Contents

1. Functions 2
1.1. Definition of Function 2
1.2. Evaluating a Function 3
1.3. The Domain of a Function 4
1.4. The Range of a Function 6
1.5. Graphing Functions 9
1.6. Composition of Functions 10
1.7. The Inverse of a Function 11
2. Polynomials 19
2.1. Linear Function 19
2.2. Quadratic Function 29
2.3. Polynomials 33
3. Complex Numbers 39
3.1. Arithmetic Operations on Complex Numbers 40
3.2. Quadratic Equations with Complex Solutions 43
4. Rational Functions 44
4.1. Asymptotes of Rational Functions 45
4.2. Graphing a Rational Functions 48
5. Exponential and Logarithm Functions 51
5.1. Exponential function 51
5.2. Logarithmic Functions 56
5.3. Exponential and logarithmic Equations 63

1
 1. Functions

1.1. Definition of Function.

Definition 1.1.1.1:
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set A exactly one element,
called f (x), in a set B.

We usually consider functions for which the sets A and B are sets of real numbers.
The symbol f (x) is read ”f of x” or ”f at x” and is called the value of f at x, or the
image of x under f . The set A is called the domain of the function. The range of f is
the set of all possible values of as x varies throughout the domain, that is,

range of f = {f (x) | x ∈ A}

It’s helpful to think of a function as a machine (see Figure below). If x is in the domain
of the function f , then when x enters the machine, it is accepted as an input and the
machine produces an output according to the rule of the function. Thus, we can think
of the domain as the set of all possible inputs and the range as the set of all possible
outputs

2
1.2. Evaluating a Function.
In the definition of a function the independent variable x plays the role of a ”place-
holder”. For example, the function f (x) = 3x2 + x − 5 can be thought of as

f () = 3 · 2 +  − 5

To evaluate f at a number, we substitute the number for the placeholder.

Example:
Let f (x) = 3x2 + x − 5. Evaluate each function value
(1) f (−2)
(2) f (0)
(3) f (4)
(4) f ( 12 )
Answers:
To evaluate f at a number, we substitute the number for x in the definition of f .
(1) f (−2) = 3(−2)2 + (−2) − 5 = 5
(2) f (0) = 3(0)2 + (0) − 5 = −5
(3) f (4) = 3(4)2 + (4) − 5 = 47
(4) f ( 12 ) = 3 · ( 21 )2 + ( 12 ) − 5 = − 15
2

Practice:
Let f (x) = x2 − 3x + 1. Evaluate each function value
(1) f (1)
(2) f (0)
(3) f (−1)
3
 (4) f ( 32 )
(5) f (z)
(6) f (x + 1)
(7) f (a + 1)
(8) f (−x)
(9) | f (1) |
√
(10) f ( 3)
√
(11) f (1 + 2)
(12) | 1 − f (2) |
Answer:
(1) f (1) = −1
(2) f (0) = 1
(3) f (−1) = 5
(4) f ( 32 ) = − 45
(5) f (z) = z 2 − 3z + 1
(6) f (x + 1) = x2 − x − 1
(7) f (a + 1) = a2 − a − 1
(8) f (−x) = x2 + 3x + 1
(9) | f (1) |= 1
√ √
(10) f ( 3) = 4 − 3 3
√ √
(11) f (1 + 2) = 1 − 2
(12) | 1 − f (2) |= 2

1.3. The Domain of a Function.

Definition 1.3.1.1:
Recall that the domain of a function is the set of all inputs for the function. For
example, consider the function
1 √
f (x) = g(x) = x
x−4
4
The function f is not defined at x = 4, so its domain is D = {x | x 6= 4}. The function
g is not defined for negative x, so its domain is D = {x | x ≥ 0}.

Hint on finding Domain of functions:

• The domain of any polynomial is any real number. For instance f (x) = x2 + 1
has domain D = {x | x ∈ R}
• To find the domain of a rational function, the denominator should be different
x−2
to zero. For example the domain of g(x) = x2 −9
, The denominator should not
be zero:
x2 − 9 6= 0
(x − 3)(x + 3) 6= 0
x 6= 3 and x 6= −3
D = {x | x 6= 3 and x 6= −3}
• To find the domain of a radical function, the expression that is under the radical
√
should be greater or equal to 0 (≥). For example the domain of h(x) = 2x − 1
is:
2x − 1 ≥ 0
x ≥ 1/2
D = {x | x ≥ 1/2}
Practice:
Find the domain of each function.
(1)
f (x) = −3x5 + x4 + 12x2 + 8x − 23
(2)
3x − 2
g(x) =
x2 + 9x + 20
(3)
√
h(x) = 2x − 3
Answers:
5
 (1) Since f (x) = −3x5 + x4 + 12x2 + 8x − 23 is a polynomial then its domain is any
real number.
D = {x | x ∈ R}
3x−2
(2) g(x) = x2 +9x+20
is a rational function then

x2 + 9x + 20 6= 0

(x + 4)(x + 5) 6= 0

x 6= −4 and x 6= −5

D = {x | x 6= −4 and x 6= −5}
√
(3) h(x) = 2x − 3 is a radical function so,

2x − 3 ≥ 0

x ≥ 3/2
The domain is:
D = {x | x ≥ 3/2}

1.4. The Range of a Function.

Definition 1.4.1.1:
The range of a function is the set of all outputs for the function.

Example:
Determine the range of the functions
(1) f (x) = 4x2
√
(2) g(x) = 4 − x
Answers:
(1) f (x) = 4x2 cannot be negative for any value of x as an input, the range is the
set of all nonnegative real numbers

R = {y | y ≥ 0}

.
6
 √
(2) g(x) = 4 − x (the principal square root) can never be negative, the range is
R = {y | y ≥ 0}.
Practice:
Determine the range of the functions
(1) f (x) = x2
√
(2) g(x) = x − 1
(3) h(x) = x + 1
1
(4) i(x) = (x+1)2

Answer:
(1) f (x) = x2
R = {y | y ≥ 0}
.
√
(2) g(x) = x−1
R = {y | y ≥ 0}
.
(3) h(x) = x + 1
R = {y | y ∈ R}
.
1
(4) i(x) = (x+1)2
R = {y | y > 0}
.

ax+b
Determining range of a function of the form f (x) = cx+d
ax+b
To determine the range of a function of the form f (x) = cx+d
,first we have to state
f (x) = y. After that, we solve for x. The values of y that does not make the denomi-
nator zero is the range.

Example:
Determine the range of the functions
7
 2x+1
(1) f (x) = x+3
3x−2
(2) g(x) = 5x−1

Answer:
2x+1
(1) f (x) = x+3

2x + 1
y =
x+3
y(x + 3) = 2x + 1
yx + 3y = 2x + 1
yx − 2x = 1 − 3y
x(y − 2) = 1 − 3y
1 − 3y
x =
y−2
y − 2 6= 0

y 6= 2

R = {y | y 6= 2}
3x−2
(2) g(x) = 5x−1

3x − 2
y = g(x) =
5x − 1
y(5x − 1) = 3x − 2
5yx − y = 3x − 2
5yx − 3x = y − 2
x(5y − 3) = y − 2
y−2
x =
5y − 3
5y − 3 6= 0

Y 6= 3/5

R = {y | y 6= 3/5}
8
1.5. Graphing Functions.
The most important way to visualize a function is through its graph. In this section
we investigate in more detail the concept of graphing functions.

Example:
Sketch the graph of the following function.

f (x) = x2

Answer:
We first make a table of values. Then we plot the points given by the table and join
them by a smooth curve to obtain the graph.

x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
f (x) 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16

Practice:
Sketch the graph of the following function.
• g(x) = x3
9
 √
• h(x) = x

1.5.1. The Vertical Line Test.

The graph of a function is a curve in the xy-plane. But the question arises: Which
curves in the xy-plane are graphs of functions? This is answered by the following test.

Vertical Line Test

A curve in the coordinate plane is the graph of a function if and only if no vertical line
intersects the curve more than once.

1.6. Composition of Functions.

Given two functions f and g, the composite function f ◦ g (also called the composition
of f and g) is defined by
(f ◦ g)(x) = f [g(x)]

Example: Let f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x − 3

(1) Find the function (f ◦ g)(x), (g ◦ f )(x).
(2) Find (f ◦ g)(5) and (g ◦ f )(7).
Answers:
(1) We have
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
10
 = f (x − 3)

= (x − 3)2

and
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))

= g(x2 )

= x2 − 3

(2) We have
(f ◦ g)(5) = f (g(5)) = f (2) = 22 = 4

(g ◦ f )(7) = g(f (7)) = g(49) = 49 − 3 = 46

Practice:
Find the following composite function outputs, using f (x) = 2x − 5, g(x) = 6 − x2
(1) (f ◦ g)(x) = f [g(x)]
(2) (g ◦ f )(x) = g[f (x)]

Answers:
(1) (f ◦ g)(x) = −2x2 + 7
(2) (g ◦ f )(x) = −4x2 + 20x − 19

1.7. The Inverse of a Function.

Definition 1.7.1.1:
Functions f and g for which f (g(x)) = x for all x in the domain of g and g(f (x)) = x
for all x in the domain of f are called inverse functions. In this case, we denote g by
f −1 , read as ”f inverse”.

Example:
Show that f (x) = x3 and g(x) = x1/3 are inverses of each other.
11
Answer:
Note that the domain and range of both f and g is R . We have

f (g(x)) = f (x1/3 ) = (x1/3 )3 = x

g(f (x)) = g(x3 ) = (x3 )1/3 = x

So, by the the definition of inverse functions, f and g are inverses of each other.

Practice:
Show that the given functions are inverses of each other.
x
(1) f (x) = 3x and g(x) = 3
(2) f (x) = 4x − 1 and g(x) = 14 x + x1
√
(3) f (x) = x and g(x) = x2 [ Assume that the domain of both f and g is [0, ∞). ]

1.7.1. One-to-One Functions.

In general, we can show that a function has an inverse if it is a one-to-one function.
We define a one-to-one function as follows.
Definition 1.7.1.1:
A function f is a one-to-one function if each output of the function corresponds to
exactly one input in the domain of the function. This means there is a one-to-one
correspondence between the elements of the domain and the elements of the range.
This statement means that for a one-to-one function f ,

if a 6= b then f (a) 6= f (b)

Example:
Determine if each of the functions is a one-to-one function.
(1) f (x) = 3x4
(2) f (x) = x3 − 1
Answers:
12
 (1) Assume a = 1 and b = −1,

f (1) = 3(1)4 = 3 and f (−1) = 3(−1)4 = 3

so f (1) = f (−1)

But 1 6= −1 hence f is NOT a one-to-one.

(2) Suppose that a 6= b. Then a3 6= b3 and a3 − 1 6= b3 − 1, so if f (x) = x3 − 1,
f (a) 6= f (b). This satisfies the condition f (a) 6= f (b) if a 6= b, so the function
f (x) = x3 − 1 is one-to-one.
Practice:
Determine if each of the functions is a one-to-one function.
(1) f (x) = 3x + 4
(2) g(x) = x2 − 1
Answers:
(1) f (x) = 3x + 4 is a one-to-one.
(2) g(x) = x2 − 1 is NOT a one-to-one.

Horizontal Line Test

A function is one-to-one if no horizontal line can intersect the graph of the function in
more than one point.

Example:
Determine if each of the functions is one-to-one by using the horizontal line test.
(1) f (x) = 3x4
(2) g(x) = x3 − 1
Answers:
We can see that f (x) = 3x4 is NOT a one-to-one by the horizontal line test but
g(x) = x3 − 1 is a one-to-one.

13
Finding the Inverse of a Function
To find the inverse of the function f that is defined by the equation y = f (x):
(1) Rewrite the equation replacing f (x) with y.
(2) Interchange x and y in the equation defining the function.
(3) Solve the new equation for y. If this equation cannot be solved uniquely for y,
the original function has no inverse function.
(4) Replace y with f −1 (x).
Example 1:
Find the inverse function of
2x − 1
f (x) =
3
Answer:
Using the steps for finding the inverse of a function, we have
(1)
2x − 1
y=
3
(2)
2y − 1
x=
3
(3)
3x = 2y − 1

3x + 1 = 2y
3x + 1
=y
2
14
 (4)
3x + 1
f −1 (x) =
2

Example 2:
A business property is purchased with a promise to pay off a 60,000 dollars loan plus
the 16,500 dollars interest on this loan by making 60 monthly payments of 1275 dollars.
The amount of money remaining to be paid on the loan plus interest is given by the
function
f (x) = 76, 500 − 1275x
where x is the number of monthly payments remaining.
(1) Find the inverse of this function.
(2) Use the inverse to determine how many monthly payments remain if 35,700
dollars remains to be paid.
Answer:
(1) Replacing f (x) with y gives y = 76, 500 − 1275x. Interchanging x and y gives
the equation x = 76, 500 − 1275y. Solving this new equation for y gives
76, 500 − x
y=
1275
Replacing y with f −1 (x) gives the inverse function
76, 500 − x
f −1 (x) =
1275
(2) The inverse function gives the number of months remaining to make payments
if x dollars remain to be paid.
76, 500 − 35, 700
f −1 (35, 700) = = 32
1275
so 32 monthly payments remain.
Practice:
Find the inverse of the function
(1) f (x) = 2x + 3
√
(2) g(x) = 3 + x
15
(3)
x5 − 3
h(x) =
2
Answer:
(1) f (x) = 2x + 3
y = 2x + 3
x = 2y + 3
x − 3 = 2y
x−3
y=
2
x−3
f −1 (x) =
2
√
(2) g(x) = 3 + x
√
y =3+ x
√
x=3+ y
√
x−3= y
√
(x − 3)2 = ( y)2
(x − 3)2 = y
g −1 (x) = (x − 3)2
x5 −3
(3) h(x) = 2
x5 − 3
h(x) =
2
5
x −3
y=
2
5
y −3
x=
2
5
2x = y − 3
2x + 3 = y 5
y = (2x + 3)1/5
h−1 (x) = (2x + 3)1/5
16
 Graphs of Inverse Functions
The graphs of a function and its inverse are symmetric with respect to the line y = x.

Example:
√
(a) Sketch the graph of f (x) = x − 2.
(b) Use the graph of f to sketch the graph of f −1 .

Answer:
(a) First we make a table of values. We can find the domain of f : D = {x | x ≥ 2}

x 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
√ √ √ √ √ √
f (x) 0 1 2 3 2 5 6 7 8

(b) The graph of f −1 is obtained from the graph of f in part (a) by reflecting it in
the line y = x, as shown in Figure below.
Another Method:
The graph of f −1 can be obtained from the table of values of f . How? By switching
the first and second row of the table of f .
√ √ √ √ √ √
x 0 1 2 3 2 5 6 7 8
f −1 (x) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

17
Practice:
A function f (x) = 3x − 6 is given.
(a) Sketch the graph of f .
(b) Use the graph of f to sketch the graph of f −1 .
Answer:
(a) Since the graph of f is a line we make a table with only three values for x.

x 0 1 2
f (x) −6 3 0

(b) The graph of f −1 is obtained from the graph of f in part (a) by reflecting it in
the line y = x, as shown in Figure below.

18
 2. Polynomials

2.1. Linear Function.

A function whose graph is a line is a linear function.
Definition 4.1.1.1
A linear function is a function that can be written in the form f (x) = ax + b, where a
and b are constants.

If x and y are in separate terms in an equation and each appears to the first power
(and not in a denominator), we can rewrite the equation relating them in the form

y = ax + b

for some constants a and b. So the original equation is a linear equation that represents
a linear function.

19
 Example:
Determine whether each equation represents a linear function. If so, give the domain
and range.
(1) 0 = 2t − s + 1
(2) y = 5
(3) xy = 2
Answers:
(1) The equation

0 = 2t − s + 1

does represent a linear function because each of the variables t and s appears to
the first power and each is in a separate term. We can solve this equation for s,
getting

s = 2t + 1

so s is a linear function of t. Because any real number can be multiplied by 2

and increased by 1 and the result is a real number, both the domain and the
range consist of the set of all real numbers. (Note that we could also solve the
equation for t so that t is a linear function of s.)
(2) The equation y = 5 is in the form y = ax + b, where a = 0 and b = 5, so it
represents a linear function. (It is in fact a constant function, which is a special
linear function.) The domain is the set of all real numbers (because y = 5
regardless of what x we choose), and the range is the set containing 5.
(3) The equation

xy = 2

does not represent a linear function because x and y are not in separate terms
and the equation cannot be written in the form y = ax + b.

2.1.1. Intercepts:

20
The points where a graph crosses or touches the x-axis and the y-axis are called the
x-intercepts and y-intercepts, respectively, of the graph. For example, Figure above
shows that the graph of the linear function 2x − 3y = 12 crosses the x-axis at (6, 0), so
the x-intercept is (6, 0). The graph crosses the y-axis at (0, −4), so the y-intercept is
(0, −4). In this text, we will use the widely accepted convention that the x-coordinate
of the x-intercept may also be called the x-intercept, and the y-coordinate of the y-
intercept may also be called the y-intercept. The procedure for finding intercepts is a
direct result of these definitions.

Finding Intercepts Algebraically:

- To find the y-intercept of a graph of y = f (x), set x = 0 in the equation and solve for
y. If the solution is b, we say the y-intercept is b and the graph intersects the y-axis at
the point (0, b).
- To find the x-intercept(s) of the graph of y = f (x), set y = 0 in the equation and
solve for x. If the solution is a, we say the x-intercept is a and the graph intersects the
x-axis at the point (a, 0).

Example 1:
Find the x-intercept and the y-intercept of the graph of 2x - 3y = 12 algebraically.
Answers:
The y-intercept can be found by substituting 0 for x in the equation and solving for y.

2(0) − 3y = 12
21
 −3y = 12

y = −4
Thus, the y-intercept is -4, and the graph crosses the y-axis at the point (0, −4). Sim-
ilarly, the x-intercept can be found by substituting 0 for y in the equation and solving
for x.
2x − 3(0) = 12

2x = 12

x=6
Thus, the x-intercept is 6, and the graph crosses the x-axis at the point (6, 0).

Practice:
A business property is purchased with a promise to pay off a 60,000 dollars loan plus
the 16,500 dollars interest on this loan by making 60 monthly payments of 1275 dollars.
The amount of money, y, remaining to be paid on 76,500 dollars (the loan plus interest)
is reduced by 1275 dollars each month. Although the amount of money remaining to
be paid changes every month, it can be modeled by the linear function

y = 76, 500 − 1275x

where x is the number of monthly payments made. We recognize that only integer
values of x from 0 to 60 apply to this application.
(1) Find the x-intercept and the y-intercept of the graph of this linear equation.
(2) Interpret the intercepts in the context of this problem situation.
(3) How should x and y be limited in this model so that they make sense in the
application?
(4) Use the intercepts and the results of part (3) to sketch the graph of the given
equation.
Answers:
(1) To find the x-intercept, set y = 0 and solve for x.

0 = 76, 500 − 1275x

22
 1275x = 76, 500

76, 500
x=
1275

= 60

To find the y-intercept, set x = 0 and solve for y.

y = 76, 500 − 1275(0)

y = 76, 500

Thus, 76,500 is the y-intercept.

(2) The x-intercept corresponds to the number of months that must pass before the
amount owed is 0 dollar. Therefore, a possible interpretation of the x-intercept
is ”The loan is paid off in 60 months.” The y-intercept corresponds to the total
(loan plus interest) that must be repaid 0 months after purchase-that is, when
the purchase is made. Thus, the y-intercept tells us ”A total of 76,500 dollars
must be repaid.”
(3) We know that the total time to pay the loan is 60 months. A value of x larger
than 60 will result in a negative value of y, which makes no sense in the appli-
cation, so the values of x vary from 0 to 60. The output, y, is the total amount
owed at any time during the loan. The amount owed cannot be less than 0, and
the value of the loan plus interest will be at its maximum, 76,500, when time is
0. Thus, the values of y vary from 0 to 76,500.
(4) The graph intersects the horizontal axis at (60, 0) and intersects the y-axis at
(0, 76,500), as indicated in Figure below. Because we know that the graph of
this equation is a line, we can simply connect the two points to obtain this
first-quadrant graph.

23
2.1.2. Slope of a Line.
The slope of a line is defined as

vertical change rise

slope = =
horizontal change run

The slope can be found by using any two points on the line (see Figure below). If a
nonvertical line passes through the two points, P1 with coordinates (x1 , y1 ) and P2 with
coordinates (x2 , y2 ), its slope, denoted by m, is found by using

y2 − y1
m=
x 2 − x1

24
Example:
Find the slope of the line passing through the points (-3, 2) and (5, -4). What does the
slope mean?

Answer:
Letting P1 = (−3, 2) and P2 = (5, −4) and substituting in the slope formula gives

−4 − 2 −6 3
m= = =−
5 − (−3) 8 4

3
A slope of 4
means that, from a given point on the line, by moving 3 units down and 4
units to the right or by moving 3 units up and 4 units to the left, we arrive at another
point on the line.

Practice:
Find the slope of the line through P and Q.

(1) P (0, 0), Q(4, 2)

(2) P (2, 2), Q(−10, 0)
(3) P (2, 4), Q(4, 3)
(4) P (1, −3), Q(−1, 6)
25
2.1.3. The Relation Between Orientation of a Line and Its Slope.

26
2.1.4. Equation of a Line.
An equation of the line that passes through the point (x1 , y1 ) and has slope m is

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

Example:
1) Find an equation of the line through (1, −3) with slope− 21 .
2) Find the equation of the line passes through the points (−1, 2) and (3, −4).

Answer:
Using the point-slope form with m = −1/2, x1 = 1 and y1 = −3, we obtain an equation
of the line as
1
y + 3 = − (x − 1)
2

x + 2y + 5 = 0

2) The slope of the line is

−4 − 2 6 3
m= =− =−
3 − (−1) 4 2

Using the point-slope form with x1 = −1 and y1 = 2, we obtain

3
y − 2 = − (x + 1)
2

2y − 4 = −3x − 3

2y − 4 = −3x − 3

3x + 2y − 1 = 0

Practice:
1) Find an equation of the line through (2, 3) with slope−1.
2) Find the equation of the line passes through the points (2, 1) and (1, 6).

27
2.1.5. Slope and y-Intercept of a Line.
The slope of the graph of the equation y = mx + b is m and the y-intercept of the graph
is b, so the graph crosses the y-axis at (0, b).

Example 1:
(a) Find the equation of the line with slope 3 and y-intercept 2.
(b) Find the slope and y-intercept of the line 3y − 2x = 1.

Answer:
(a)Since m = 3 and b = 2, from the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line we
get
y = 3x − 2
(b) We first write the equation in the form y = mx + b

3y − 2x = 1

3y = 2x + 1
2 1
y= +
3 3
2
From the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line, we see that the slope is m = 3
1
and the y-intercept is b = 3
.

Example 2:
The amount of money y remaining to be paid on the loan of 60,000 dollars with 16,500
dollars interest is
y = 76, 500 − 1275x
where x is the number of monthly payments that have been made. What are the slope
and y-intercept of the graph of this function?
Answer:
Writing this equation in the form y = mx + b gives y = −1275x + 76, 500. The coef-
ficient of x is -1275, so the slope is m = −1275. The constant term is 76,500, so the
y-intercept is b = 76, 500.

28
 Practice:
Find the slope and y-intercept of the line and draw its graph.

(1) x + y = 3
(2) x + 3y = 0
(3) 21 x − 13 y + 1 = 0

2.2. Quadratic Function.

Definition 4.2.1.1:
A quadratic function is a function that can be written in the form

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

where a, b, and c are real numbers with a 6= 0.

Examples:
f (x) = 3x2 + 6x − 1, g(x) = x2 and h(x) = x2 − 5 are quadratic functions.

The graph of the quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c is called a parabola with a
turning point called the vertex.

• If a > 0 the parabola opens upward.

• If a < 0 the parabola opens downward.

The coordinates of the vertex are at the point:

−b −b
( , f ( ))
2a 2a
−b
The axis of symmetry of the parabola has equation x = 2a

29
Example 1:
Let f (x) = −2x2 − 4x + 6
(1) What is the direction of the parabola?
(2) Find the coordinates of the vertex
(3) Find the x-intercepts and y-intercept.
(4) Sketch the graph of f .

Answer:
(1) Since a = −2 the parabola opens opens downward.
(2) The x-coordinate of the vertex is
−b −(−4)
x= = = −1
2a 2(−2)
The y-coordinate is

f (−1) = −2(−1)2 − 4(−1) + 6 = 8y.

Thus, the vertex is (−1, 8).

(3) To find the x-intercept we assume y = 0 and we solve for x.

−2x2 − 4x + 6 = 0

−2(x2 + 2x − 3) = 0
30
 x2 + 2x − 3 = 0

(x + 3)(x − 1) = 0

x = −3 or x=1

To find the y-intercept we assume x = 0 and we solve for y. The y-intercept is

easily found by computing f (0):

f (0) = −2(0)2 − 4(0) + 6 = 6

(4)

Example 2: Maximizing Revenue

Suppose the monthly revenue from the sale of Carlson 42-inch 3D televisions is given
by the function
R(x) = −0.1x2 + 600x dollars

where x is the number of televisions sold.

(1) Find the vertex and the axis of symmetry of the graph of this function.
(2) Determine if the vertex represents a maximum or minimum point.
(3) Interpret the vertex in the context of the application.
(4) Graph the function.
(5) For what x-values is the function increasing? decreasing? What does this mean
in the context of the application?
31
Answers:

(1) The function is a quadratic function with a = −0.1, b = 600, and c = 0. The
−b −600
x-coordinate of the vertex is 2a
= 2(−0.1)
= 3000, and the axis of symmetry is
the line x = 3000. The y-coordinate of the vertex is

R(3000) = −0.1(3000)2 + 600(3000) = 900, 000

So the vertex is (3000, 900, 000).

(2) Because a < 0, the parabola opens downward, so the vertex is a maximum
point.
(3) The x-coordinate of the vertex gives the number of televisions that must be sold
to maximize revenue, so selling 3000 sets will result in the maximum revenue.
The y-coordinate of the vertex gives the maximum revenue, 900,000 dollars.
(4) The graph is shown below

(5) The function is increasing on the interval (−∞, 3000) and decreasing on (3000, +∞).
However, in the context of the application, negative inputs and outputs do not
make sense, so we may say the revenue increases on (0, 3000) and decreases on
(3000, 6000).
32
2.3. Polynomials.
Definition 4.1.1.1
A polynomial in the variable x is an expression of the form

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0

where a0 , a1 , ..., an are real numbers, and n is a nonnegative integer. If an 6= 0, then

the polynomial has degree n. The monomials ak xk that make up the polynomial are
called the terms of the polynomial.

Note that the degree of a polynomial is the highest power of the variable that appears
in the polynomial.

For instance, p(x) = 6x4 − x3 + 5x2 + 9x − 7 and q(x) = x + 2 are polynomials.

Factoring polynomials by grouping:

Example :
Factor the following polynomials
(1) p(x) = x3 − x2 − 6x
(2) q(x) = x3 + 3x2 − 4x − 12
Answers :
(1)
p(x) = x3 − x2 − 6x
p(x) = x(x2 − x − 6)
p(x) = x(x − 3)(x + 2)
(2) Here we factor the expression in grouping.

q(x) = x3 + 3x2 −4x − 12

q(x) = x2 (x + 3) − 4(x + 3)
q(x) = (x + 3)(x2 − 4)
q(x) = (x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 4)
33
Practice :
Factor the following polynomials
(1) p(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 8x
(2) q(x) = x3 + x2 − x − 1
Factoring polynomials using Factor Theorem:
The next theorem says that zeros of polynomials correspond to factors; we used to
graph polynomials.

Factor Theorem:
Let p(x) be a polynomial and c any real number. If p(c) = 0 then x − c is a factor of
p(x).
Meaning p(x) = (x − c)q(x) where q(x) is polynomial.

Example:
Let p(x) = x3 − 7x + 6.
(1) Show that p(1) = 0.
(2) Use (1) to factor p(x) completely.
Answers:
(1) Substituting, we see that

p(1) = 13 − 7 · 1 + 6 = 0

.
(2) By the Factor Theorem, this means that x − 1 is a factor of p(x) = x3 − 7x + 6.
Using synthetic division or long division

p(x) = 1x3 +0x2 −7x+6

1 0 −7 6
1 ↓ 1 1 −6
1 1 −6 0
34
 So p(x) = (x − 1)(1x2 + 1x−6)

p(x) = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)

Practice:
Let p(x) = x3 − 3x + 2 .
(1) Show that p(−2) = 0.
(2) Use (1) to factor p(x) completely.
Answer the same questions when p(x) = x3 − x2 − 14x + 24 and p(2)

2.3.1. Graphing Polynomials.

The graphs of polynomials of degree 0 or 1 are lines, and the graphs of polynomials of
degree 2 are parabolas. The greater the degree of the polynomial, the more complicated
its graph can be. However, the graph of a polynomial function is always a smooth curve;
that is, it has no breaks or corners.

Example:
Let p(x) = x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 be a polynomial.
(1) Show that p(1) = 0.
(2) Use question (1) to factor p(x) completely.
(3) Find the x-intercerpts and y-intercept.
(4) Make a table of values for p(x) by taking numbers around the x-intercepts
(5) Sketch the graph of the polynomial p(x) by using the previous questions.
35
 Answers:
Let p(x) = x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 be a polynomial.
(1) p(1) = (1)3 − 2(1)2 − 5(1) + 6 = 0
(2) Since p(1) = 0 so x − 1 is a factor of p(x)

1 −2 −5 6
1 ↓ 1 −1 −6
1 −1 −6 0

p(x) = (x − 1)(1x2 − 1x − 6) = (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 2)

(3) Let’s find the x-intercerpts

y = (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 2)

0 = (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 2)

x = 1 or x = 3 x = −2
Let’s find the y-intercerpt

y = x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6

y = (0)3 − 2(0)2 − 5(0) + 6 = 6

(4) Let’s make a table of values for p(x) by taking numbers around the x-intercepts

36
 (5) Let’s sketch the graph of the polynomial p(x).

Practice:
Let p(x) = x3 − 2x2 − 3x be a polynomial.
(1) Show that p(0) = 0.
(2) Use question (1) to factor p(x) completely.
(3) Find the x-intercerpts and y-intercept.
(4) Make a table of values for p(x) by taking numbers around the x-intercepts
(5) Sketch the graph of the polynomial p(x) by using the previous questions.
Answers:
Let p(x) = x3 − 2x2 − 3x be a polynomial.
(1) p(0) = (0)3 − 2(0)2 − 3(0) = 0
(2) Since p(0) = 0 so x − 0 is a factor of p(x)

1 −2 −3 0
0 ↓ 1 0 0
1 −2 −3 0
37
 p(x) = (x − 0)(1x2 − 2x − 3) = x(x + 1)(x − 3)
(3) Let’s find the x-intercerpts

y = x(x + 1)(x − 3)

0 = x(x + 1)(x − 3)

x = 0 or x = −1 x = 3

Let’s find the y-intercerpt

y = x3 − 2x2 − 3x

y = (0)3 − 2(0)2 − 3(0) = 0

(4) Let’s make a table of values for p(x) by taking numbers around the x-intercepts

(5) Let’s sketch the graph of the polynomial p(x).

38
 3. Complex Numbers

We know that if the discriminant of a quadratic equation is negative, the equation

has no real solution. For example, the equation

x2 + 4 = 0

has no real solution. If we try to solve this equation, we get x2 = −4, so

√
x = ± −4

But this is impossible, since the square of any real number is positive. Thus, negative
numbers don’t have real square roots.
To make it possible to solve all quadratic equations, mathematicians invented an ex-
panded number system, called the complex number system. First they defined the new
number
√
i= −1

This means i2 = −1. A complex number is then a number of the form a + bi, where a
and b are real numbers.

39
 Definition 3.1.1.1:
A complex number is an expression of the form

a + bi

where a and b are real numbers and i2 = −1.

The real part of this complex number is a and the imaginary part is b.
Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal and their imag-
inary parts are equal.

Example: The following are examples of complex numbers.

• 3 + 4i real part 3, imaginary part 4.
1
• 2
− 32 i real part 12 , imaginary part − 32 .
• 6i real part 0, imaginary part 6.
• −7 real part 7, imaginary part 0.

3.1. Arithmetic Operations on Complex Numbers.

Complex numbers are added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided just as we would any
√
number of the form a + b c. The only difference we need to keep in mind is that
i2 = −1.

40
 Example:
Perform the following complex numbers and express your answer in the form a + bi.
(1) (3 + 5i) + (4 − 2i)
(2) (3 + 5i) − (4 − 2i)
(3) (3 + 5i)(4 − 2i)
(4) i23
Answers:
(1) According to the definition, we add the real parts and we add the imaginary
parts.
(3 + 5i) + (4 − 2i) = (3 + 4) + (5 − 2)i = 7 + 3i
(2)
(3 + 5i) − (4 − 2i) = (3 − 4) + (5 − (−2)) = −1 + 7i
(3)
(3 + 5i)(4 − 2i) = [3 · 4 − 5(−2)] + [3(−2) + 5 · 4]i = 22 + 14i
(4)
i23 = i(22+1) = (i2 )11 i = (−1)i = −i

Division of complex numbers is much like rationalizing the denominator of a radical

expression. For the complex number, z = a + bi we define its complex conjugate to be
z = a − bi. Note that
z · z = (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 + b2
So the product of a complex number and its conjugate is always a nonnegative real
number. We use this property to divide complex numbers.

Dividing Complex Numbers

a+bi
To simplify the quotient c+di
, multiply the numerator and the denominator by the
complex conjugate of the denominator:
a + bi a + bi c − di (ac + bd) + (bc − ad)i
=( )( )=
c + di c + di c − di c2 + d2
41
Example:
Express the following in the form a + bi.
(1)
3 + 5i
1 − 2i
(2)
7 + 3i
4i

Answer:
We multiply both the numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the
denominator to make the new denominator a real number.
(1) The complex conjugate of 1 − 2i is 1 + 2i

3 + 5i 3 + 5i 1 + 2i −7 + 11i 7 11
=( )( )= =− + i
1 − 2i 1 − 2i 1 + 2i 5 5 5

(2)
7 + 3i 7 + 3i −4i 12 − 28i 3 7
=( )( )= = − i
4i 4i −4i 16 4 4
Practice:
Perform the following complex numbers and express your answer in the form a + bi.
(1) (2 − 5i) + (3 + 4i)
(2) (−4 + i) − (2 − 5i)
(3) (7 − i)(4 + 2i)
(4) Express the following in the form a + bi.

2 − 3i
1 − 2i

42
3.2. Quadratic Equations with Complex Solutions.
We have already seen that, if a 6= 0, then the solutions of the quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0 are √
b2 − 4ac
−b ±
x=
2a
2
If b − 4ac < 0, then the equation has no real solution. But in the complex number
system, this equation will always have solutions, because negative numbers have square
roots in this expanded setting.

Example:
Solve each equation in the complex number system.
(1) x2 + 9 = 0
(2) x2 + 4x + 5 = 0
Answer
(1) The equation x2 + 9 = 0 means x2 = −9 so
√
x = ± −9
√
x = ± −1 · 9
√
x = ± i2 · 9

x = ±3i
The solutions are therefore 3i and −3i.
(2) In the equation x2 + 4x + 5 = 0, we can see that a = 1, b = 4 and c = 5. By
the quadratic formula we have
√
−4 ± 42 − 4 · 1 · 5
x=
2·1
√
−4 ± −4
=
2
√
−4 ± i2 · 4
=
2
43
 −4 ± 2i
=
2

2(−2 ± i)
=
2

= −2 ± i

So, the solutions are −2 + i and −2 − i.

Practice:
Solve each equation in the complex number system.

(1) 25x2 + 4 = 0
(2) x2 + x + 1 = 0

4. Rational Functions

Definition 4.1.1.1
A rational function is a function of the form

P (x)
r(x) =
Q(x)

where P and Q are polynomials. We assume that P (x) and Q(x) have no factor
in common. Even though rational functions are constructed from polynomials, their
graphs look quite different than the graphs of polynomial functions.
For instance,
3x + 5
r(x) =
x+2

is a rational function with vertical asymptote x = −2 and horizontal asymptote y = 3.

44
4.1. Asymptotes of Rational Functions.
Definition 4.1.2.1
An asymptote is a line from which the graph of a function is close to but it never touch
the line. There are vertical, horizontal and slant asymptote.

4.1.1. Vertical Asymptote.

To find vertical asymptotes of a rational function we state the denominator equals to
zero and we solve for x.

Example:
Find the vertical asymptote
(1)
4x − 4
r(x) =
x+2
(2)
6
s(x) =
x2 − 5x − 6

Answer:
45
 (1) To find the vertical, we state the denominator equals to 0 and we solve for x
4x − 4
r(x) =
x+2

x+2=0

x = −2

So x = −2 is a vertical asymptote
(2)
6
s(x) =
x2 − 5x − 6

x2 − 5x − 6 = 0

(x − 6)(x + 1) = 0

x = 6 or x = −1

x = 6 and x = −1 are the vertical asymptotes

4.1.2. Horizontal and Slant Asymptotes.

- To find horizontal asymptote of a rational function we compare the degree of the
numerator and denominator.
• If the degree of numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, then y = 0
is a horizontal asymptotes.
• If the degree of numerator is the same as the degree of the denominator, then
leading term of numerator
y=
leading term of denominator
is a horizontal asymptotes.
• If the degree of numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, then
there is NO a horizontal asymptotes.
46
- To find a slant asymptote. If the degree of the numerator is one more the degree
of the denominator then we perform the long division or synthetic division to find the
equation of the slant asymptote.

Example:
Find the horizontal or slant asymptotes
(1)
3x + 1
p(x) =
x+7
(2)
x+1
q(x) =
2x2 + 3x + 1
(3)
x4 + 3x2 − 5
t(x) =
x+4
(4)
11x2 − 7x + 2
u(x) =
x−3

Answer:
(1)
3x + 1
p(x) =
x+7
Since the degree of the numerator is the same as the degree of the denominator
3x
y= =3
x
So y = 3 is a horizontal asymptote.
(2)
x+1
q(x) =
2x2
+ 3x + 1
Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator so
y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote
47
 (3)
x4 + 3x2 − 5
t(x) =
x+4
Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the numerator
so there is NO horizontal asymptote.
(4)
11x2 − 7x + 2+
u(x) =
x−3
Since the degree of the numerator is one more the degree of the denominator
then there is a slant asymptote
11 −7 2
3 ↓ 33 78
11 26 80
y = 11x + 26 is a slant asymptote

4.2. Graphing a Rational Functions.

We have seen that asymptotes are important when graphing rational functions. In
general, we use the following question to graph rational functions.

Example:
Let r(x) be a rational function.
2x2 + 7x − 4
r(x) =
x2 + x − 2
(1) Factor the numerator and denominator.
(2) Find the x-intercept and y-intercept.
(3) Find any vertical and horizontal asymptotes
(4) Make a table of values by taking numbers around the vertical asymptote.
(5) Sketch the rational function r(x) by using the previous questions.
Answer:
2x2 + 7x − 4
r(x) =
x2 + x − 2
48
(1) Let’s factor the numerator and denominator.

2x2 + 7x − 4 (2x − 1)(x + 4)

r(x) = =
x2 + x − 2 (x − 1)(x + 2)
(2) Let’s find the x-intercept:
(2x − 1)(x + 4)
y=
(x − 1)(x + 2)

(2x − 1)(x + 4)
0=
(x − 1)(x + 2)

0(x − 1)(x + 2) = (2x − 1)(x + 4)

0 = (2x − 1)(x + 4)

x = 1/2 or x = −4

Let’s find the y-intercept:

(2x − 1)(x + 4)
y=
(x − 1)(x + 2)

(2(0) − 1)(0 + 4) −4
y= = = −2
(0 − 1)(0 + 2) 2
(3) Let’s find any vertical asymptotes: The vertical asymptotes occur where the
denominator is 0,
(x − 1)(x + 2) = 0

x = 1 or x = −2

x = 1 and x = −2 are the vertical asymptotes.

Let’s find the horizontal asymptote. Since the degree of the numerator is the
same as the degree of the denominator then the horizontal asymptote is
2x2
y= =2
x2
(4) Let’s make a table of values by taking numbers around the vertical asymptote.
49
 (5) Let’s sketch the rational function r(x) by using the previous questions.

Practice:
Let r(x) be a rational function.
2x + 6
r(x) =
−6x + 3
(1) Factor the numerator and denominator.
(2) Find the x-intercept and y-intercept.
(3) Find any vertical and horizontal asymptotes
50
 (4) Make a table of values by taking numbers around the vertical asymptote.
(5) Sketch the rational function r(x) by using the previous questions.

5. Exponential and Logarithm Functions

5.1. Exponential function.

Functions like y = 2x , which have a constant base raised to a variable power, are called
exponential functions. We discuss exponential functions and their applications in this
section.
Definition 5.1.1.1
If b is a positive real number, b 6= 1, then the function f (x) = bx is an exponential
function. The constant b is called the base of the function, and the variable x is the
exponent.

Example 1:
Draw the graph of each function.
(1) f (x) = 3x
(2) g(x) = ( 13 )x

Answer:
We calculate values of f (x) and g(x) and plot points to sketch the graphs in figure
below.

51
 Example 2:
Total personal income in the United States (in billions of dollars) for selected years
52
from 1960 and projected to 2018 can be modeled by

y = 492.4(1.07x )

with x equal to the number of years after 1960.

(1) What does the model predict the total U.S. personal income to be in 2014?
(2) Graphically determine the year during which the model predicts that total U.S.
personal income will reach 28.5 trillion dollars.

Answer:
(1) Evaluating the model at x = 54 gives total U.S. personal income in 2014 to be
19,013 billion dollars, or 19.013 trillion dollars.
(2) Figure below shows the graph of the model and the graph of y = 28,500. Using
Intersect gives x = 59.98 ≈ 60, so the model predicts that total U.S. personal
income will reach 28.5 trillion (28,500 billion) dollars in 2020.

Example 3:
It pays to advertise, and it is frequently true that weekly sales will drop rapidly for
53
many products after an advertising campaign ends. This decline in sales is called sales
decay. Suppose that the decay in the sales of a product is given by

S = 1000(2−0.5x ) dollars

where x is the number of weeks after the end of a sales campaign. Use this function to
answer the following.

(1) What is the level of sales when the advertising campaign ends?
(2) What is the level of sales 1 week after the end of the campaign?
(3) Use a graph of the function to estimate the week in which sales equal 500 dollars.
(4) According to this model, will sales ever fall to zero?

Answer:

(1) The campaign ends when x = 0, so

S = 1000(2−0.5(0) ) = 1000(20 ) = 1000(1) = 1000 dollars

(2) At 1 week after the end of the campaign, x = 1, Thus,

S = 1000(2−0.5(1) ) = 707.11 dollars

(3) The graph of this sales decay function is shown in Figure (a) below. One way to
find the x-value for which S = 500 is to graph y1 = 1000(2−0.5x ) and y2 = 500
and find the point of intersection of the two graphs. See Figure (b), which shows
that y = 500 when x = 2. Thus, sales fall to half their original amount after 2
weeks.
54
 (4) The graph of this sales decay function approaches the positive x-axis as x gets
large, but it never reaches the x-axis. Thus, sales will never reach a value of 0
dollar.

The Natural Exponential Function

The natural exponential function is the exponential function with base e. It is often
referred to as the exponential function.
Example:
The future value S of an investment of P dollars for t years at interest rate r, com-
pounded continuously, is given by
S = P ert

If 10,000 dollars is invested for 15 years at 10%, compounded continuously, what is the
future value of the investment?

Answer:
The future value of this investment is

S = P ert = 10, 000e0.10(15) = 10, 000e1.5 = 44, 816.89 dollars

55
5.2. Logarithmic Functions.
Every exponential function of the form y = bx , with b > 0 and b 6= 1, is a one-to-one so
every exponential function of this form has an inverse function. The inverse function of

y = bx

is found by interchanging x and y and solving the new equation for y. Interchanging x
and y in y = bx gives
x = by

In this new function, y is the power to which we raise b to get the number x. To solve
an expression like this for the exponent, we need new notation. We define y, the power
to which we raise the base b to get the number x, as

y = logb x

This inverse function is called a logarithmic function with base b.

Definition 5.2.1.1 :
Let a be a positive number with a 6= 1. The logarithmic function with base b, denoted
by logb , is defined by
y = logb x ⇔ x = by

Example 1:
Write each of the following exponential equations in logarithmic form.
(1) 32 = 9
(2) 4−1 = 1
4
(3) 51 = 5
(4) x = 3y

Answers:
(1) To write 32 = 9 in logarithmic form we use this, x = by ⇔ y = logb x so

32 = 9 ⇔ log3 9 = 2
56
 (2)
1 1
4−1 = ⇔ log4 = −1
4 4
(3)
51 = 5 ⇔ log5 5 = 1
(4)
x = 3y ⇔ to log3 x = y
Example 2:
Write each of the following logarithmic equations in exponential form.
(1) log2 16 = 4
(2) log10 0.0001 = −4
(3) log6 1 = 0

Answer:
Write each of the following logarithmic equations in exponential form.
(1) To write log2 16 = 4 in exponential for we have to use this y = logb x ⇔
x = by so
log2 16 = 4 ⇔ 24 = 16
(2)
log10 0.0001 = −4 ⇔ 10−4 = 0.0001
(3)
log6 1 = 0 ⇔ 60 = 1
Example 3:
Graph the function
y = log2 x
Answer:
To make a table of values, we choose the x-values to be powers of 2 so that we can easily
find their logarithms. We plot these points and connect them with a smooth curve as
in Figure below.
57
 Common Logarithms
We now study logarithms with base 10.
The logarithm with base 10 is called the common logarithm and is denoted by omitting
the base:
log x = log10 x
Example 1:
Using each of the indicated methods, find f (10, 000) if f (x) = log x.
(1) Write the equation y = log x in exponential form and find y when x = 10, 000.
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 (2) Use technology to evaluate log 10, 000.

Answer:
(1) The exponential form of y = log x = log10 x is 10y = x. Substituting 10,000 for
x in this equation gives
10y = 10, 000
Because 104 = 10, 000, we see that y = 4. Thus, f (10, 000) = 4.
(2) Tape log 10, 000 in your calculator and you will get 4.

Natural Logarithms
The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm and is denoted by ln:

ln x = loge x

Example:
Projections from 2010 to 2050 indicate that the percent of U.S. adults with diabetes
(diagnosed and undiagnosed) can be modeled by p(x) = −12.975 + 11.851 ln x, where
x is the number of years after 2000.
(1) Graph this function.
(2) Is the function increasing or decreasing? What does this mean in the context of
the application?
(3) What does this model predict the percent of U.S. adults with diabetes will be
in 2022?
(4) Use the graph to estimate the year in which this model predicts the percent will
reach 33%.
(Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)

Answer:
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(1) Using the window 0 ≤ x ≤ 50 and −1 ≤ x ≤ 50, the graph of p(x) = −12.975 +
11.851 ln x is as shown in Figure below.

(2) The function is increasing, which means the percent of U.S. adults with diabetes
is predicted to increase from 2010 to 2050.
(3) The year 2022 is 22 years after 2000, so the percent in 2022 is estimated to be

p(22) = −12.975 + 11.851 ln 22 ≈ 23.7

(4) To find the x-value for which y = p(x) = 33, we graph y1 = −12.975+11.851 ln x
and y2 = 33 on the same axes and find the point of intersection. This shows
that the percent is 33% when x ≈ 48.4, during 2049. (See Figure below.)

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5.2.1. Logarithmic Properties.
We have learned that logarithms are exponents and that a logarithmic function with
base a is the inverse of an exponential function with base a. Thus, the properties of
logarithms can be derived from the properties of exponents. These properties are useful
in solving equations involving exponents and logarithms.
The basic properties of logarithms are easy to derive from the definition of a logarithm.

Example:
Use the basic properties of logarithms to simplify the following.

(1) log5 510 =

(2) log4 4 =
(3) log4 1 =
(4) log 107 =
(5) ln e3 =
(6) log( 1013 ) =

Answers:

(1) log5 510 = 10 by Property 3.

(2) log4 4 = 1 by Property 1.

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 (3) log4 1 = 0 by Property 2.

(4) log 107 = log10 107 = 7 by Property 3.

(5) ln e3 = loge e3 = 3 by Property 3.

(6) log( 1013 ) = log 10−3 = log10 10−3 = −3

5.2.2. Additional Logarithmic Properties.

Other logarithmic properties are helpful in simplifying logarithmic expressions, which
in turn help us solve some logarithmic equations. These properties are also directly
related to the properties of exponents.

Example 1:
Rewrite each of the following expressions as a sum, difference, or product of logarithms,
and simplify if possible.
(1) log4 5(x − 7)
(2) ln[e2 (e + 3)]
(3) log( x−8
x
)
(4) log4 y 6
(5) ln( x15 )
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Answer:
(1) By Property 6, log4 5(x − 7) = log4 5 + log4 (x − 7).

(2) By Property 6, ln[e2 (e + 3)] = ln e2 + ln(e + 3).

By Property 3, this equals 2 + ln(e + 3).

(3) By Property 7, log( x−8

x
) = log(x − 8) − log x.

(4) By Property 8, log4 y 6 = 6 log4 y.

(5) By Property 7, Property 2, and Property 8,

1
ln( ) = ln 1 − ln x5 = 0 − 5 ln x = −5 ln x
x5

Example 2:
Rewrite each of the following expressions as a single logarithm.
(1) log3 x + 4 log3 y
1
(2) 2
log a − 3 log b
(3) ln(5x) − 3 ln z
Answer:
(1) log3 x + 4 log3 y = log3 x + log3 y 4 = log3 xy 4 by property 8 and 6.

1 1/2
(2) 2
log a − 3 log b = log a1/2 − log b3 = log( ab3 ) by property 8 and 7.

(3) ln(5x) − 3 ln z = ln(5x) − ln z 3 = ln( 5x

z3
) by property 8 and 7.

5.3. Exponential and logarithmic Equations.

In this section we solve equations that involve exponential or logarithmic functions.
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5.3.1. Exponential Equation.
When we wish to solve an equation for a variable that is contained in an exponent, we
can remove the variable from the exponent by converting the equation to its logarithmic
form. The steps in this solution method follow.
Guidelines for Solving Exponential Equations

(1) Isolate the exponential expression on one side of the equation.

(2) Take the logarithm of each side, then use the Laws of Logarithms to ”bring
down the exponent”.
(3) Solve for the variable.

Example 1:
Solve the equation each of the following equation
(a) 4(3x+2 ) = 28
(b) 8e2x + 1 = 21
(c) 6e3−2x = 24

Answer:
(a) 4(3x+2 ) = 28

4(3x+2 ) = 28 { Isolate the exponential expression }

3x+2 = 7 { T ake log f rom both sides }
log(3x+2 ) = log 7 { U se P roperty 8}
(x + 2) log 3 = log 7 { Solve f or the variable}
log 7
x+2 =
log 3
log 7
x = +2
log 3
x ≈ 0.228756
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(b) 8e2x + 1 = 21

8e2x + 1 = 21 { Isolate the exponential expression }

8e2x = 20
20
e2x =
8
5
e2x = { T ake ln f rom both sides }
2
2x
ln e = ln 2.5 { U se P roperty 8}
2x ln e = ln 2.5 { Solve f or the variable}
ln 2.5
x =
2 ln e
x ≈ 0.458

(c) 6e3−2x = 24

6e3−2x = 24 { Isolate the exponential expression }

e3−2x = 4 { T ake ln f rom both sides }
ln e3−2x = ln 4 { U se P roperty 8}
(3 − 2x) ln e = ln 4 { Solve f or the variable}
3 − 2x = ln 4
−2x = ln 4 − 3
ln 4 − 3
x =
−2
x = 0.807

5.3.2. Logarithmic Equation.

A logarithmic equation is one in which a logarithm of the variable occurs. For example,

log2 (x + 2) = 5

Guidelines for Solving Logarithmic Equations

(1) Isolate the logarithmic term on one side of the equation; you may first need to
combine the logarithmic terms.
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 (2) Write the equation in exponential form (or raise the base to each side of the
equation).
(3) Solve for the variable.
Example:
Solve for the variable
(1) 2 + ln x = 10
(2) 4 + 3 log(2x) = 16
(3) log(x + 2) + log(x − 1) = 1
Answer:
(1) 2 + ln x = 10 { Isolate the logarithmic term }

ln x = 8 { W rite the equation in exponential f orm }

loge x = 8
x = e8 { Solve f or the variable }
x ≈ 2981

(2) 4 + 3 log(2x) = 16 { Isolate the logarithmic term }

3 log(2x) = 12
log(2x) = 4 { W rite the equation in exponential f orm }
2x = 104 { Solve f or the variable }
x = 5000

(3) log(x + 2) + log(x − 1) = 1 { Combine as a single log }

log[(x + 2)(x − 1)] = 1 { W rite the equation in exponential f orm }

(x + 2)(x − 1) = 101 { Solve f or the variable }
x2 + x − 2 − 10 = 0
x2 + x − 12 = 0
(x + 4)(x − 3) = 0
x = −4 or 3
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check your answer
If x = −4
log(−4 + 2) + log(−4 − 1) = log(−2) + log(−5) undefined
If x = 3
log(3 + 2) + log(3 − 1) = log(5) + log(2) = log 10 = 1
The final solution for the equation is x = 3

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