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2 - Sets, Functions, Cardinality

Basics of sets, functions between sets, and cardinality of sets.

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sathya.pranav.deepak
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10 views

2 - Sets, Functions, Cardinality

Basics of sets, functions between sets, and cardinality of sets.

Uploaded by

sathya.pranav.deepak
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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2 - Sets, Functions, Cardinality

A collection of object is called a set. We will denote sets by capital letters


A, B …

When an object a is in set A, we write a ∈ A, otherwise, we write a ∉ A. let


A, B he sets. If every a ∈ A is also in B, we say that A is a subset of B,

and write A ⊂ B. Vacuously, the empty set ϕ is a subset of any set.


If A ⊂ B and A ≠ B, A ≠ ϕ, then A is a proper subset of B, written A ⊆ B.

If P (x) is a predicate, then there is a set S that collects all objects x for
which P (x) is true. We write S = {x : P (x)}.

The set of elements that belong to both A and , is called the intersection
B

of A and B, dented A ∩ B.

the set of elements that belong to A or B , is called the union of A and B ,


denoted A ∪ B.

Properties of union and intersection

(i) identities:- A ∩ A = A, A ∪ A = A.
(ii) interaction with the empty set

A ∩ ϕ = ϕ, A ∪ ϕ = A.

(iii) Symmetry:- A ∪ B = B ∪ A, A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
(iv) Associativity:- A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C , A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C .

(y) Distribution:- A∩(B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

(Vi) Existence of Arbitrary unions and intersections. let J be an index set


(Probably infinite at any Cardinal), then ⋂ A and ⋃ A exist. α α

α∈J α∈J

Difference of sets

if A and B an sets, A − B is the set that contains all objects in A, which are
not in B , written A − B = {x ∈ A ∣ x ∉ B} .

Properties of difference

(i)) A ∩ B = ϕ , then A − B = A, B − A = B . if A = B = A , then A ∩ B = ϕ.


(ii) A − B = ϕ if and andy if A ⊂ B .
(ii) A − C = A − B if and and if A ∩ C = A ∩ B .
(iv) A − A = ϕ, A − ϕ = A.

De-morgan laws: A − (B ∩ C) = (A − B) ∪ (A − C).

A − (B ∪ C) = (A − B) ∩ (A − C).

Contesian Products

let S1 , S2 … Sn he sets, n
X i=1 S i is the set of ordered n-tuples (x 1 , … x n ) with
xi ∈ Si .

Proposition 2.1 (A property of cartesian products).

Let A, C ⊆ S , and B, D ⊆ T . Then,

(A × B) ∩ (C × D) = (A ∩ C) × (B ∩ D)

Proof.

Let (x, y) ∈ (A × B) ∩ (C × D). Then, (x, y) ∈ (A × B). hence x ∈ A and y ∈ B.


Similarly, (x, y) ∈ (C × D) hence x ∈ C and y ∈ D. Therefore, x ∈ A ∩ C and
y ∈ B ∩ D .

Functions

Definition 2.2 (Functions, Image, Pre-image).

f : X → Y is a function if for each x ∈ X , we associate exactly one


fx ∈ Y .

Let A ⊆ X , then the image of A under f is f A = {y ∈ Y : y = f x, x ∈ A} .


Let B ⊆ Y , then the pre-image of B under f is
B = {x ∈ X : f x = y, y ∈ B}.
−1
f

f is injective if the pre-image of any singleton y ∈ Y has at most one


element.
f is surjective if f X = Y . f is bijective if it is both injective and
surjective, in which case, f exists, and is a bijection from Y to
−1
X .

Proposition 2.3 (Interaction of images and pre-images of functions with


set operators ).

For the following discussion, let f : X → Y , A, B ⊆ X , C, D ⊆ Y .


1. f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B) , f
−1
(C ∪ D) = f
−1
(C) ∪ f
−1
(D)

2. f (A ∩ B) = f (A) ∩ f (B) only if f is injective.


3. f (A − B) = f (A) − f (B) only if f is injective.
4. f
−1
(C − D) = f
−1
(C) − f
−1
(D) , f
−1
(C ∩ D) = f
−1
(C) ∩ f
−1
.
(D)

Proof. Left for the reader.

Cardinality

Definition 2.4 (Set isomorphisms ).

A set A is isomorphic to set B , denoted A ∼ B , if there exists a


bijection f : A → B, in which case we say that A and B have the same
cardinality, sometimes written |A| = |B|. The described relation is an
equivalence, meaning that sets can be partitioned into classes, all of
whose cardinality is the same.

Definition 2.5 (Finite sets, countable sets, uncountable sets).

let J n = {1, 2, … n} , where n ∈ N . A set X is finite if X ∼ Jn , for some


n ∈ N

A set X is countable, if X ∼ N , otherwise it is uncountable

Theorem 2.6 (A set, and its power set).

let X be any set, then X ≁ 2


X
where 2
X
is the power set of X

Proof. Suppose there exists a bijection f : X → 2 . collect all X


x ∈ X such
that x is mapped to a subset of X that doesn't contain x.
, A could be empty too. Then, notice that A is a subset
A = {x ∈ X : x ∉ f (x)}

of X, and since f is surjective, we have a ∈ X for which f (a) = A. if a ∈ A,


then a ∉ f (a) = A, a contradiction. if a ∉ A, then a ∉ f (a), hence a ∈ A, also a
contradiction.

Theorem 2.7 (The reals are uncountable).


There exists no bijection f : N → R .

Proof. Suppose There exists a bijection f : N → R , write the real numbers,


as infinite decimal digits, for example 4.999999 ⋯ = 5.000000 … pick the one
with infinite zeros. write f (i) = x , x , . . . . . then make K = x̄ , x̄ , … Here,
i1 i2 11 22

x̄
ii≠ x . Then K ∈ R, but K ∉ f (N) . Contradicting the Surjectivity of the map
ii

f.

Theorem 2.8 (Every Infinite subset of a countable set is countable).

Let A be a countable set, E an infinite subset of A . Then, E is


countable.

Proof. Use the bijection from N → A , to index A as . Now, consider


a1 , a2 , …

the following algorithm, find e ∈ E with the smallest index in A, that is


∗

∗
e = a for the smallest j. set e = e , delete e from E, and repeat this
j
∗
1
∗

process (use a proof by induction), to show that E is indexable.

Theorem 2.9 (The union of countable sets, is countable ).

let

Proof.

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