths, destroy settlements and
change landscapes.

7. Interpret the Richter scale to determine the magnitude of earthquakes

How is the strength of an earthquake measured?

 The intensity of an earthquake is measured on a Richter scale, which is not an instrument, but a
logarithmic scale, which ranges from 1 - 10. The magnitude (strength) of an earthquake is
determined from the readings of the seismic waves caused by the earth’s vibrations.

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 Earthquakes that are not generally felt by humans are called ‘micro-earthquakes. They are only
detected by seismographs and could register 2.0 or less on the Richter scale. With every whole point
the magnitude rise, the strength of the waves increases by ten times. This means that an earthquake
with a magnitude of 6 is ten times stronger than an earthquake with a magnitude of 5. Seismic
waves with a magnitude of 8.0 or more is considered a ‘great earthquake.’
 The left column shows the magnitude. The right column shows how the earthquake could be
experienced by people.

 A seismograph is the instrument used to record the force and direction of an earthquake by
detecting the vibrations that travel through the crust of the earth.

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  A seismograph consists of mass which remains stationary during an earthquake, thus serving as a
reference for measuring the amplitude/largeness/strength of tremors.
 A pen is attached to the mass. The pen draws a graph (consisting of oscillations moving up and
down) on graph paper, which is attached to a rotating drum.
 The rotating drum rotates under the pen, recording ground movements on paper.
 The graph drawn by the pen is called a seismogram.
 The stronger the vibrations of the ground, the greater are the oscillations.
 Below is a photograph of a seismograph, with an example of a seismogram.

Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kinemetrics_seismograph.jpg

Different seismic waves are generated by an earthquake:

i. Primary waves (or P waves) are the fastest moving waves. They are felt first and cause little damage.
ii. Secondary waves (also called shear waves, or S waves) are another type of body wave. They move a
little slower than P waves.

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iii. Longitudinal waves (also called long waves, or L waves) move along the surface of the Earth. It is
these waves that cause havoc. They move up and down the earth’s surface, shaking the foundations
of structures like buildings and dam-walls. Surface waves move slower than P and S waves. This
means that the most intense shaking usually occurs at the end of the earthquake.

Damage caused by earthquakes

 People may be killed or injured by collapsing buildings, highways and bridges.
 Buildings may collapse.
 Roads and highways may be damaged and trains may be derailed/damage to infrastructure
 Power lines are damaged, causing electricity failures/power cuts/black outs
 Exposed electric wires and broken gas pipes may start fires/fire outbreaks
 Dam walls may break, causing floods.
 Landslides may occur.
 Deep cracks on crustal rock
 Displacement of crustal rocks/ Raising/ lowering of the sea floor
 Outbreak of diseases
 pollution
 Tsunamis may destroy harbours and farms.
 Animals may be killed and their habitats destroyed.
 Damaged infrastructure and a loss of people to work may lead to economic losses.
 The tourism industry could be negatively affected because people may be too scared to travel to
areas which are prone to earthquakes and tsunamis.

Why impacts of earthquakes vary from one place to another

 Type of rocks/nature of surface rocks-soft rocks are flexible or mobile
 Distance from the epicenter
 The strength/magnitude of the earthquake
 Time of the day-if it night most people will be affected than during the day
 Type of building material used-flexible material reduces the impacts
 Remoteness of the area-it takes time to get help
 Distance from the sea and influence of tsunamis/continentality
 Level of technology to predict and prepare for the disaster /preparedness of an area/resources
available
 Population density

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How effects of earthquakes can be reduced/minimised
 Prediction/forecast
 Early warning
 Legislation on type of building
 Building resistant houses
 Quick evacuation/relocation
 Education/research
 Preparing/training emergency evacuation crews/rescue teams

8. Describe the distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes in relation to plate margins.

Global distribution of Earthquakes

Q: Where do Earthquakes occur most frequently?
 along plate boundaries (destructive, collision and shear)
 along the whole length of the Mid-Atlantic Ocean ridge
 along the boundaries of the Pacific plate which makes up the Pacific Ring of Fire
 Minor earthquakes also occur along minor fault lines
 Volcanic island
 southeast Asia
 Philippines
 Indonesia
 Japan
 New Zealand
 West coast of North and South America

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