Introduction

Many parts are formed into various shape by applying external forces to the workpiece

Definition of material testing

Material testing is a test done to determine the mechanical and physical properties of a substance
in comparison with a standard or specification

Purpose of material testing

 To determine quality of material

 To determine mechanical properties such as strength, hardness, ductility, toughness
 To trace defects in the materials
 To evaluate materials potential in certain use
Function of material testing

Materials testing help us to understand and qualify whether a specific material or treatment is
suitable for a particular application. With the wide variety of materials and treatments available
in the market place, testing can help narrow down the choices to the most appropriate selection
for the intended use

Types of Material Tests

There are two types of carrying out material tests which are

Destructive and Non-destructive tests

A. Destructive tests

These are tests carried out to the specimen’s failure, in order to understand a specimen’s
structural performances or material behavior under different loads.

Types of destructive tests

- Tensile strength test

- Notch-impact bending test
- Hardness test ( Brinell hardness test; Viker’s hardness test and Rockwell hardness test)
- Grinding spark test
- Metallographic test
- Fatigue test
- Creeping test
- Ductility impact test
 1. Tensile Strength Test:

The main principle of the tensile test is it denotes the resistance of a material to a tensile load
applied axially to a specimen. It is very important to the tensile test to be considered is the
standard dimensions and profiles are adhered to. The typical progress of tensile test can be seen
in figure.

Let’s now look at another figure. In this figure, the gauge length (L0) is the length over which
the elongation of the specimen is measured. The minimum parallel length (Lc) is the minimum
length over which the specimen must maintain a constant cross- sectional area before the test
load is applied. The lengths L0, Lc. Li and the cross- sectional area (A) are all specified in BS
18.
The elongation obtained for a given force depends upon the length and area of the cross-section
of the specimen or component, since-

Elongation = Applied Force × L/E × A

Where, L = Length, A = Cross-sectional area E = Elastic modulus.

Therefore if the ratio [L/A] is kept constant (as it is in a proportional test piece), and E remains
constant for a given material, then comparisons can be made between elongation and applied
force for specimens of different sizes.

Tensile Test Results:

The load applied to the specimen and the corresponding extension can be plotted in the form of a
graph, as shown in figure.

From A to B the extension is proportional to the applied load. Also, if the load is removed the
specimen returns to its original length. Under these relatively lightly loaded conditions the
material is showing elastic properties.
From B to C it can be seen from the graph that the metal suddenly extends with no increase in
load. If the load is removed at this point the metal will not spring back to its original length and it
is said to have taken a permanent set. Therefore, B is called “limit of proportionality”, and if
the force is increased beyond this point a stage is reached where a sudden extension takes place
with no increase in force. This is known as the “yield point” C.

The yield stress is the stress at the yield point; that is, the load at B divided by the original cross-
section area of the specimen. Usually, a performer works at 50 percent of this figure to allow for
a ‘factor of safety’.

From C to D extension is no longer proportional to the load, and if the load is removed little or
no spring back will occur. Due to these relatively greater loads the material is showing plastic
properties.

The point D is referred to as the ‘ultimate tensile strength’. The ultimate tensile stress is
calculated by dividing the load at D by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Although a useful figure for comparing the relative strengths of materials, it has little practical
value since engineering equipment is not usually operated so near to the breaking point.

From D to E the specimen appears to be stretching under reduced load conditions. In fact the
specimen is thinning out (necking) so that the ‘load per unit area’ or stress is actually increasing.
The specimen finally work hardens to such an extent that it breaks at E.

In general, values of load and extension are of limited use since they apply to one particular size
of specimen and it is more usual to plot the stress-stain curve.

Stress and strain are calculated as follows:

Therefore ductility is usually expressed, for practical purposes, as the percentage; Elongation in
gauge length of a standard test piece at the point of fracture when subjected to a tensile test to
destruction.

The increase in length is determined by fitting the pieces of the fractured specimen together
carefully and measuring the length at failure.
Increase in length (elongation) = Length at failure – Original length

2. Notch-Impact Bending Testing (Toughness Testing):

Impact tests consist of striking a suitable specimen with a controlled blow and measuring the
energy absorbed in bending or breaking the specimen. The energy value indicates the toughness
of the material under test.

Below figure shows how a piece of high carbon steel rod will bend when in the annealed
condition, after hardening and tempering, the same piece of steel will fracture when hit with a
different hammer.

There are several types of the impact tests and the mostly famous type is the Izod test.

In the Izod test, a 10mm square, notched specimen is used, it is preferred to use a specimen that
have a more than one or two and even three notched in the same specimen. The striker of the
pendulum hits the specimen with a kinetic energy of 162.72 J at a velocity of 3.8 m/s. Figure
shows details of the specimen and the manner in which it is supported.
Since test use a notched specimen, useful information can be obtained regarding the resistance of
the material to the spread of a crack which can originate from a point of stress concentration such
as sharp corners, undercuts, sudden changes in section, and machining marks in stressed
components. Such points of stress concentration should be eliminated during design and
manufacture. Izod test is suitable for room and high temp.

3. Hardness Testing:

It is done by indentation. A hard indenter is pressed into the specimen by a standard load, and the
magnitude of the indentation (either area or depth) is taken as a measure of hardness. Hardness
tests are in practice used for assessing material properties because they are quick and convenient.
The most well known hardness tests are Brinell and Rockwell.

i. Brinell Hardness Test:

In this test, hardness is measured by pressing a hard steel ball into the surface of the test piece,
using a known load. It is important to choose the combination of load and ball size carefully so
that the indentation is free from distortion and suitable for measurement. The relationship of the
Brinell hardness [HB] which is between load P (kg), the diameter D (mm) of the hardened ball
indenter and the diameter d (mm) of the indentation on the surface is given by the expression-

For different materials, the ratio P/D2 has been standardized in order to obtain accurate and
comparative results such as-

K = P/D2

Where K is a constant; typical values of K are-

Ferrous metals K = 30

Copper and copper alloys K = 10

Aluminum and aluminum alloys K = 5

Lead, tin and white-bearing metals K = 1

Figure shows how the Brinell hardness value is determined. The diameter of the indentation is
measured in two directions at right angles and the average taken. The diameter is measured either
by using a microscope scale, or by a projection screen with micrometer adjustment.

To ensure consistent results, the following precautions should be made:

a. To thickness of the specimen should be at least seven times the depth of the indentation to
allow unrestricted plastic flow below the indenter.

b. The edge of the indentation should be at least three times the diameter of the indentation from
the edge of the test piece.

c. The test is unsuitable for materials whose hardness exceeds 500 HE, as the ball indenter tends
to flatten.

d. There are a definite relationship between strength and hardness so it is possible to measure the
tensile strength from the hardness test.

Drawback:

a. Sinking effect found in manganese steel and austenitic steel.

b. Piling-up effect- in lead, Sn, Mg

ii. Vickers Hardness Test:

This test is preferable to the Brinell test where hard materials are concerned, as it uses a diamond
indenter. (Diamond is the hardest material known-approximately 6000 HB). The diamond
indenter is in the form of a square-based pyramid with an angle of 136° between opposite faces.
Since only one type of indenter is used the load has to be varied for different hardness ranges.
Standard loads are 5, 10, 20, 30, 50 and 100 kg.
It is necessary to state the load when specifying a Vickers hardness number. For example, if the
hardness number is found to be 200 when using a 50 kg load, then the hardness number is
written as HV (50) = 200.

Hardness number (HD) is calculated by dividing the load by the projected area of the
indentation-

Where, P is the load in Kg and d (mm) is the diagonal of the impression made by the indenter
made by the diamond.

iii. Rockwell Hardness Test:

The Rockwell test is used in industry as it is quick, simple and direct reading. Universal
electronic hardness testing machines are now used at large scale which, at the turn of a switch,
can provide either Brinell, Vickers Or Rockwell tests and show the hardness number as a digital
readout automatically.

They also give a “hard copy” printout of the test result together with the test conditions and date.
In principle the Rockwell hardness test compares the differences in depth of penetration of the
indenter when using forces of two different values. That is, a minor force is first applied (to take
up the backlash and pierce the skin of the component) and the scale are set to read zero.

Then a major force is applied over and above the minor force and the increased depth of
penetration is shown on the scales of the machine as a direct reading of hardness without the
need for calculation or conversion tables. The standard Rockwell test cannot be used for very
thin sheet and foils and for these the Rockwell superficial hardness test is used.
 4. Grinding Spark Test

A spark test is a method by which machinists and metallurgists can identify different types of
ferrous metals such as cast iron and steel alloys. Each type of metal has a distinct, recognizable
pattern of sparks. The test doesn’t work with all metals, as some, including copper alloys, do not
spark. You can perform the test with common machine-shop tools and a few minutes of
preparation.

Equipment

To perform a standard spark test, you’ll need a bench or handheld grinder equipped with an 24-
grit carbon random wheel. The grinder produces a steady stream of sparks from a metal piece in
a safe, reliable manner. If the metal sample is small enough to handle easily, use the bench
grinder. If you’re testing a piece that’s too big to safely use with a bench unit, bring a handheld
grinder to it.

Lighting

Before you perform a spark test, ensure that the lighting for the work area is not excessively
bright. Although you should be able to clearly see and handle tools and metal pieces, you also
want to observe the pattern and color of the sparks without interference by the room lights.

Procedure

Turn the grinder on and bring the metal into light contact with the grinding wheel, such that the
sparks fly clear of the grinder and wheel. Carefully observe the color, pattern and length of the
sparks produced. The spark patterns may have combinations of bright lines, bursts and zigzags.
Compare the sparks you see against a printed reference. You may need to go back and forth
between the reference and the sparks, performing several tests until you’ve identified the metal.

5. Metallographic test

It is study of a material’s microstructure. Analysis of a material’s metallographic microstructure

aids in determining if the material has been processed correctly and is therefore a critical step for
determining product reliability and for determining why a material failed. The basic steps for
proper metallographic specimen preparation include: documentation, sectioning, mounting,
rough grinding, fine grinding, polishing, etching and examination
 6. Fatigue test

A fatigue test helps determine a material’s ability to withstand cyclic fatigue loading conditions.
By design, a material is selected to meet or exceed service loads that are anticipated in fatigue
testing application. Cyclic fatigue tests produce repeated loading and unloading in tension,
compression, bending, torsion or combination of these stresses.

To perform a fatigue test a sample is loaded into a fatigue tester or fatigue test machine and
loaded using the predetermined test stress, then unloaded to either zero load or an opposite load.
This cycle of loading and unloading is then repeated until the end of the test is reached. The test
may be run to a predetermined number of cycles or until the sample has failed depending on the
parameters of the test.

7. Creep Test:

Creep testing is done in the tensile mode, and the type of test-piece used is similar to the normal
tensile test-piece. Generally, creep testing is carried out under constant- load conditions and
utilizes dead weights acting through a simple lever system.

In the creep testing an extensometer readings are noted at regular time intervals until the required
amount of data has been obtained, or until the test-piece fractured, depending on whether the
object of the test is to determine the creep rate or to determine the total creep strain.

One of the difficulties in creep testing is that a single test take a very long time to complete
(10000 hours is 417 days), and there are serious difficulties in attempting to extrapolate from the
results of comparatively short-term tests to evaluate the probable behavior of a material over a 10
or 20 year period of service.
Creep is sensitive to both the applied load and the testing temperature, as shown in figure-
increasing stress raises the level of the creep curve, and increasing temperature, which
accelerates recovery processes, increase the creep rate.

Creep deformation strength: highest stress that a material can bear for a specific duration at a
certain temperature without excessive deformation which is pre-decided.

Creep ruptures strength- Highest stress that a material can bear for a specific duration at a certain
temp, without rupture.

8. Ductility Testing:

The percentage elongation, as determined by the tensile test is a measure of ductility test can also
be performed by is a simple bend test.

There are several ways in which this test can be done, as shown in figure. The test chosen will
depend upon the ductility of the material and the severity of the test required.

This also applies to the following tests:

i. Close Bend Test:

The specimen is bent over on itself and flattened. No allowance is made for spring back, and the
material is satisfactory if the test can be completed without the metal tearing or fracturing.

ii. Angle Bend Test:

The material is bent over a former and the nose radius of the former and the angle of bend (θ°)
are fixed by specification. Again no allowance is made for spring back.

iii. 180° Bend Test:

This is a development of the angle bend test using a flat former as shown. Only the nose radius
of the former is specified.

B. Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

Non-destructive testing refers to the use of testing techniques that do not alter any of the
properties of the tested product. These properties could be its strength, appearance, corrosion
resistance, conductivity, wear resistance, toughness

When the product passes an NDT test, it can still be used. There’s no detrimental effect on the
specimen because of the test. This advantage makes non-destructive testing a very useful method
for products that are freshly manufactured as well as for those that are already in service

Types of Non-destructive Test.

1. Ultrasonic testing

In this method, a high-frequency sound wave generated by a transmitter travels through the
object under test. The frequency of this wave is usually between 1 and 10 MHz

The wave distorts when encountering a change in the density of the material. This change in the
transmitted wave is captured by a receiver. The equipment then measures and analyses the
received wave to understand the nature and depth of the defect. The equipment can also calculate
the thickness of the specimen by dividing the wave speed in the material by the time taken for
travel

With ultrasonic testing we can identify defects such as cracks, abrasions, corrosion

Advantages of Ultrasonic testing

 Quick

 Clean

 Reliable
  Portable

 Safe and easy to use

 Highly accurate and sensitive

Disadvantages of Ultrasonic testing

 Requires training

 Needs a smooth surface

 Difficult to use with thin materials

2. Magnetic Particle testing

Magnetic particle testing is also a fairly popular NDT technique because of its fast execution
where no surface preparation is needed.

In magnetic particle testing, the part is placed between permanent magnets or electromagnets.
The strength of the field is an important factor since a stronger field gives better results

When the part under inspection is placed into the field, a magnetic current starts flowing through
the specimen. If there’s no defect, an uninterrupted magnetic flux field is obtained

But if it comes across a defect, the magnetic field bends and a part of it leaks out. This leakage is
also known as the flux leakage field. In order to identify the defects via these leakage points,
magnetic particles are used. These particles are applied to the test specimen and they are pulled
into these leakage points because of the uneven magnetic flux density

We may either use magnetic particles that can’t be seen with the naked eye or fluorescent ones
for better visibility

The width of the magnetic particle strips is wider than the defect’s width. As a result, it can
reveal minute defects with an opening width of up to 0.001mm and depth of 0.001mm

With this technique, we can detect defects such as cracks, pores, laps, seams, laminations,
machine tears and fatigue cracks

Advantages of magnetic particle testing

- Easy to use

- Portable setup

- High sensitivity

- Parts with complex geometries are also suitable

Disadvantages of magnetic particle testing

- Can only test small areas at a time

- Does not work with non-magnetic materials

- Testing may burn the particle if the field is too strong

3. Eddy current

Like magnetic particle testing, eddy current testing is another electromagnetic testing technique.
It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction

When current passes through any current-carrying conductor (primary conductor), it generates a
magnetic field (primary field)

When we place a second conductor (test specimen) in this magnetic field, the primary magnetic
field induces an opposing electric current in this conductor

This current is known as eddy current and it is proportional to the change in the magnetic field as
the alternating current in the primary coil rises and falls during every cycle

The fluctuating eddy current creates its own magnetic field (secondary field) that opposes the
primary field and affects the voltage and current flowing through the primary conductor

As the test specimen’s magnetic permeability and electrical conductivity changes because of the
defects, the magnitude of the eddy current changes. These changes can be recorded by using the
primary or the secondary coil and analyzing them to get more information about the defect

With eddy current testing, we can detect flaws such as cracks, corrosion. Lack of fusion,
magnetic inclusions, porosity and wear

Advantages of eddy current testing

- Quick

- Portable

- Immediate results

- Can be a non-contact process

- Works with complex part geometries

Disadvantages of eddy current testing

- The penetration depth depends on many factors

- Only works with electrically conductive materials

- Requires high-skill personnel for accurate interpretation of results