The Training Participants

Compliance and Management Systems Team

LEARN TEXTILE
Base Knowledge for Merchandisers and Export Marketing Peoples

FIBRE AND YARN

(SPINNING)

Process Flow of Cotton

Pretreatment (Bleached Fabric) Cotton From Fields Dyeing (Dyed Fabric) Printing (Printed Fabric)

Ginning (Bales)

Aged/Cured

Spinning (Yarn)

Finishing Wet & Dry (Finished Fabric)

Finishing Wet & Dry (Finished Fabric)

Weaving (Greige Fabric)

Packing/Folding

Pretreatment (Bleached Fabric)

Packed Fabric

(Garments/Home Textile)

Stitching

(Customer/Consumer)

Exported

Types of Fibres
Natural Fibres
Cotton Wool Silk Linen and other bast fibres e.g. Jute, Hemp

Regenerated Fibres
Viscose Acetate Rayon Cupormonium Rayon Lyocell Spandax Lycra

Synthetic Fibres
Polyester Polyamide (Nylon) Poly-Acrylic (Vinyl)

Fibre Characteristics
Staple Length
Cotton fibre considered with regard to its length and fineness. Short Staple: Less than 25 mm Medium Staple: 25 to 30 mm Long Staple: 30 to 37 mm Extra Long Staple: 37 mm and above

Micronair
The size of individual cotton fibre taken in crosssection.

Types of Cotton
Upland Cotton:
Originally used to refer to cotton grown on raised lands not prone to flooding. Now refers to short and medium staple cottons having staple length between 25 to 30 mm. Long staple cotton variety having staple length between 30 to 37 mm. Organically grown cotton uses crop rotation, beneficial insects, compost and other farming methods in place of chemical fertilizers and intensive farming techniques.

Pima Cotton: Organic:

Types of Cotton
Desi Cotton:
Only refer to Pakistani short staple cotton having less than 25 mm staple length e.g. Punjab Desi and Sind Desi.

G.Barbadense:
Pima or extra long staple cotton having above 37 mm staple length. Major producing countries are Egypt, the USA, Israel, Peru and the Central Asian states of the former Soviet Union

Punjab Upland Type

Variety
B-557 MNH-93 NIAB-78 SLH-41 CIM-70 MNH-129 S-12 FH-87 Year of G.O.T Staple Length Micronaire Strength Period of Release (%) Inches (mm) Value (000 tppst) Picking 1975 1981 1983 1984 1986 1986 1988 1988 35.9 36.5 36.6 36.7 31.1 38.5 40.3 36.8 1-1/32 (26.2) 1-1/8 (28.6) 1-1/16 (27.0) 1-3/32 (27.8) 1-5/32 (29.4) 1-1/32 (26.2) 1-1/8 (28.6) 1-3/32 (27.8) 4.5 4.7 3.9 4.4 4.2 4.4 4.3 4.2 92.9 94.0 91.3 95.8 92.5 95.4 93.0 95.9 Oct-Nov Nov-Dec Nov-Dec Nov-Dec Nov-Dec Nov-Dec Nov-Dec Nov-Dec

Punjab Upland Type

Variety
Gohar-87 CIM-109 RH-1 NIAB-86 CIM240 BH-36 FH-682 MNH-147 NH-26 Year of G.O.T Staple Length Micronaire Strength Period of Release (%) Inches (mm) Value (000 tppst) Picking 1990 1990 1990 1990 1992 1992 1992 1992 1992 36.0 35.0 33.4 34.5 35.5 38.7 37.0 40 37.5 1-3/32 (27.8) 1-3/32 (27.8) 1-3/16 (30.2) 1-5/32 (29.4) 1-3/32 (27.8) 1-3/32 (28.0) 1-1/8 (28.5) 1-1/16 (27.5) 1-3/32 (28.0) 4.1 4.4 3.9 4.3 4.7 4.3 4.3 4.2 4.4 95.0 91.4 103.7 95.0 93.7 100.3 95.7 95.5 95.0 Nov-Dec Nov-Dec Nov-Dec Nov-Dec Nov-Dec Nov-Dec Oct-Nov Nov-Dec Nov-Dec

Sindh Upland Type

Variety
M-4 (N.T) M-100 (N.T) H-59-1 (Qalandari) S-59-1 (Sarmast) K68/9 TH-1101 (Rehmani) GH-28/82 (Shaheen) TH-1174 (Reshmi) Year of G.O.T Staple Length Micronaire Strength Period of Release (%) Inches (mm) Value (000 tppst) Picking 1942 1963 1974 1975 1977 1985 1988 1991 33.0 34.0 33.5 34.6 35.0 35.1 35.2 15/16 (23.8) 1-1/32 (26.2) 1-1/8 (28.6) 1-1/8 (28.6) 1-3/16 (30.2) 1-1/32 (26.2) 1-1/16 (27.0) 1-1/4 (31.8) 4.5 4.0 3.7 3.7 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.2 85 85.0 85.0 92.7 96.1 90.0 94.6 92.7 Sep Sep Sep Oct-Nov Oct-Nov Oct-Nov Oct-Nov Oct-Nov

Desi
Variety
Year of G.O.T Staple Length Micronaire Strength Period of Release (%) Inches (mm) Value (000 tppst) Picking Punjab D-9 Ravi Rohi 1971 1982 1986 38.0 41.0 38.8 5/8 (15.8) 5/8 (15.8) 5/8 (15.8) Sindh TD-1 SKD-10/19 1963 1976 39.8 40.2 11/4 (17.4) 5/8 (15.8) 8.0 10.2 79.5 Oct Sep-Oct 7.5 8.0 8.0 80 Sep-Oct Sep-Oct Sep-Oct

Ginning
The mechanical process by which cotton fibres are separated from their seeds quickly and efficiently to make the fibres available for textile use.

Spinning
Conversion of fibre into yarn as per requiremtns. Consist of a series of operations/ processes, the resultant product of which is Yarn.

Types of Spinning
Cap Spinning Flyer Spinning Mule Spinning Ring Spinning

Obsolete very rare in some of the old wool industries.

Open End Spinning (Rotor Spinning)

A system of continuous spinning of staple fibre. The production of spun yarn by a process in which the sliver or roving is opened or separated into its individual fibres or tufts and is subsequently reassembled in the spinning element into yarn.

Air Jet Spinning

Yarn Count
Yarn is categorized by its count or yarn number which in simple term can be said as the indicator of its thickness. So count can be defined as;
Mass per unit length of yarn (Direct System) Length per unit mass of yarn (Indirect System)

Types of Count
Cotton Count (ECC or Ne)
Number of 840 yards strands (hanks) per one pound of mass

Metric Yarn Number (Nm)

Length of yarn in meters per one gram of mass

Worsted (NeK) Number of 560 yards strands (hanks) per one English pound of mass Linen Count (NeL or Lea)
Number of 300 yards strands per one English pound of mass

Woolen Measure (NeS)

Number of 256 yards stands (hanks) per one English pound of mass

Types of Count
Tex
Mass of yarn in grams per 1000 meters length

Decimal Fraction
Mass of yarn in grams per 10,000 meters length

Decitex or dtex
1 gm 1 = tex 1000 m 10

Decitex is the count grading for filament and spinning yarns in man-made fibre industry

Decimal Multiple
Mass of yarn in Kilogram per 1000 meters length

Count Conversion
If you know and understand the definition of the relevant counts then it is very easy to find out the conversion factor. Most commonly conversion comes in;
Ne to Nm (Number English to Number Metric) Nm to Ne (Number Metric to Number English)

Conversion Example
Convert Ne to Nm Ne is defined as:
Number of 840 yards strands in one English pound Therefore, Ne= 840 yards/1 lbs or Ne = (840 x 0.9144) mtr/ 1 x 454 gm or Ne = 768.096 mtr/454 gm or Ne = 1.692 mtr/ 1 gm

Now Nm is defined as
Length of yarn in meters per one gram of mass So Ne =1.692 Nm and Nm = 1/1.692 Ne or Nm = 0.591 Ne

Exercise
Convert 40S cotton to Nm
Cotton Count (Ne) = 40S Ne = 1.692 Nm 40 Ne = 40 x1.692 Nm 40 Ne = 67.68 Nm or 68 Nm

Convert 40 Nm to Cotton count (Ne)

Nm = 0.591 Ne 40 Nm = 40 x 0.591 Ne 40 Nm = 23.64 Ne or 24 Ne

Conversion Formulas
Into Convert Tex Decitex dTex Denier (den) Metric No. (Nm) English Cotton No. (Ne) dtex/10 den/9 1000/Nm 591/Ne Tex Decitex (dtex) 10 x tex den/0.9 10000/Nm 5910/Ne Denier (den) 9 x tex 0.9 x dtex 9000/Nm 5314/Ne Metric No. (Nm) 1000/tex 10000/dtex 9000/den 1.692 x Ne English Cotton No. (Ne) 591/tex 5910/dtex 5314/den 0.591 x Nm -

Types of Yarn
Single: Single Strand also called singly ply yarn Double: Two strands twisted together also called 2 ply yarn Multi-Ply: More than two stands twisted together Textured: Polyester or Nylon yarn where the effect is produced by pin, disc or belt Compact: Yarn produced by the use of compactors during spinning operation Filament: Normally used in the binding of selvedge during weaving. This is a single strand directly coming from the spinnerets attenuated to the required count

Yarn Characteristics
Primary
1. 2.

Secondary
1. 2. 3. 4.

3.

4. 5.

6.

Count Blend (if comprises of more then one fibre) Twist (No. and Direction i.e. Z or S) Strength and Elongation CSP (Count Strength Product) Ply

Evenness Hairiness Carded or Combed Compactness

Yarn Faults
Neps (A small knot of tangled fibre ) Slubs (Thick-Thin Places) Unevenness (Yarn irregularities and non uniformity) Contamination (Foreign matter e.g. jute, twine, polypropylene etc.) Kitties (Vegetable matter or dust contaminations) White Specs (Immature fibres) Lower Elongation (Less elasticity or rigid fibre)

Yarn Faults
Knots (Abnormal due to excessive breakage caused by yarn irregularities) Kinks (Due to dead or immature cotton or irregular twist) Barre (Due to improper mixing and immature fibres) Hairiness (is a measure of amount of fibres protruding from the structure of the yarn) Fly (Foreign matters which come from other machines by flying/air)

WEAVING

Weaving
Process of making cloth by interlacing yarns at right angles according to a prescribed pattern i.e. weave type/design

Essentials of Weaving
Yarn (to be used as warp and weft) Preparatory arrangement Loom Design or Weave Pattern Operator/trained labour

Weaving Operation
Warping Loom Operation Sizing Inspection and Mending

Drawing In

Folding

Gaiting On Loom

Bale Making

Loom Operation

Departure to Processing

Can be Exported Directly

Warp & Weft

Warp:
Threads which run parallel to the loom. Also called Ends (collectively called warp and individually called ends)

Weft:
Threads which run at right angles to the warp. Also called picks or filling (collectively called weft and individually called picks/filling).

Cover Factor
It is the relative closeness of warp and weft. It indicates the compactness of the fabric. Mathematically n Cover Factor: K = N for indirect counting system K = n N for direct counting system Cloth Cover Factor = Cover Factor of Warp + Cover Factor of Weft K = K1 + K2 For any Cotton Count K=

n1 + N1

n2 N2

Where n1 and n2 are ends/inch and picks/inch and N1 and N2 are count of warp and weft respectively.

Cover Factor Example

Find the Cover Factor (K) of fabric with details as 76x68 30S x 30S Now Ends/inch = n1 = 76 Count of Warp = N1= 30S Picks/inch = n2 = 68 Count of Weft = N2 = 30S n1 76 68 n2 K = N 1 + N 2 = 30 + 30 = 13.87 + 12.41 K = 26.28

Weight of Fabric
This is the weight of warp and weft in a fabric. Usually mentioned as
In grams : gms/square meters (GSM) In ozs : ozs/square yards

Sometime weight in gms or ozs per running meter or yard is also used during fabric weight calculation.

Derivation of Weight of Fabric

Construction n1 x n2/c1 x c2 Where n1 = Ends/inch n2 = Picks/inch and c1 = ECC of Warp c2 = ECC of Weft Let the Weight of Warp = W1

In a yard Total length of warp = n1 x 36 yards From the definition of count we know that Count x 840 yards = 1 lb Hence c1 x 840 yards = 1 lb Therefore, weight of n1 x 36 yards = (n1 x 36)/(c1 x 840) lbs or W1 = n1/c1 x 0.0428 lbs Similarly Weight of Weft = W2 = n2 /c2 x 0.0428 lbs

Derivation of Weight of Fabric

Weight of Fabric: W = W1 + W2 W = (n1/c1 x 0.0428 + n2 /c2 x 0.0428) lbs/yd2 or W = 0.0428 (n1/c1 + n2/c2) lbs/yd2 or W = 0.0428 x 16 (n1/c1 + n2/c2) oz/yd2 or W = 0.686 (n1/c1 + n2/c2) oz/yd2 as 1 oz/yd2= 33.9 gm/m2 so W = 0.686 x 33.9 (n1/c1 + n2/c2) gm/m2 or W = 23.25 (n1/c1 + n2/c2) gm/m2 (also know as GSM) Also Weight/Running length = W x width (unit of measurements must be the same i.e. mtr or yard)

Crimp
It is the waviness in the warp and weft.
L

When yarn is taken out/separated from the fabric and stretched to remove waviness then
l

Width of Fabric

Actual Yarn Length = L + l Width of Fabric %age Crimp = l/L x 100 Therefore, during yarn ( warp & weft) calculations for weaving always keep in mind %age crimp The value of which depends upon the degree of interlacement i.e. design/weave.

Greige Fabric Width & Length Calculation

Greige Fabric depends upon;
Crimp Take up %age (The shortage of length or width due to crimp) Shrinkage in weft during processing

There are two point of views

Marketing Point of View
Width = Required Width + Shrinkage Length = Required Length + Shrinkage

Weaving Point of View

Width = Required Width + Take Up %age Length = Required Length + Take Up %age

Selvedges or Selvedge
The woven edge portion of a fabric parallel to he warp or the longitudinal edges of fabric that are formed during weaving
It is on both sides of the fabric Width may be from 1 to 2 cm Usually dense and differ from the body of the fabric in construction or weave or both Firm selvedge does not fray during processing e.g. stentering

Normally two types; Tuckin

Leno

Other Definitions
Dobby: It is a mechanical device to control the lifting of Heald shafts as per weave/design/pattern/repeat. Temple: These are the attachments on a loom to keep the selvedges in the stretched position as per requirements. Reed: It is a comb like wired frame through which warp yarns pass. Each partition is a dent. It separates the warp yarn and is used during weaving to beat up the weft yarn into the cloth after each passage of weft yarn across the loom.

Other Definitions
Beam:
These are the solid (metallic) circular devices as per diagram to roll yarn or fabric on them for weaving purpose.

Gait-Up/Gaiting:
This is to prepare the loom for production when the beam with yarn, shafts and read is placed on it.

Other Definitions
Heald Healds or Heald shafts ar the wire frames with eyelets in the centre through which warp threads are passed as per design/weave pattern. These shafts are lifted up and down by some mechanical or electro-mechanical device giving way to the passage of weft. These devices are; Tappets Cams Dobbies Jacquard This whole depends upon the fabric structure i.e. design.

Other Definition
Shed:
This is the passage through which picks insertion takes place. This is made due to up and down motions of heald shafts/Frames.

Picking Device:
These are the devices, by the use of which picks are inserted during weaving e.g. shuttle, rapier (gripper), projectile, air or water.

Broad Classification of Looms

Plain Dobby Jacquard These are related with the warp lifting devices during weaving

Types of Looms
Conventional Power Loom
It is a very simple loom where single shuttle moves to insert the pick Only plain fabrics are woven Speed is very low i.e. less production Quality of fabrics is poor Bobbin changing is manual

Auto loom
Better than a conventional power loom More than one colour picks can be inserted Picking is through shuttles Bobbin changing is automatic Dobbies can be installed to get fashion fabrics

Types of Looms
Shuttle less Loom
In these looms shuttles are not being used and bigger packages e.g. cones are used Speeds are very high Production is high Quality of fabrics is Good According to picking system there are four types of shuttle less loom

Types of Shuttle Less Looms

Rapier
Pick insertion through grippers Versatile loom for any design, count, material and construction Specially suitable for fashion fabrics Smaller length can also be woven Superior quality weaving then other shuttle less loom

Projectile
Pick insertion through projectiles using projectile motion More production than Rapier Specially suitable for heavy fabrics like canvas, duck, drill, denim etc.

Types of Shuttle Less Looms

Air Jet
Pick insertion through air jet system More production as compared to Rapier and Projectile Fabric quality is good Most appropriate for plain mass production Suitable for long set length as these are very high speed looms

Water Jet
Pick insertion through water jet system Most suitable for synthetic fabrics and unsuitable for cotton fabrics

Multiphase Weaving System

In the introduction phase yet

Different Looms Comparison

Loom Type Conventional Power Loom Automatic Loom Rapier Projectile Air Jet or Water Jet Weft Insertion Rate (Yds/min) 220 330-440 1000-1400 1300-1600 1600-2200 Average Width 100 100 100 100 100 Picks/min 80 118-160 350-500 450-600 550-800 Fabric/min 1 1.48-2 4.4-6.25 5.6-7.5 7-10

Weave
The process of forming a fabric on a loom by interlacing the warp and weft threads with each other. The weaves vary depending on the interlacing pattern used in a woven fabric. The fundamental weaves are Plain weave, Twill weave and Satin weave. All other weaves, no matter how intricate, use one of these basic weave in their composition.

Plain Weaves
Most simple and most common type of construction Inexpensive to produce, durable Flat, tight surface is conducive to printing and other finishes Method of Construction:
Each filling yarn goes alternately under and over the warp yarns

Common Fabrics:
Cotton calicos, cheesecloth, gingham, percale, voile

Household Uses:
Draperies, tablecloths, upholstery

Basket Weave
A variation of the plain weave Usually basket or checkerboard pattern Contrasting colors are often used Inexpensive, less durable than plain weave Method of Construction:
Two or more warps simultaneously interlaced with one or more fillings

Common Fabrics:
Monks cloth, oxford

Household Uses:
Wall hangings, pillows

Twill Weave
Creates a diagonal, chevron, houndstooth, corkscrew, or other design The design is enhanced with colored yarn Is strong and may develop a shine Method of Construction:
Three or more shafts; warp or filling floats over two or more counterpart yarns in progressive steps right or left

Common Fabrics:
Denim, gabardine, serge, tweed

Household Uses:
Upholstery, comforters, pillows

Satin Weave
Smooth, soft luster Excellent drapability Floats snag easily Method of Construction:
Floats one warp yarn over four or more weft yarns, then tied down with one thread, resulting in a smooth face

Common Fabrics:
Satin, satin-weave fabrics out of fabrics such as cotton.

Household Uses:
Draperies, quilts

Jacquard Weave
Yarns woven into unlimited designs, often intricate, multicolor effect Expensive, but the design doesnt fade or wear out Durability depends on the fiber used The Jacquard loom was invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard Method of Construction:
Warp is individually controlled with each pick passage creating intricate designs

Common Fabrics:
Brocade, damask, tapestry

Household Uses:
Upholstery, wall hangings

Leno Weave
A mesh-like fabric Method of Construction:
A pair of warp threads are passed over and under the filling yarns in a figure 8 or an hourglass twist, creating a geometric pattern

Common Fabrics: Household Uses:

Thermal Blankets, curtains

Knit Weave
Soft, stretchy Method of Construction:
Interlooping yarns In weft knitting, loops are formed by hand or machine as yarn is added in crosswise direction. In warp knitting, loops are formed vertically by machine, one row at a time

Common Fabrics:
Raschel warp knits

Household Uses:
Not used extensively in design with the exception of raschel warp knits which are used in making curtains and draperies

Uncut pile Weave

Loops are possible on both sides of fabric Soft and absorbent, relatively inexpensive Can snag if loops are caught Method of Construction:
Generally a plain or twill weave with a third dimension--additional warp yarn or filling yarn is introduced into the basic structure and forms a loop at regular intervals

Common Fabrics:
Frieze, terry cloth

Household Uses:
Upholstery, towels, carpet, area rugs

Cut Pile Weave

Soft and warm Resilient, absorbent May have a nap that must be matched May be expensive and need professional cleaning Method of Construction:
Similar to uncut pile, but loops have been cut Corduroy, velvet, velveteen

Common Fabrics: Household uses:

Upholstery, stage draperies

Fabrics and Weave

Diaper Cloth is a twill, dobby or plain woven absorbent cotton. Dimity is sheer, thin, white or printed fabric with lengthwise cords, stripes or checks. Drill is a strong twilled cotton fabric, used in mens and womens slacks. Duck is a heavy, durable tightly woven fabric. Heavy weight drill is used in awnings, tents, etc. Lighter duck is used in summer clothing.

Fabrics and Weave

Flannel cotton is plain or twill weave with a slight nap on one or both sides. Flannelette is a soft cotton fabric with a nap on one side. Gauze is a sheer, lightly woven fabric similar to cheesecloth. Is also made in silk. Gingham is a lightweight, washable, stout fabric that is woven in checks, plaids or stripes. Lawn is a plain weave, soft, very light, combed cotton fabric with a crisp finish. Whipcord is a strong fabric with a diagonal round cords that can also be produced in wool.

Fabrics and Weave

Muslin is a sheer to coarse plain woven cotton fabric. Muslin comes in "natural" color or is dyed. Organdy is a very thin, transparent cotton with a crisp finish. Outing flannel is a soft, twill or plain weave fabric napped on both sides. Used for baby clothes, diapers, and sleepwear. Oxford is shirting fabric with a lustrous, soft finish. It is characterized with narrow stripes and can be woven in plain or basket weave. Also a term used for wool fabric that has black and white fibers. Percale is a light weight, closely woven, sturdy fabric that can be found printed in dark colors.

Fabrics and Weave

Poplin is a plain weave fabric with a cross-wise rib. Sailcloth is a very strong, heavy canvas or duck made in plain weave. Sateen is a satin weave cotton fabric. Seersucker is a lightweight cotton fabric crinkled into lengthwise stripes. Swiss is a sheer, very fine cotton that can be plain or decorated with dots or other designs. Terry Cloth is a looped pile fabric that is either woven or knitted. Very absorbent and used for towels, etc. French terry cloth is looped on one side and sheared pile on the other. Velveteen is an all cotton pile fabric with short pile resembling velvet.

Common Weaving Faults

Broken End Coarse/Thick End Double End End Out End Missing Fine End Loose End Broken Pick Coarse Filling Double Pick Loose Weft Miss Pick Oily Weft Read Mark Wrong Draw Crack Starting Mark/Setting/Set Mark Filling Slub Float Smash Shuttle Top Shuttle Cut Weft Bar Count Variation Wrong Mending Abrasion Bad Selvedge Tailed Weaver /Beamer Knot Blow-Off Waste Contamination Draw Back Oily Stain Hole, Cut or Tear

Broken End

Broken End

Coarse/Thick End

Coarse/Thick End

Double End

Double End

End Out

End Missing

Fine End

Loose End

Broken Pick

Coarse Filling

Double Pick

Double Pick

Loose Weft

Miss Pick

Miss Pick

Oily Weft

Reed Mark

Wrong Draw

Crack

Crack

Starting Mark

Setting

Filling Slub

Float

Float

Smash

Shuttle Top

Shuttle Cut

Weft Bar

Count Variation

Wrong Mending

Abrasion

Bad Selvedge

Bad Selvedge

Tailed Weaver/Beamer Knot

Blow-Off Waste

Contamination

Draw Back

Oily Stain

PRETREATMENT

Impurities in Greige Fabric

Two types of impurities are found in cotton
Primary impurities or Natural Inherited Impurities. These are the part of cotton fibre and occurs naturally
Pectic Substance 2-3 % Cotton Wax, Cottond Seed Oil Protein Ash Pigment 0.3 % 3-4 % 0.01-0.03 %

Secondary Impurities These are the impurities added during weaving process in sizing.
Starch PVA Acrylic Size Wax After Wax 4-6 % 3-5 % 0.5-1.0 % 0.2-0.5 % 0.5 %

Pretreatment
Removal of primary or secondary impurities prior to Dyeing, Printing and Finishing is essential to get the desired results. It consist of a series of processes which are termed as pretreatment processes and itself as pretreatment.

Pretreatment Processes
Singeing Desizing Scouring Bleaching Mercerizing

Singeing
Smoothing surface of fabric by burning and removing fuzz, protruding ends Visualizes fabric texture Burning is achieved by passing the fabric over the flame of the gas burners Speed varies from 60~120 mtr/min Fabric temperature is set from 120~240oC depending upon the weight of the fabric to be singed Normally both sides are singed, however single side can be arranged. Processing repeat is normally 1F x 1B (one face x one back)

Desizing
The purpose of a desizing process is to remove sizes that have been attached warp yarns in sizing operation in weaving preparatory operation. Starch (maize, rice, cornstarch, flour etc.) are used as sizes.

Why Sizing is being done?

To increase strength of the warp yarn to avoid excessive breakage during weaving Provide warp yarn with flexibility PVA also act as a sizing agent and as an adhesive Acrylic size used to provide additional adhesive property Wax reduces electrostatic charges and make the fabric more hygroscopic

Desizing How?
Singed fabric is passed through a mangle having enzymatic desizing agent (e.g. Bactasol MTN 3-5 gm/l at 60-65oC) dissolved in it. The fabric is then batched on a roller having rotating device. The batched fabric is kept on rotating for 6~16 hours depending upon the weight of the fabric. Enzymatic desizer degrades the starch particles and make them water soluble. There are washed out in the next process i.e. scouring. If rapid desizing is required then oxidative desizer e.g. Leonil EBP 2-4 gm/l ate boil. Singing and desizing is done in one step. Singing is optional but desizing is essential.

Scouring
This is the process of removing the following impurities from the desized fabric
Pectic Substances Oils, Fates and Waxes Degraded Starch Particles Dirt, Dust, Vegetable Matters Other preparations added during sizing in weaving e.g. PVA, Acrylic Size etc.

What is Scouring?
It is an alkali (caustic soda) treatment rather a strong alkali treatment at higher temperature for a specific time to remove the impurities from the fabric and to make it ready for bleaching and subsequently for dyeing, printing and finishing as the case may be. NaOH = 40~70 gm/ltr Detergent = 2 gm/ltr Sequesting Agent = 2 gm/ltr (can be added in desizing bath also) Washing Temperature = 90~60oC Treatment Time = 15~30 minutes in steamer Whole operation is automatic. The above mentioned details are for continuous scouring on plant. Two types of machines are used for scouring
Kier Bleaching Plant (rope form) (open width continuous)

Kier
Kier process is suitable for light weight and cheaper qualities and where tensionless treatment is required. Kiers are vessels where desized fabric is piled and treated with scouring solution for 6~12 hours at boil. Scouring solution consist of caustic soda, sodium carbonate, detergent, sodium silicate and chelating agent.

Kier
Sequence of Operation
Singing Desizing Washing Scouring Washing Bleaching Washing Souring (Acid treatment for neutralization of fabric) Washing

Scouring on Plant
This is continuous operation and consist of following activities
Desized Fabric Batcher or Grey Fabric Washing in the primary washing range Chemical Padding Steaming in the Steamer Washing in secondary washing range Drying on Dryer Dried fabric batched on batcher or piled on trolley

Bleaching Plants
In Chenab Limited we have three continuous bleaching plants
Goller Bleaching Plant (Width: 78) Babcock Bleaching Plant (Width: 2.8 m) Kuster Bleaching Plant (Width: 3.2 m)

Scouring is essential for all the fabric meant for

Dyeing Printing Finishing (as whites are directly given to finishing)

Bleaching
This is the process of making the fabric white. After this the fabric is ready for dyeing, printing and finishing as the case may be. Types of Bleaching
Reduction or Chlorine or Chlorite Bleaching Oxidative or Peroxide Bleaching

Reduction or Chlorine or Chlorite Bleaching

In this type of bleaching powder dissolved in water or bleach liquor is used. Chlorine generated as result of chemical reaction performs the function of bleaching the fabric. Sodium Chlorite or Sodium Hypochlorite are used as bleaching agent. In Chenab Limited Sodium Hypochlorite is used for this purpose. The composition of which is as below; Free NaOH (Caustic Soda)0.8~1.2 % (W/V) Available Chlorine 19~20 % (W/V) this type of bleaching is carried out to Kier Scoured fabric. Chlorine bleaching is not permanent as the yellowing occurs with the passage of time due to oxidation in air. Moreover this is not environment friendly and causes water pollution and harmful for human being, land and aquatic animals. Today's trend is toward Peroxide Bleaching.

Oxidative or Peroxide Bleaching

This is the most common bleaching method. Not only associated with permanent whiteness but also friendly for environment as H2O2 is degradable into water and oxygen. Best bleaching whiteness is obtained at pH 11 adjusted using Caustic Soda H2O2 H2O + O In peroxide bleaching the fabric or water must be free of metal ions as these cause abnormal degradation of H2O2 and due to this pin holes appears in the fabric. Sequesting agent is used for this purpose and stabilizer for a controlled bleaching process.

Bleaching Processes
Continuous (Plant Bleaching) Semi Continuous (J-Box Bleaching) Non Continuous ( Kier Bleaching)

Continuous or Plant Bleaching

Carried out on plant The process is continuous Highly productive Dosing of chemicals is automatic Parameters i.e. speed, temperature, pressure, pick up, pH and time of treatment are automatically controlled Consistent results are achieved Degree of whiteness can be adjusted

Sequence of Operation
Scoured Fabric Washing (Primary Washer) Padding with Chemical Steaming (Steamer) Washing (Secondary Washer) pH Adjustment (Caustic Washer) Drying (Dryer) Material comes on the Batcher

Scope of Bleaching Plant

Scouring Bleaching Solomatic Process (Half Bleaching) Only Washing All the above processes can be carried out on the Bleaching Plant.

Solomatic Bleaching Process

This is just like bleaching process (already discussed). However quantities of the chemicals and treatment time is increased. This is a one step process where scouring and bleaching is carried out simultaneously.

Mercerization
In 1844 John Mercer invented a process of treatment of cotton with caustic soda (NaOH) which improved the behaviour of cotton fabrics during subsequent process. The process was named mercerization derived from Mercer. There are two types of Mercerization
Cold Mercerization Hot Mercerization

Changes in Fabric Properties due to Mercerization

Stable dimension Increase in luster Improvement in dyeing property Increased tensile strength Cotton fibre swells when passed through the caustic soda solution as evident from the changes in a cross-section of a cotton fibre during a mercerization treatment

1.0

1.3

0.8

2 3 4 Swelling process in an alkaline solution

7 6 Removal of After Alkali by water drying substitution

Comparison of Mercerization
Parameter/Property Impregnation Swelling Cold Wet on Dry Hot Wet on Wet

Normal and Faster and more evenly into on the fabric the yarn core. So swell surface only occur throughout the body of the fabric No Good Good Brighter Increased Yes Better Better More Brighter More Increased

Widthwise stretching on the machine Lustre Dimensional stability Shade Dye Affinity

Comparison of Mercerization
Parameter/Property Devilling Time 100 gm-300gm/m2 wt Temperature NaOH Solution Concentration (Lye Concentration) Suitability for Heavy Weight Fabric (above 300 gm/m2) Lye Consumption Production for same fabric Cold 45-50 Sec. 15-25oC 25-32oBe Unsuitable More Less Hot 25-30 Sec. 25-30oC 25-32oBe Suitable Less Almost double

Conclusion: Hot mercerizing is preferred over Cold Mercerizing

Pretreatment Requirements
Fabric Must Have
Even Absorbency No starch and other impurities No residual chlorine Neutral pH i.e. between 7.5~8.5 Same whiteness throughout i.e. side-center-side

Bleaching Faults
Whiteness Variation (side-center-side) Wrinkles and Creases Variation in Absorbency and Pick up (side-center-side) Higher Tagwa rating (starch presence) will affect dye uptake Cuts Patches Improper Washing (Chemical are not removed giving way to variation in dyeing/printing)

Dyeing

Dyeing
Colouring the fabric has a history which date backs to 5000 BC. At that time dyeing was done with naturally occurring materials. Now it has been completely replaced by synthetic colours.

Primary Colours
RED Yellow BLUE

Also termed as pure colours or hues Do not have any white, gray or black to distort their clarity and vibrancy. All the colours can be made from these primary colours. These are also called as dyer primary.

Secondary Colours
These are obtained by mixing two primary colours in amount as per requirements Red + Yellow = Orange Red + Blue = Purple Yellow + Blue = Green

Tertiary Colours
Any colour obtained as a result of combining/mixing the three primary colours is called a tertiary colour. Red + Yellow + Blue New Colour (Tertiary Colour) A lot of colours can be obtained by various combinations

Various Types of Dyes

Acid Acid-dyeing premetalized Basic Chrome Direct Disperse Pigment Naphthol Neutral-dyeing premetalized Reactive Sulpher Vat

Dyeability of Fibres
Class of Dyes Acid Acid-dyeing premetalized Neutraldyeing premetalized Naphthol Disperse Reactive Pigment Sulpher Crome Direct Basic VAt Fibre Type Acetate Acrylic (16) Acrylic (N) Cotton Cuprammonium Flex Jute Polyamide Polyester Silk Vinyle Fibre Viscose Wool X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X

X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X

X X

Reactive Dyes
These react chemically with cellulose or protein molecules and form a covalent bond. These become an actual part of the cellulose fibre molecules Their overall fastness properties are good Their fastness to chlorine bleach/chlorine is poor generally (the only drawback) These are classified as Cold or Hot dyes from exhaust dyeing method point of view but applied at normal temperature in continuous dyeing methods Examples are Procion, Dramarine, Levafix, Cibacrone, Ramazol etc.

Vat Dyes
Water insoluble dyes usually containing Keto groups Applied to the fibre from an alkaline aqueous solution Reduced Leuco form Leuco solution is oxidized in the fiber to the insoluble form Have high fastness to both washing and sunlight Example is Cibanone.

Disperse Dyes
Non Ionic Water Insoluble Applied as a finally divided dispersion Suitable for polyester, polyamide, acrylic and elostomaric fibres. Examples are Teracil and Foron

Selection of Dyes
It depends upon
Customers specifications/requirements End use of the fabric

Requirements
Colourfastness Colourfastness Colourfastness Colourfastness Colourfastness Colourfastness Colourfastness Colourfastness Colourfastness Colourfastness to to to to to to to to to to washing water hypochlorite bleach Chlorinated Swimming Pond water Dry cleaning Perspiration Light Home Laundering Rubbing Sea Water

Other Specific Requirements

Conformance with certain regulation i.e. EU not allowed to use
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) Lindane Tin Organic Compounds Heavy Metals (Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead, Mercury, Cupper, Nickel) Azodyes capable of releasing carcinogenic arylamines Nonylphenol exthoxylates (NPEOs) And others

Dyeing Methods
Method Exhaust Pad-Dry Pad-Batch Nature Batchwise or non continuous Continuous Semi Continuous Machines Jets, Jiggers, Winches, Soft Flow, Yarn/Package Dyeing M/C Thermosole (Less time required Thermosole or Pad Steam (More time reqired longer storage) Pad Steam dyeing range

Pad-Steam Continuous

Cotton Fabric with Reactive Dyestuff

(150-160oC) (1-3 minutes)

Cure

Washing Drying Ready for Finishing

(100-120oC)

Dry

Pad

Pad-Dry-Cure

Cotton Fabric with Reactive Dyestuff

(102oC) (60-90 Sec.)

Steam

Pad Dry

Washing Drying Ready for Finishing

(100-130oC)

Pad Steam

Pad
Thermosole

Pad-Dry-Pad-Steam

Cotton Fabric with Reactive Dyestuff

(16-24 hours)

Rotation

Washing Drying Ready for Finishing

Batch Pad

Pad-Batch

Cotton Fabric with Vat Dyestuff

Steam Oxidation
(H2O2)

(102oC) (60-90 Sec.)

(Developing)

Pad

Washing Drying Ready for Finishing

(100-130oC)

Dry

Pad Steam

Pad
Thermosole

Pad-Dry-Pad (Developing)-Steam-Oxidation

Cotton Fabric with Pigment Dyestuff

(100-130oC)

Dry

(160-170oC) (1-3 minutes)

Cure

Pad

Ready for Finishing

Pad-Dry-Cure

Jigger Process
(in Two Ends)

Alkali Addition

(in Two Ends)

Salt Addition

(in different Ends)

Shade Matching

(in Two Ends)

Dye Addition

Dye Addition (if required) Washing Unloading & Drying

Washing Loading

PC or Polyester/Cotton Blends
One Bath Method is used for pastel and medium shades Two Bath Method is used for medium and dark shades Disperse Dyestuff is used for Polyester portion Reactive Dyestuff is used for Cotton portion

One Bath Method

(100-130oC)

Dry

(at 180-200oC for 1-3 minutes)

Cure

Pad (Disperse + Reactive)

Ready for Finishing

Pad-Dry-Cure

Two Bath Method

Thermosole Pad Steam Thermosole
(Disperse Dye Solution)

Pad

Dry Steaming (at 102oC for 60-90 Sec.)

(Reactive Dye Solution)

Pad

(at 100-130oC)

Dry

Dry (at 100-130oC)

(at 190-200oC)

Cure

(Caustic Soda + Hydrosulphite)

Reduction & Cleaning

(at 150-160oC)

Cure

Ready for Finishing

Dyeing Faults
Colour Spots Patchy or Streaky uneven dyeing Shading and Listing Shade Variation (Side-Centre-Side) White Spots Wrinkles and Creases Poor Fastness to washing Selvedge Stamping Stitch Marks

PRINTING

Printing
It is the process for applying colorants or other materials to the surface of a substrate usually in specific localised areas to produced a design. In fabric printing it is the operation by virtue of which patterns/designs are made on the fabric.

Essential of Printing
Design or Pattern Design transfer medium (Rollers, Screens) Printing Paste Printing Machine Fabric to be Printed

Print Paste
It is the mixture of colouring maters, solvents, binders, thickening agents etc. which are used in printing to achieve the required impressions

Ingredients of Printing Paste

Pigment
Colorants Thickening Agent Binder Fixer (where required) Liquor Ammonia Preserving Agent Emulsifying Agent

Reactive
Colorants Sodium Bicarbonate Sodium Alginate Urea Colgon S (Sodium Hexametaphosphate) Reserver Salt-S

Prerequisites of Fabric Printing

Fabric batched to the required width Neutral pH Suitable absorbency Even whiteness and penetration (i.e. side-centre-side) Final recipe with passed i.e. approved sample All required colours and chemicals Effective Blanket washing system with ample water Trained operators Ready for printing design screens

Printing Process Flow

Exposing of Screens Preparation of Print Paste Screen Placement on M/C Feeding of Batched Fabric Ageing (Reactive) Drying Bulk Printing Sample Printing Curing (Pigment) Washing

Drying Ready for Finishing

Printing Styles
Direct Printing Discharge Printing Resist Printing Flock Printing Batik Printing

Direct Printing
Printing method in which colours and colouring matters (printing paste & Colours) are printed directly onto the fabric examples are
Stencil Printing Printing on rotary or flatbed printing M/Cs Roller Printing

Discharge Printing
Also called Extract Printing Printed on a pre-dyed fabric (medium to dark shades) Printed by print paste added with a colour destroying agent such as chlorine or hydrosulphite Colour discharges are also possible by adding such colours/dyestuffs in the paste which are not affected by discharging agent. The final product is of soft feel and bright in colours

Resist Printing
In this type of printing
A design is printed on a white or dyed fabric with chemical or wax that resist penetration of dye When the fabric is dyed/printed, the colour is absorbed only where there is no resist chemical applied Then the resist is removed

Flock Printing
Printing technique consisting of the application of flock (very short fibres) usually nylon or rayon fibres to the surface of a fabric by means of an adhesive. The fibres are propelled into an adhesive that has been screen printed on the fabric in the shape of desired design. It is used to print various small designs such as dots and figures. The finished work has a very soft hand touch and a three-dimensional feel causes a special tender warm feeling. It can be ideally used to substitute computerized embroidery. In can be in single or multi-colours The method used are
Dusting on An air blast Electrostatic attraction

Batik Printing
The word Batik comes from Javanese and means Printing in Wax It is the type of Resist Printing termed as wax resist printing, also called reserve printing The wax is melted and deposited on the surface of the fabric in a design/pattern This hot wax resist thus thoroughly penetrates the fibre, protecting from the dye the portion it covers. When finally the wax is removed, the pattern appears on the surface of the cloth and is properly called as Reserve Cotton and silk are best suited for batik printing Wax is applied through Blocks

Other Printing Types

Burn out Printing Foam Printing Transfer Printing High Density Printing Glitter or Metallic Printing Bead Printing Dye (Polychromatic) or Hand Printing Digital Printing

Engraving
An essential of printing is printing screens One screen is needed for each colour Engraving includes design process and screen making process Design process is completed prior to screen making in design studio on computers having soft wares installed for this purpose Manual designing is discouraged now a days due to slow process and extra cost.

Parameters of Rotary Screen

Selection of Screens depends upon design, style of printing, width, depth and sharpness of colours e.g. full tone/half tone.
Parameters Normal Range Mesh Length Repeat 11-220/inch Use in Chenab 30,60,80,125,135,155

1280-3500 mm 1850, 2800, 3200 640-1018 mm 640, 820, 914, 1018

Engraving Process Flow

Print Out Editing & Adjustment Scanning

Amendment
(if required)

Colour Separations Screen Making

Wax/Laser Jet

Preparation of Screen on Wax Jet

at 160 C for 1 hr

Rounding & Curing o

Drying Developing
(10-15 min. Normal Water)

(180oC for 2 hrs)

Backing

Degreasing
(Chromic Acid)

End Ring Fixing Checking & Touching Ready for Printing

Drying Coating

Exposing
(on Wax Jet)

(photosensitive Chemical)

(25oC

Drying

for 15 min)

Preparation of Screen on Laser Jet

Rounding & Curing o Backing

at 160 C for 1 hr

(180oC for 2 hrs)

Engraving End Ring Fixing Checking & Touching Ready for Printing

Degreasing
(Chromic Acid)

(25oC for 15 min)

Drying

Drying

(photosensitive Chemical)

Coating

Printing Machines
Rotary Screen Printing Machine Flat Bed Screen Printing Machine Digital Printing Machine Transfer Printing Machines (Stork TC 1310) Roller Printing Machine

Printing Machines of Chenab

Zimmer 24 Colours 126 Zimmer 12 Colours 110 Stork 12 Colours 110 Stork 12 Colours 72 Stork Sampling 126 (30 m strike off) Stork Sampling 126 (10 m strike off)

Pigments
These are the colorants which are
Insoluble in water Have no affinity with textile fabric being printed Fixed to the fibre by a suitable binding agent Fixation is dependent on temperature and time Suitable for all types of fibres except wool and silk Applicable by all printing techniques e.g. direct, discharge etc. Available both in liquid and powder form

Pigment Printing Flow

(110-120oC)

Drying

Printing Feeding on M/C Batched Fabric

(upto 24 hours

Storage

(150-160oC) (5-4 minutes)

Fixation

Ready for Finishing

Reactive Printing Flow

(110-130oC)

Drying

(100-102oC) (7-9 min.)

Ageing

Printing Feeding on M/C Batched Fabric

Washing Drying Ready for Finishing

Printing Faults
Print Out / Design Out Miss Print Flushing of Colours Variation (Side-Centre-Side) Matching Faults Uneven printing or tinting Screen touching faults (Opening of Screen Figures) extra colour at more spots (patchy) Closing of Screen the colour skips Kuchra or other extraneous matter mark Doctor line Blanket Marks Screen Dent(s)

FINISHING & INSPECTION

Finishing
These are the series of operations conducted on the dyed/printed/bleached fabrics to impart desired properties and look, into them as per intended use or customer requirements. The properties are achieved chemically, mechanically or the combination of both Actually it adds value to the fabric.

Various Finished Fabric Properties

Shade and Evenness Look (shine, sheen etc.) Handle (lusture, limpy) Hand feel (soft, hard, crisp) Drape (grace) Formability Wrinkle recovery Crease resistance Strength (tensile, tear) Durability Pilling Shrinkage or dimension stability Colour retention or colour fastness

Verified Physically Verified via Testing Formability and wrinkle recovery can also be confirmed through testing

Broad Classification of Finishing

Wet Finishing Dry Finishing various chemical treatments are wet finishing operation where as dry finishing is purely of mechanical nature.

Wet Finishing
The process where the fabric become wet (washing or chemical treatments) are called wet finishing processes and the phenomenon itself as Wet Finishing. Theoretically all the process where wetting of greige fabric involves e.g. bleaching, dyeing, printing, washing and chemical treatments. In common practice wetting process includes the processing where wetting involves of bleached, dyed or printed fabric.

Wet Finishing Machines

Stenters
Where chemical treatments are being done. Other functions are Heat Setting, Width adjustment, Curing and rectification.

Washers
Where washing of chemically treated fabric (Resin treated cured fabric) is being carried out

Dry Finishing
The finishing where wetting of fbric is not being done is called dry finishing. It may involve treatment with steam, mechanical pressure, tension etc. Examples are calendaring, snaforizing, raising

Various Dry Finishing Processes

Process Shearing Raising Shrinking Purpose Surface Cleaning and levelling Napping or Raising of fabric Shrinkage adjustment Machines Shearing Raising Relaxation Shrinkage or Steam Vaporizing Sueding/Microsand In Chenab

Sueding/ Slight napping Microsand ing and Brushing

Various Dry Finishing Processes

Process Peaching Calendaring Shrinkage Kier Decatasing (K-D) Purpose Slight Napping Shine, Sheen, Feel, Look Shrinkage Control All round properties Machines Emrizing Calendaring Sanforizing, Monforizing Kier Decatising (Biella Shrink Process or TMT or any other company Sanforizi ng In Chenab

Some Specific Finishes

Wrinkle Free/Wrinkle Resistant/Durable Press/Permanent Prss Anti-Shrunk Stain and Soil Release Rain/Water proof Flame Retardant Ultra Soft Ultra Fresh Special Coated Easy Care Mildew/Fungus/Antimicrobial Treatment All these are chemical finishes, however anti-shrunk and crease resistant properties can also be achieved on sanforizing and K.D.

Textile Finishing Chemicals

Resins Softeners Hand Feel Accelerators Micro Emulsions Weighting Agent. Starches Any other special purpose chemicals

Selection of Finishing Chemicals

End Use Customer Requirements Statutory restrictions through certain legislation Conformance to Some standards
Oeko Tex 100 standard EU legislation or ECO Standard Other labels e.g. Nordic SWAN, Ultrafresh etc.

Finishing M/C in Chenab

Machine Name Stenter Calendar Sanforizing Raising Microsand Ultra Soft Emrizing Quantity 10 3 2 2 1 1 1

Finishing Faults
Wrinkles/Creases Stains, Spots, Patches Holes, Tears, Cuts Sanforizing Sleeve Marks Selvedge Stamping Variable Hand Feel Bowing/Skewing Uneven Raising/ Sueding/ Emrizing (Peaching) Distortion due to uneven/ extra tensions Tenderness Width Variation

Inspection
It is the process by virtue of which the fabrics/articles are physically checked to grade/categorize (A,B,C) and to accept or reject.
Internal Inspection
Grades are separates acceptable ones from the rejected one (later may be given for rectification if possible). Performs 100% inspection

External Inspection
Accept or reject. Usually inspect the sample size but whole lot can also be inspected

Inspection standards
These are the basis upon which the inspection is carried out and as the result of which the lot in question is accepted or rejected. Standard making bodies for these are
ANSI ASQ BSI ISO (American National Standard Institute) (American Society for Quality) (British Standard Institute) (International Organization for Standardization) JISC (Japanese Industrial Standard Committee) Military Standards

Inspection Standards
The most implemented and accepted Inspection Standards in Textile Industry are;
British Standard American 4 Point Standard Japanese 10-Point Standard Demerit Point DP- 4 Point Standard AQL (a commonly agreed standard for Final/End product)

Major and Minor Defects

Major Defect
Any identifiable deficiency of discrepancy in an item or product adversely affecting factors of appearance, fit, serviceability, merchandising claims, life or customer appeal to a degree that would provide a discerning customer with justification for a return, complain, or a similar expression of customer dissatisfaction.

Minor Defect
Any deficiency or discrepancy not sufficient in degree to be classified as major defect and not considered to be justifiable reason for a return or complaint

B.S. Standard
Forces and govt based corporate bodies adopt this usually for acceptance or rejection as the case may be. It is based on major and minor defects in the fabrics and consequent allowance therein. For each major defect allowance is given 4 and a half inch For each minor defect allowance is given 2 and a quarter inch N.C. (not counted) any defective portion which is not included in the length and given free of cost Acceptance Criteria:
Usually settled between customer and manufacturer If not given then 5 major and 5 minor defects per 100 running yards acceptable

Major and minor defects are flagged with different colours

B.S. Standard Example

Fabric Role/Bolt: 1 Length in Yards : 105 Width in Inches: 60 Major Defects: 2 Minor Defects: 1 Defect Allowance: 2x4.5 + 1x2.25=11.25 or 0.31 yd N.C.: 18 or 0.5 yd Total Allowance: 0.31 + 0.50 = 0.81 yd Net Payable Length: 105 0.81= 104.19 yd

Penalty Points Systems

4 Point System Defective Length
less than 3 3- 6 6-9 above 9 upto 36

10 Point System Defective Length Warp

less than 1 1-5 5-10 above 10 upto 36

DP 4 Point Defective Length

less then 3cm 3-20cm 20-50cm Above 50cm upto 1 mtr

Penalty Points
1 2 3 4

Weft
less than 1 1-5 5 half width full width

Penalty Points
1 3 5 10

Penalty Points
1 2 3 4

Points to be Considered
Acceptance criteria or acceptable points are to be settled by the customer or with mutual agreement during contract review Inspection is subjected to a pass lab test report otherwise the lot will be rejected Not more than max (4 or 10) penalty points be assigned to one liner meter/yard, regardless of the number of defect with in that one meter/yard Any piece with a full width defect over six inches in length shall be rejected The distance between two major defects should be more than 20 meters Hole, torn, tear more than 0.25 is not acceptable Any continuous defect (more than 3mtr/yd) is not acceptable

Acceptance Quality Limits (AQL)

Previously AQL was named as Acceptable Quality Levels. This was as per ANSI/ASQC Z1.4-1993. but in 2003 the standard was named as stated above. Few changes in footnotes and title were endorsed.

How to Use AQL

Determine Lot/Batch Size Find out Sample Size in General Inspection Level column. (A,B,C, ) depending upon the lot/batch size Now see single sampling plan for normal inspection against A,B,C, determined previously and sample size will be known Perform inspection on number of pcs as per the sample size (2nd step) against agreed AQL Accept or Reject as per number of defects written in the column. Ac means accept, Re means reject.

Sample Size Code Letter

Lot or batch size 2 9 16 to to to 8 15 25 Special Inspection levels S-1 A A A S-2 A A A S-3 A A B S-4 A A B I A A B General Inspection Levels II A B C III B C D

26 51 91 151 281 501 1201 3201 10001 35001

to to to to to to to to to to

50 90 150 280 500 1200 3200 10000 35000 150000 500000 Over

A B B B B C C C C D D D

B B B C C C D D D E E E

B C C D D E E F F G G H

C C D E E F G G H J J K

C C D E F G H J K L M N

D E F G H J K L M N P Q

E F G H J K L M N P Q R

150001 to 500001 and

Single Sampling Plan for Normal Inspection

Sample Size Letter A B C D E F G H J K L M N P Q R Sample size Ac 2 3 5 8 13 20 12 50 80 125 200 315 500 800 1250 2000 1 2 3 5 7 2 3 4 6 8 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 1 2 3 5 7 2 3 4 6 8 0 1 1 2 3 5 7 10 14 21 2 3 4 6 8 11 15 22 0 1 1 2 3 5 7 10 14 21 2 3 4 6 8 11 15 22 0 1 1 2 3 5 7 10 14 21 2 3 4 6 8 11 15 22 0 1 1 2 3 5 7 10 14 21 2 3 4 6 8 11 15 22 0 1 Acceptance Quality Limits 0.4 Re 0.65 Ac Re Ac 1 Re Ac 1.5 Re Ac 2.5 Re Ac 4 Re Ac 0 6.5 Re 1

10 11 14 15 21 22

10 11 14 51 21 22

10 11 14 15