346 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS September

An Algorithm for Path Connections

and Its Applications*
C. Y. LEEt, MEMBER, IRE

Summary-The algorithm described in this paper is the outcome Based on this model, we will consider a class of well-
of an endeavor to answer the following question: Is it possible to find defined optimal path problems. A general procedure for
procedures which would enable a computer to solve efficiently path- s t c o p
connection problems inherent in logical drawing, wiring ...diagram- ~solving this class of problems will then be given in Sec-
ming, and optimal route finding? The results are highly encouraging. tion III
t

Within our framework, we are able to solve the following types of Within this class of problems is the shortest-route prob-
problems: lem on which there has been earlier definitive work.
1) To find a path between two points so that it crosses the least Algorithms for finding shortest paths have been given
number of existing paths. by Dantzig,l Ford and Fulkerson,2 Moore3 and Prim.4
2) To find a path between two points so that it avoids as much as The minimal-distance illustrationis (Section V) make
possible preset obstacles such as edges.
3) To find a path between two points so that the path is optimal use of one of Moore's algorithms, which is a specializa
with respect to several properties; for example, a path which is tioIn of algorithm A given in Section III. These experi-
not only one of those which cross the fewest number of exist- iments were tried out before the abstract model was
ing paths, but, among these, is also one of the shortest. completed. Once we have at our disposal the abstract
The minimal-distance solution has been programmed on an IBM model, it came as a pleasant surprise that problems
704 computer, and a number of illustrations are presented. The class such as the minimal-crossing and minimal edge-effect
of problems solvable by our algorithm is given in a theorem in Sectionproblems, which had appeared difficult to us previously,
III. A byproduct of this algorithm is a somewhat remote, but unex- all yielded immediately to algorithm A. The possibility
pected, relation to physical optics. This is discussed in Section VI. I
Of J'oint mlinimization is also a direct consequence of
1. INTRODUCTION algorithmn A. A further outcome was the "diffraction"
N processing information conisisting of patterns, patterns. These experiments would not have been at-
rather than numbers or symbols, on a digital com- tempted if we had not noticed the patterns obtained in
puter, we may wish to know how a computer, with- the minimal-distance experiments.
out sight and hearing, can be made to deal compete ntly II. AN ABSTRACT MODEL AND THE PATH
with situations which appear to require coordination, PROBLEM
insight, and perhaps intuition. It is not our intention to
consider the general problem of pattern detection and A. e-Space, an Abstract Model
recognition by machines. We will consider rather the Let C be a set of elements called cells: C = {cl, C2,
following simpler, and therefore perhaps more basic, For each cell ci in C, there is defined a subset of C called
problem in pattern processing by machines. a 1-neighborhood N(ci) of ci: N(ci) = I cli, C2, * * * X C, -
Let a pattern of some sort be presented to a machine. The following rules hold for 1 neighborhoods:
We then want the machine to construct some optimal N1) Every 1-neighborhood has in it exactly n cells,
path subject to various constraints imposed by the pat- where n, n > 1, is some predetermined number depend-
tern. The problem is to find efficient procedures, which, ing on the specific model involved.
if followed by the machine, would lead to an optimal N2) If c'CN(ci), then ciCN(cj). We will call the
solution. function N with domain C and range subsets of C the
Ideally, many situations would fall within this de- 1-neighborhood function.
scription. We might present to the machine a map of Together with the 1-neighborhood functions, there
Manhattan and ask it to find the shortest-time route are n functions di, d2, , d", on C to C defined as fol-
-

between, say, the United Nations and Yankee Stadium, lows: If ci is any cell in C and N(ct) = { cli, c2i, *, c,i,
using only public transportation. With sufficient care, then
it is possible to make a problem such as this unambigu-
ous. In most cases, however, it wvould be too great a dk(ei) =CkiJ k = 1, 2, , n.
struggle just to present the problem in a way that is
completely and consistently stated. For this reason, we l'G. B. Dantzig, "Maximization of a Linear Function of Variables
have decided to present an abstract model in Section II. Subjelct to Flinear Inequalities, " Cowles Commission; 1951.
work," Can. J. Malth., vol. 8, pp. 399-404; 1956.
F. F. VMoore, "vShortest path through a maze," in "Annals of the
* Received by the PGEC, December 2, 1960. This material was Computation Laboratory of Harvard University," Harvard Univer-
presented as part of the University of Michigan Engineering Summer sity Press, Cambridge, Mass., vol. 30, pp. 285-292; 1959.
Session, Ann Arbor, June 19-30, 1961. 4R. C. Prim, "Shortest connection networks and some general-
t Bell Telephone Labs., Inc., Whippany, N. J1. jzations," Belt Sys. Tech. J., vol. 36, pp. 1389-1401; November, 1957.

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 1961 Lee: An Algorithm for Path Connections and Its Applications 347
That is, dk(ci) is the kth coordinate cell in the 1-neigh- cell c**, find an admissible path pl2 ..r(C*, c**) which is
borhood of ci. minimal with respect to (fl, f2, * fr).
Let S be a finite set of symbols: S= s1I s52 * stm}. In the following section we will show an algorithm
S is called the alphabet of space e. which solves the path problem P for a certain set of
Let F be a map on C to CXS. That is, for every vectors F.
cicC, P(ci) =(c, s), siCS. In general we will write
F(ci) = (ci, s(ci)). Therefore, to every cell ci CC is asso- III. A SEARCH AND TRACE PROCEDURE
ciated some symbol s(ci) CS. The map F gives then the A. MIIontone Functions and M11onotone Vectors
cell-symbol configuration for a particular path problem. Let a C-space (C, S, N, F, M) be given. A function f
Generally speaking, we may keep in mind the analogy on r*(ci, ci) to the set of non-negative integers I is said
that each function F corresponds to some sort of a street to be monotone if for every path p(ci, ci), we have the
map for a particular city or town, and that the path
problem is to finid an optimal path fromn one point to
inequalitv
another in that city or town. f(p(ci, ck)) < f(p(c ci)),
Let ci, ci be two distinct cells in C. By a path p(ci, c') where p(ci, Ck) is any subpath of p(ci, ci). A vector F of
is meant a set of cells called a chain: p(ci, ci)
0=icc cl, c2, . , =cj asuch that ci+'lCN(ci) for
monotone functions (fi, f2,
onotone vector.
f,f is said to be a
s=0, 1, nm-i. ir(ci, ci) is meant the set of all
By
paths p(ci, ci) between cell ci and cell ci. B. An Algorithm
Let 211 be a map called an admission map with domain
ir(ci, ci) and range the two-element set O0, 11. Anly path Let c* and c** be the initial and final cells in a C-
p(ci, ci) such that M(p(ci, ci)) = 1 is said to be an ad- space (C, S, N, F, M). The main procedure will be given
in terms of a number of subprocedures.
mIssible path. Otherwise, p(ci, ci) is said to be inadmis-
sible. The set of all admissible paths will be denoted by D) Cell list: A cell list L IS an ordered list containing
s*(ci, ci) names of cells.
The quintuple (C, S, N, F, A) is called a C-space. D2) Cell mass: With each cell in list L will be associ-
ated an r-tuple called a cell mass (mi1, Mi2, * , mi). The
-

B. The Path Problem cell masses are ordered lexicographically. Thus, if

m = (mi1, Mi2, , mr), and m' = (M1', m2', me') are
Let F be a vector of r functions (fi, f2, ' fr) where two cell masses, (M1, M2, , mr) < (mi',IM21, mr/)
each function ft, Ti= 1, 2, r, is on 7r*(ci, ci), the set if mi = mi', i = 0, 1, k, but mk+l <m+l; O < k <r.
of admissible paths, to I, the set of noni-negative inte- D3) Chain coordinate: Associated with each cell in
gers. A path p'(ci, ci) of wr*(c, ci) is said to be minimal the list L is also a chain coordinate which is one of the
with respect to fi if 1-nieighborhood coordinate functions dk.
f1(p'(c6, Ci)) < f1(p(ci, C)) D4) Auxiliary list Li: An auxiliary cell list L1 is pro-
vided for momentary storage of names of cells.
for all p(ci, ci) Cr*(ci, ci). A path pl2(ci, ci) is said to be RI) Procedurefor constructing auxiliary list L1: Let c
minimal with respect to (fi, f2) if be a cell in list L. By a path p(c*, ci, c**) we mean a path
(i) pl2(Ci7, Cj) E_ pI(Ci7 p(c*, c**) of which p(c*, ci) is a subpath. A cell ci is said
p12(c ci) PC'(c~,fC)
(i) Ci) to be admissible if p(c*, ci, c**) is an admissible path
where P1(ci, ci) is the set of all paths in r*(ci, ci), which and if the cell mass for c' has not yet been determined.
are minimal with respect tofi; that is, Let {ci} CN(c) be the set of all admissible cells in N(c).
Append to list L1 the set ci1. L1 is constructed by re-
P(ci=, ci) PI ci) Mf(p1(ci, ci)) < fi(p(ci, ci)) peating this process for every entry c in L, under the
for all p(ci, ci) C w*(ci, ci) }; condition that a cell should not be listed more than once.
L1 is therefore the set of all distinct cells ci such that ci
and is an admissible cell in N(c) for some cell c in the list L.
(ii) f2(p'2(Ci, Ci)) < f2(p(Ci, Ci)) R2) Procedure for assigning cell masses and chain co-
ordinates:L,et c a cell in L1. A possible cell mass for c
for all p(c v ci) C P'(c , ci). is determined as follows: For each ciCNV(ci) whose cell
Therefore, p12(ct, ci) iS minimal with respect to (f', f2) mashsbeXeemnd osrc nrtpe
if among all paths minimal with respect tofi, p12(c1, cl) (fi(p(c*, ci, ci)), fr(p(c*, ci, c1))).
is also minimal with respect to f2. In a similar way, we
may define a path p12 .r(ci ci) which is minimal with Now apply rule R3 below to find a cioCN(ci), for which
respect to (f1, f2, * ,fr). this r-tuple is a minimum. A possible cell mass for ci is
The path problem we are considering is the following: then the r-tuple (fi(p(c*, cia, Ci)), * * * , fr(P(6*, cia, c1))),
P) Path problem: Given a C-space (C, S, N, F, M), and a possible chain coordinate for c1 is dkc where dk;(c1)
a vector F= fi, f2, * * * ,f4,} an initial cell c* and a final =cio.

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 348 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS September
Next, find possible cell mnasses for all ciGL1. Amnonig cluding the initial cell, be called the path length of that
the cells in L1, let {c' } be the set of cells whose possible path. For the path p(c*, c**), therefore, the path length
cell masses are a miniiiinmumi. We then assign to each is q+1.
CIE c } the samiie cell imiass aind the samiie chaini co- For admissible paths of lenigth 1,' it follows fromii rule
ordinate as its possible cell milass aid its possible chaini R2 that m(c**) < F(c*, c**). Let us nlow assume valid the
coordinate. iniduction hypothesis that m(c**) < F(c*, c**) for all
The cells whose possible cell imiasses are niot miinimial adinissible paths of path length n-ot greater than q.
are no longer conisidered, and the list L1 is cleared. Consider the subpath p(c*, cq) of p(c*, c**). By the
R3) Selection rule: In R2, a cell ci and a selected sub- induction hypothesis,
set I ci } of N(ci) were given. The rule which was invoked m(c) _ F(c*, c2).
to select one cio from the set {ci} is called a selection () . F(c*, ca).
rule. Let us now suppose m(c**) > F(c*, c**). Since F is mono-
R4) Procedure for updating list L: Let { c} be the set tone, we then have the inequalities
of cells whose cell nmasses had been determined by R2. m _(o)
_ F(c*, Cq) < F(C*, C**) < m(c**)
Append first to list L the set Ic'}
. Next examine each .
M(Cq) M(C*, iF
c**) <
Since now m(c) <m(c**), it follows from Lemma 1 that
m(c**)
cell c in L to see if the cell mnasses of all its admissible
a

1 neighbors had been determnined. If so, erase c from f(c*, Cq) < (C*, c**). Therefore the cell mass m(cq) is
the list L. determined before the cell mass m(c**) is determined.
R5) Initialization: Cell c* is given the cell mass From rule R2 it follows that as soon as m(cq) is de-
(0, O, , 0). The list L containis initially the single termined, the cell Cq becomes a member of cell list L.
entry c*. The list L, is initially cleared. Since by rule R2,
With the aid of rules R1-R5, we may now state the fmin {F(p(c*, ci, c**)) ci C N(c**)}
Mc* ==
main procedure. main procedure.
A: The Search and Trace Algorithms:
m(c**)
l~ ~ ~ ~ over
all c2 for which m(ct) iS defined,
Al: Search algorithm: Apply rule R5 for iniitializa- and since Cq is one of such cells ci, it follows that this
tion. Apply rules Rt, R2, R4 to entries of L until either minimum cannot be greater than F(p(c*, c**)). This
c** appears in L or the list L has been exhausted. In contradicts our earlier supposition, and the lemma fol-
the former case, we will proceed to the trace algorithm lows.
A2. In the latter case, there is no admissible path The basic result is embodied in the following:
p(c*, c**) in the e, space. Theorem: Let a C-space (C, S, N, r, AM) be given.
A2: Trace algorithm: Begin at c**, follow the chain Let P be a path problem with respect to a vector F.
coordinates until c* is reached. This determines a unique If F is monotone, then algorithm A yields a path
path p(c*, c**). p(c*, c**) satisfying P.
Proof: Let p(c*, c**) be any admissible path from
C. The Procedulre Applied to the Path Problem c* to c**. Since F is monotone, we may apply Lemma 2
LetaeCspace(C,S,N, IF,M), avectorF =(fif2, ,f,) to get m(c**). F(p(c*, c**)). It follows from rule R2
and an initial cell c* be given. A cell ci which is reached that
from c* after exactly t application of rules Rt to R4 is m(C**) = (fi(p(c*, C**)), * * ,fr(P(c* C**))).
said to have a chain index I (c*, ci) of t from c*. We will . .
begin with two lemmas.
Lemma 1: Let F be a monotone vector. Let ci and ci F(p(c*, c**)) = (fl(p(c*, c**)), * *,fr(p(c*,
f c**))).
be two cells with cell masses m(ci) and m(ci) and chair The theorem therefore follows by the lexicographic
indexes (c*, ci) and f(c*, ci), respectively. If m(ci) <m(c'), ordering of these r-tuples
then f(c*, ci) <((c*, ci).
Proof: Assume 1(c*, ci) > f(c*, ci). This means that IV. APPLICATIONS
after f(c*, ci) applications of rules RI to R4, the cell
mass m(ci) has been determined, but the cell mass Id the setiC to abe t squares her planewith
m(ci) has not. By the nature of rule R2, the cell masses the sual 1niboroos as shown in Fig 1.aWe will
are obtained by evaluating the vector F for the paths in the alpb setgSoconsis of th Fig:
let, thflphabe set S'~ [onr1Qt of the4c fnlo1"lT;g:CY
question. Since F is monotone by hypothesis, m (ct) 1 iisfo o9
>m(ci) and the lemma follows.
Lemma 2: Let F be a monotonle vector. Let p(c*, 2) All letters of the English alphabet.
c**) be any admissible path from c* to c**. TIhen m(c**) 3) The symbols: +, -, ., J, /, ~,-, K, 7, 1, r

Proof: Let p(c*, c**) consist of the chainl of cells The i-neighborhood function N and the coordinate
_ _ o1 2 q ** _ +1} functions d1, d,, d8, and d4 are defined as follows: Given
p(c*, c**) = c** **
-c,{* c1, c2, * , c** c -c . a cell ci, d1(ci) is the cell to the right of ci, d2(ci) is the
W;e will let the number of cells contained in a path, ex- cell above ci, d3(ci) is the cell to the left of ci and d4(ct)

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 1961 Lee: An Algorithm for Path Connections and Its Applications 349

16 15 14 13

5 4 3 12

6 2

7 8 9 10

Fig. 1-The set C of squares in the plane.

is the cell below ci. N(ci) is theni the set 'di(ci), d2(ci), We assert first that f is moniotone. This is so by the
d3(ci), d4(ci) } iterative nature of the definition of f; the value of f
Let a funiction r7 be given, so that to each cell ciE C is never decreases as a path increases in length. Hence, we
associated a symbol s(ci) CS. The function 111 is given may apply the basic theorem to get:
as follows: Corollary 1: Algorithm A solves the minimnal-crossinig
Let p(c*, c**) = {c° = c*, cl, , c-1, Cn = c**} be a problem.
path fromn c* to c**. p(c*, c**) is admissible, i.e., Example 1: Consider the cell configuration given in
MAlr(p(c*, c**)) = 1, if Fig. 2. The path AA consisting of the chain of cells
1) s(ci)= blank,-, or for i1, 2, n-1. {6, 5, 16, 15, 14, 3, 2, 11, 28} is already present. We
2) s(ci+l) £- whenever ci+A=d1(ci) or ci+1 =d3(ci), wish to find a minimal-crossing path from c* (cell 18),
i=O, 1, * n-i. to c** (cell 13).
3) s(ci+1)5# whenever ci+1=d2(ct) or c(+ =d4(cC), Applying algorithm A, we find that list L consists of
i=O , , n-i.
n the single entry { 181 to begin with. List L1 therefore
Thus, except for the function F which depends on the has in it entries {5, 17, 19}. Note that cell 39 is not an
applicationi in question, the specialization of the e admissible 1-nieighbor of cO. The possible cell masses
space to our applications has been fully described. for cells {5, 17, 19} are 1, 0 and 0, respectively. Hence,
by rule R2, cells 17 and 19 are assigned cell mass 0 and
are appended to the list L. Moreover, the chain co-
A. A Minimal-Grossing Problem
ordinates of cells 17 and 19 are respectively d4 and d2.
Given a set of squares in the plane, the problem Of The cell masses and chain coordinates for these cells are
fin-ding a path p(c*, c**) from c* to c** such that properly denoted in Fig. 2. Thus, in cell 17, we have the
p(c*, c**) crosses over the fewest number of existing pair (t 0) meaning that the chain coordinate is d4
paths is called the miniimal-crossing problem. We will (i.e., downward) and the cell mass is 0.
formulate the minimi-al-crossing problemi as a path prob- Applying rules Rl to R4 again, we find that list L,
lem in som-le appropriate C space and then solve it with has in it now the entries {5, 201. This is so since cells
the aid of algorithm A. 16, 36, 38, 39, 6 and 40 are all not admissible. The pos-
For this problem the vector F would consist of a sible cell masses for cells 5 and 20 are respectively 1
single function f given as follows: and 0. Thus, the cell mass for cell 20 is 0, the chain co-
F1) f(p(c*, c*))=0. ordinate for cell 20 is d2, and cell 20 is appenided to
F2) If s(ci) =blank, then list L. Moreover, cells 17 and 19 are erased from list L.
Fig. 3 shows the cell mass and chain coordinates for
(min {f(p(c*, ci)) ci AT(ci) }
all ci
over all the cells reached by the application of Algorithm A.
=6
f(p(c*,ci)) for whichf(p(c*, c')) has been defined; The trace algorithm then traces out a solution path
undefIned otherwise. oitdi i.3
p(c*, c**) as shown. The boundary cells have been
(undefined otherwise.
F3)Ifs(c =-, he 2: Consider again the cell configuration in
E<xample
((min{f(p(c*, d2(ci))),f(p(c*, d4(cD)) ) }) +1 Fig. 2. In this case, however, we stipulate that it costs
f(p(c*, ci)) = if either one of the values of f is defined; 3 units to cross a -, but 1 unlit to cross a |. That is,
I ~~~~~~~~~~the
definition F3 iS changed to read:
oundefined otherwise.
F4) If s(c) = , then F3'. If s(c'-)=- then1

f(p(c*, c2)) = |if either one of the values of f is defined; f(p(c*, c&)) = j if either one of the values of f is defined;
lundefined otherwise. tundefined otherwise.

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 350 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS September
371 36 35 34 33 32 31
x X X X X X X 17 16 IS 14 13 30

17 15 14

lx
38 16 13 30 B
-B K 4 ____ _ _ _
IX39IBIS I 4 I Zl 29l 1 I181 5 4 3 12 29

(0) ___I_
x A x L A x j AL 2A2
41 20 7 a 9 10 27,0) __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ ( , ) _ _ _ _

42
21 42 22 23 24 25 26
__2 7 8 10 27

IS ~ ~ ~ 5 1 4 3 12
29BIJ

(0) example.
(* 1) (,1) ,)
(0
Fig. 3-Cell
(-,I)
configuration
(-)
after
___
algorithm(,)
A has been
Fig. 2-A minimal-crossing applied to Example 1. __

17 16 15 14 13 30

Sn - g
(4,0) __________ (4,2)
18 5 4 3 12 29

(0) (*- I I) (*- ,I) (-2) (42) _

19 6 I2 II 28
A x L - A

20 7 8 9 10 27

(4,0) I(*--0 (4 4,
00) (4- 0) (, 0)
Fig. 4-Cell configuration after algorithm A has been
applied to Example 2.

Since F is still monotone, algorithmn A miay be ap- g(p(c*, c))

plied to solve this modified path problem.
In this case, after applying algorithm A, we have the '(min { g(p(c*, ci)) |C C N(c')}) + R(ci)
cell configuration and the solution path shown in Fig. 4. = over all Ci for which g(p(c*, ci)) has been defined;
In Example 1, the function f is not only monotone,
but grows a single unit at a timne. For such functions and
for vectors made up of such functions, it is possible to
simplify algorithm A to solve the path problem. In where R(ci) =the number of cells ci in N(ci) in each of
Example 2 the functioni f nio longer grows one unit at a which the symbol is neither blank, nor -, nor
time. The machinery of C5-space is needed to cope with
this more general class of monotone functions. G3) If s(ci)= , then

B. A AMinimal-Edge-Effect Problem g(p(c*, ci))

Let us begin with the C,-space consisting of squares
in the plane described earlier. Let an initial cell c* and
{(min{g(p(c*, di())), g(p(c*, d4)Ci)))*)+ R(ci)
a final cell c** be given. We wish now to consider the = if either value of g is defined;
problem of finding a path from c'* to c * * which avoids, undfedotherwise:
as much as possible, any symbol other than -, |and
the blank symbol. In other words, we want a path G4) If s(ct) = then
which does not tend to "cling to edges."'
For this application, the vector F would again con-*
sist of a single function g given as follows: f(min {g(p(c, d1(ct))), g(p(c*, d3(ci)))})
Gi) g(p(c*, c*)) =0. g(p(c*, ci)) = + R(ci) if either value of g is defined;
G2) If s(c9 = blank, then ~undefined otherwise.

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 1961 Lee: An Algorithm for Path Connections and Its Applications 351
64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57

X X A

37 36 35 34 33 32 31 56

xI
( I,0) 0) (01
38 17 16 15 14 13 30 55
x x
1-0 (, ) -( ,o) (-, ) ('-.01
39 148 5 4 3 12 29 54
x
(I ,0)
40 89 6
1 (0)
2
('-. 0)
I )
28
9,01
53
x x
41 20 (9,0)f 1,0)
7 8 9
___
10 27 52
A
(4,0) 24 10) 25 26 01,0) 51
X
(0) 42 21 22 23
(4,0) ('-0) 44 45 (9,10)4~f6 (---0) 47 ('-0) 48 (-0) 49 (-0O) 50
I"
(9,'0) ('-0) (-0O) ('-0) )-0) (- 01 (--0) (0
Fig. 5-A miinimal edge-effect example.

From this it follows that F is again mnonotone. erty was the niumber of crossings, anid in the second, the
Therefore, we have: property was edge effect.
Corollary 2: Algorithmii A solves the minimal edge- On the other hand, the C-space mnodel was intended
effect problemn. to solve joint miiimizationi problems; i.e., the vector F
Example 3: Consider the cell configuratioin giveli ini may have several compoinent funictions. In order to
Fig. 5. We wish to construct a path AA from cell 41 to illustrate the possibility of joint miinimization, let us
cell 58 satisfying the path problem with respect to the consider a minimal distance then edge-effect problem.
vector F given by Gt to G4. What we wish to find here is a path which is, first of all,
To begin with, the list L has in it the single enitry one of the shortest, and secondly, among all shortest
41 1. The list L1, therefore, has in it enitries t 20, 40, 42 }. paths, this path is also mninimal with respect to edge
The possible cell masses for these cells are, respectively, effect. The vector F for this problem has, therefore, two
1, 0, 0. Therefore, by rule R2, m(40) =m(42) ==0. The component functions F= (h, g), where h is the distance
chaiin coordinates for cells 40 and 42 are also determinied function and g is the edge-effect function.
and are respectively I and T . The edge-effect funictioni g will be taken to be exactly
List L is now updated to contain cells 41, 40, 421. the same as that defined previously in Gt to G4. The
From this, we get for list L1 the cells 120, 19, 39, 21, 43 }. distance function h is given as follows:
Following rule R2, we get therefore m(39) =m(43) HI) The function h satisfies Fl, F3, F4.
=m(21) =0, and also their chain coordinates. By rule H2) If s(ci) =blank, then
R4, cell 42 is erased from list L.
The new list L IIow has in it cells 141, 40, 39, 43, 211. ((min{ h(p(c*, c)) c1 ( N(c1) }) ± lover all
Therefore, cells 120, 19, 18, 38, 22, 44} all belong to list h(p(c*, ci)) = ci for which h(p(c*, c) has been defined;
L1. Consider now cell 44. It is clear that m(44) =0. We undefined otherwise.
must, however, invoke the selection rule R3 to get its
chain coordinate. We may assume, in this case, that From these definitions it again follows that both h and
the left neighbor is always preferred over the other 1- g are monotone functions. F= (h, g) is therefore a mono-
nieighbors. The chain coordinate for cell 44 then be- tone vector. Therefore, we have:
comes <-. Corollary 3: Algorithm A solves the joint minimiza-
Continuing in this way, we arrive at the path shown tion problem with respect to first distance then edge
in Fig. 5. We see that the path so constructed avoided effect.
all the X 's which may be considered as edges. Example 4: Let us consider again the original con-
joint **~~~~~~~~* ~figuration shown in Fig. 5. We wish to find a path AA
C. Mi Mt nimization which solves the path problem with respect to the vec-
In the last two applications, the vector F in each tor F= (h, g) for this configuration.
case consisted of a single function. This was So because Following rule R5, we begin with cell 41 in list L.
we were looking for paths which were minimal with By rule R1, cells 20, 40 and 42 therefore belong to list
respect to a single property. In the first case, the prop- L1. The possible cell masses for cells 20, 40 and 42 are

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 352 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS September
64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57

K X A
(4, 5,2) -,6,3) (4-7,4) ((12,2) (4,13,1)
37 36 35 34 33 32 31 56
K
(4,4,21 (4,8,51 (,9,7) (4,10,3) ( I,I1,11 (4-,12,1)
38 17 16 15 14 13 30 55
K IC
14,3,1) (,98)
98_ (4,9,2) (4,10,) (-, 11,1) -,12,1)
39 18 2 4 3 12 29 54

(4,2,0) (4,3,2) (4,7,5) +8,1) (4-9,1) (4,10,2) (4-11,2)

40 19 6 2 II 28 53

4+,1,0) (4,2,11 (4,6,3) (4,7,1) ( 8,2) (4,10,2)

41 20 7 8 9 10 27 52
A IC
(0) (*-, 1,1) (4,5,2) (,6,11 (4-7,1) (4-,8,21 (4,9,))
21 22 23 24 25 26 51

(4,1,0) (*,2,0) (+-,3,1) (,41) (-,5,1) (,6,1) (4-,7, 1) (4-,8,)

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

(f,2,0) (,3,0 ) (4-,4,0 ) (4-,5,0) (-,6,0) ( * ,7,0) (4,8,0) (*-,9,0)

Fig. 6-A joint minimization example.

respectively (1, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 0). Therefore, m(40) 1-neighborhood funciton N* satisfies the finiteness con-
= (1, 0) and m(42) = (1, 0). The chain coordinates for dition NO rather than conditions Ni and N2 of Section
cells 40 and 42 are respectively I and 1. II. Accordingly, we must also make minlor changes to
From rule R4, the list L now contains cells 41, 40 and algorithm 4. For instance, we must redefine the coor-
42. Therefore, by Ri, list L1 has now in it cells { 20, 19, dinate functions di, and modify our process of assigniing
39, 43, 21} with possible cell masses respectively: chain coordinates. Let us agree to call the modified al-
(1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 0), (2, 0), (2, 0). Thus m(20) = (1, 1) gorithm A*. Then our basic theorem would read:
and cell 20 has chain coordinate <-. Let a e*-space (C, S, N*, F, Al) be given. Let P be a
Continuing in this mannier, and using again the selec- path problem with respect to a vector F. If F is mono-
tion rule R3 that the left direction is to be preferred tone, then algorithm A4* yields a path p(c*, c**) satisfy-
over all other directions, we arrive at the path shown in ing P.
Fig. 6. We see that in this case, since we are interested In regardi to the second question, our knowledge is
in the shortest path, the path AA makes contact once very meager. It is quite possible that an essentially
with an edge. We had seen before that there are paths different algorithm is needed to deal with non-monotone
which make no contact with any edge. vectors.
Coming back to our basic theorem, we ought to make
D. Generalizations it clear that even when a vector F is nmonotone, it may
\Ve should, perhaps, take a moment at this time to be so pathological that the process of applying algo-
reflect on the following two questions. In Section II, we rithm A could become extremely tedious. To be specific,
have set up an abstract model, our C5-space, in such a let p(cl, cn) be an admissible path consisting of the chain
way that algorithm A can be used to solve path prob- of cells:
lems formiulated withini this model. The first question
we will ask is whether algorithm A4 can be applied to p(c', cn) = Ic1, c2, , c}.
still more general situations that is, whether our ab-
stract model of C-space may be further generalized. In A monotone function f is said to be 1-hereditary if
a similar way, we may wish to relax the monotone con- f(p(c1, ca)) depends only on f(p(cl, cn-l)) and on cells
dition on vectors F. The second question is, therefore, Cn-' and cr1. A monotone function f is said to be 2-
whether our basic theorem may be generalized to in- hereditary if f(p(cl, Cn)) depends only on f(p(cl, Cn-2))
dlude also perhaps a subclass of non-monlotone vec- and f(p(c', c4-')) and cells c-2, cn- and c8 In a similar
tors. manner, we may define p-hereditary functions for p_ .1.
The answer to the first question can be given in the All of the exarmples of monotone vectors given in this
affirmlative, and may appear a bit surprising. Specifi- section happen to be 1-hereditary. In such cases the
cally, we may redefine the 1-neighborhood funlction N process of applying algorithmn A is much simplified.
such that N needs to satisfy (neither rule Ni nor rule N2 \V\e may also apply algorithml A to solve the minimal
of Section II. The only condition that N mnust satisfyr is corner problem; that is, to find a path with the least
a finiteness condition: number of corners. This problem presents an interesting
NO. Every i-neighborhood is finite. twist, since the corner function is monotone but 2-
Let us call a space (C, S, N*, F, Al) a C5-*space if the hereditary. In the same way, one may construct p-

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 1961 Lee: An Algorithm for Path Connections and Its Applications 353

hereditary functionis for arbitrary p. Indeed, one may minimal-distance problem, it occurred to us that the
construct m-ionoton-e functions which are not finitely search algorithmn is, in a remote sense, a computer nodel
hereditary. of waves expanding from a source unlder a form of
straight-line geometry. Those cells havinig the same cell
V. MINIMAL-DISTANCE SOLUTIONS-A MA/AZE AND miiass mllay be thought of as the locations of the wave-
OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS fronit at the mth unit of timie. Fig. 8, for example, may
As the reader can see, the statement of algorithm A be taken to represenit the wavefront originating from
lends itself quite directly to computer programming. source A as it expanded.
Such a step for the minimal distance problem has been Following this line of thought, we proceeded to run
carrieout. A natural cell configuration Is dtr Ined a few simple experimenits suggested by optics. In Fig.
byrthed printer ntassociated co
mpiurater. Tetpriner
15, the obstacle consisted of a vertical barrier with a slit
printsr
canthep rinte120characters oe line,tand thereforena
winhconfiguran
usu in the middle. The source is at the left-hanid end of the
lines
60retag
60 a a pa
to
arra o12 cell byg60 csis thesets o of
cell diagram. The blank spaces may serve as an indication
the propagation of the wavefraont.
The reader may see
symbols are, in this case, the set of characters onthe that the wave pattern to the right of the obstacle is the
printer, same as that which would have been produced by a

In~~~~~~
71
In Fig. 7 Fig
is shw an input into the
shown aniptit optr The
h computer. h
bounidary cells and the obstacle cells are all marked X.
source
I the
In located at the slit. 16 shows the effect of
the same way, Fig.
staeway Figs.16 shw th efe oaving
having
In this illustration, we wish to find a miniimal-distance a 2-slit obstacle and Figs. 17 and 18 are patterns
path~~~~~~
path
between celAadelB
betee cell A and cell B. created by having a number of multiple-slit obstacles.
There are several differences between the model
Fig. 8 shows the result of applying algorithm Al (the
search algorithm) to the cell configuratioin given in Fig.
7. Since it is not possible to print mnore thani one char- The geometry assumed in this model is, in the first place,
acter in each cell, we have chosen to print out the least not Euclidean. Since distances in this geometry are
significant octal digit of the cell masses. The reader can measured roughly as distances are understood by taxi
see that the immediate neighbors of cell A has cell .ass drivers on the island of Manhattan, this geometry is
1. The neighbors of these have cell mass 2, etc. This sometimes called Manhattan geometry.
In addition to the difference in geometry, and the fact
search-expansion process continues until cell B is that we are dealing with a discrete space, we have also
reached.
Fig. 9 shows the result of applyXig
algorithm A2 (the not taken into account the phenomenon of interference.
trace algorithm) to the cell configuration. The selection The comiputer instead has a built-in first-come-first-
rule used here is to order the admissible neighbors ac- served rule. That is, where there are several sources pres-
cording to the following list of preference: right, up, ent, the amplitude of the wave at any point is deter-
left, down. The path shown is the machinie's solution to mined b the source closest to it.
the original path problem. Although there is only a remote resemblanice between
this model and optics, these experiments seem to sug-
Fig. 10 depicts a three-stage adder circuit; each box gest
designates one of the circuit stages. We wish to apply phenomena the possibility of microsimulation of physical
on a computer and the possibility of look-
algorithm A to establish all appropriate coinections. for effects in this way if the laws of nature were
Fig. 11 shows the result of applying algorithm A. One ing
miay note that in these paths, there are many more also nodified. In our case, it would be possible to iniclude
corners than necessa'ry. The appearance of these extra interference. The model would then be a reasoni-
. . 1
. *
~~~~~~~ablv
coriners is due to our simple selection rule. To a large Ifaithful representation of elenienltary wave phe-

extent, the appearance of paths can be conitrolled by nomena under discrete M\anhattai geometry.
incorporatinig appropriate selection rules inito algo-
rithm-i A. VI I. AcKNOWLEDGMENT
Shortly after the program was written, we realized In the course of this work, the writer has had the
that this program, without change, can be used to also benefit of stimulating conversation-s with a number of
solve maze problemls. In this sense then, and with people. Among these are E. F. Moore, T. H. Crowley,
proper modifications, the program may serve in particu- D. H. Evans, S. H. Washburn, R. W. Hamming and
lar as a 704 version of Shannon's mnaze-solving ma- C. A. Lovell. The "diffraction" experimlents were an
chine.5 An illustration is the Hampton court maze outgrowth of a conversation with D. H. Evans. The
shown in Filg. 12. Filg. 13 shows the result of applying wrriter also wishes to acknowledge the unltirinlg assist-
the search algorithmn to the mtaze conlfiguration. The ance for Sections V and VI from 5. 0. Four of IBM4.
machine's solution is given by Fig. 14.
5C. E. Shannon, "vPresentation of the maze-solving machine,"
Trans of the 8th Gybernetics Conf., Josiah MVacy Jr. Foundationl, New
VI. THE SEARCH ALGORITHM AND HUYGENS York, N. Y., pp. 173-180; 1952.
PRINCIPLE
In the course of programming algorithm A for the (See Figs. 7-18, on follZowing pp. 354-365.)

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xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x x
x x x
x x x xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
x x x
x x x
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x x x
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x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x
x A x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
x xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx x XXXX)
x x
x x
x x
x x
x B x
x x
x x
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x)tex,'Xk xxxxx x x x x xxx x
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xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXX)
Fig. 7-Input into computer for minimal-distance solutions.

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xxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXX)xxxx
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x x
x x x x
X X 1 X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
X X 1 7 X X
X Xl 767 X X
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X 1 X7654567 1 X X
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X 1 7X543234567 1 X X
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X 1 7654321X7654567 1234567 1 X X N
X 1 7654321 X65434567 12X67 1 X X
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X 1 7654321234567 1 X X
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X 1 76567 B x X
X 1 767 X X
X 1 7 X X
x 1 x X
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xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx
Fig. 8-Result of applyinig search algorithm to Fig. 7.

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xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx >
x x x
x x x
x x
x x x
x N N x
x x x N
x x x xxxxNxxxxxXNNNxxxxXN NXxXNXX NNNNN
x x x
x x x
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Fig. 9 One solultioii to thle i-illliial-dlisl[tane problernl.

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xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
x xO
xx
x Al

x A2
x xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxx
X A3 X X XX x x x
X x x x x x xx
X MsX X X X X
x A*x x x x x xx
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X X X X
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:x A5x x x x x
_X X X X X X 3
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A Q
A 85.
A
A
X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
A

AX
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A
A

A
AX

Fig. 10-A circuit block diagram as input into computer. C

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xX
x
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
- -- - -- - -
X A0. ---
- - -
xx -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-- -

x
- - - - - - - - - - --- ---
-- - - - --- ----
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- - - - - - - --- ----
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X v, II xV viiX, X
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X III Ix x
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~~~~x -X Xse .-- -X X .--- --S
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x~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~xC
Fig. 1 1-Resuilt of applying algorithm-i A to Fig. 10.

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xxxxxxxxxxx xxx xx xxxxxxxxxxxxx xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xxxx xxxxxxx xxxxx xxx xxx XXXXX xx xxx xx xxxxxxx xxx x x xx xxxXxxxx xxxxxxxxxx xxxxx
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Fig. 12 A maze iilpLit into the computer.

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Fig. 13-Result of applyin-g search algorithmi to Fig. 12.

Authorized licensed use limited to: INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BOMBAY. Downloaded on November 17,2022 at 16:00:11 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
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FIG. 14-Machine's solution to the maze problem. :

Authorized licensed use limited to: INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BOMBAY. Downloaded on November 17,2022 at 16:00:11 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
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Fig. 1 5-A single-slit experlimien-t.

Authorized licensed use limited to: INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BOMBAY. Downloaded on November 17,2022 at 16:00:11 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
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Fig. 16-A double-slit experim--enit.

Authorized licensed use limited to: INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BOMBAY. Downloaded on November 17,2022 at 16:00:11 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
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Fig. 17-Begirininig of a multiple-slit experimienit.

Authorized licensed use limited to: INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BOMBAY. Downloaded on November 17,2022 at 16:00:11 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
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Fig. 18 Near the el-d of a niultiple-slit experinment. t

Authorized licensed use limited to: INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BOMBAY. Downloaded on November 17,2022 at 16:00:11 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.