Lecture Notes on Discrete Mathematics
1. Introduction to Discrete Mathematics
Definition: Discrete Mathematics is the branch of mathematics dealing with
countable, distinct, and separate objects.
Applications: Computer science, cryptography, algorithm design, network
theory, etc.
2. Sets and Set Theory
Definitions:
Set: A collection of distinct objects.
Element: An object within a set.
Subset: A set that contains some (or all) elements of another set.
Universal Set: The set containing all objects under consideration.
Operations:
Union ( ∪ ): A∪BA \cup BA∪B is the set containing all elements from sets
AAA and BBB.
Intersection ( ∩ ): A∩BA \cap BA∩B is the set containing elements
common to both AAA and BBB.
Difference ( - ): A−BA - BA−B is the set of elements in AAA but not in
BBB.
Complement: The complement of AAA is the set of all elements not in
AAA.
Venn Diagrams: A tool for visualizing set operations and relationships.
3. Logic and Propositional Calculus
Propositions: Statements that are either true or false.
Logical Connectives:
AND ( ∧ ): p∧qp \land qp∧q
OR ( ∨ ): p∨qp \lor qp∨q
NOT ( ¬ ): ¬p\neg p¬p
IMPLIES ( → ): p→qp \rightarrow qp→q
IF AND ONLY IF ( ↔ ): p↔qp \leftrightarrow qp↔q
Truth Tables: Tables used to determine the truth value of propositions and
logical operations.
Logical Equivalences: Laws such as De Morgan’s laws, distributive laws, etc.,
that show equivalences between logical statements.
4. Functions and Relations
Functions:
Definition: A function f:A→Bf: A \to Bf:A→B assigns each element in set
AAA to exactly one element in set BBB.
Domain and Codomain: Domain is the set AAA, and codomain is the set
BBB.
Injective (One-to-One): Each element of BBB is mapped by at most one
element of AAA.
Surjective (Onto): Every element of BBB is mapped by at least one
element of AAA.
Bijective: A function that is both injective and surjective.
Relations:
Definition: A relation RRR from set AAA to set BBB is a subset of A×BA \
times BA×B.
Properties:
o Reflexive: ∀a∈A,(a,a)∈R\forall a \in A, (a, a) \in R∀a∈A,(a,a)∈R
o Symmetric: ∀a,b∈A,(a,b)∈R→(b,a)∈R\forall a, b \in A, (a, b) \in R \
rightarrow (b, a) \in R∀a,b∈A,(a,b)∈R→(b,a)∈R
o Transitive: ∀a,b,c∈A,(a,b)∈R\forall a, b, c \in A, (a, b) \in
R∀a,b,c∈A,(a,b)∈R and (b,c)∈R→(a,c)∈R(b, c) \in R \rightarrow (a, c)
\in R(b,c)∈R→(a,c)∈R
5. Graph Theory
Definitions:
Graph: A pair G=(V,E)G = (V, E)G=(V,E), where VVV is a set of vertices
and EEE is a set of edges.
Vertex (Node): A fundamental unit of a graph.
Edge (Link): A connection between two vertices.
Types of Graphs:
Undirected: Edges have no direction.
Directed (Digraph): Edges have direction.
Weighted: Edges have weights or costs.
Graph Properties:
Degree: The number of edges incident to a vertex.
Path: A sequence of edges connecting vertices.
Cycle: A path that starts and ends at the same vertex.
Special Graphs:
Complete Graph: Every pair of distinct vertices is connected by an edge.
Bipartite Graph: Vertices can be divided into two disjoint sets such that
no two graph vertices within the same set are adjacent.
6. Combinatorics
Counting Principles:
Addition Principle: If there are mmm ways to do something and nnn
ways to do another thing, then there are m+nm + nm+n ways to choose
one of these actions.
Multiplication Principle: If there are mmm ways to do one thing and
nnn ways to do another thing, then there are m×nm \times nm×n ways to
perform both actions.
Permutations and Combinations:
Permutation: An arrangement of objects in a specific order.
o Formula: P(n,k)=n!(n−k)!P(n, k) = \frac{n!}{(n - k)!}P(n,k)=(n−k)!
n!
Combination: A selection of objects without regard to order.
o Formula: C(n,k)=n!k!(n−k)!C(n, k) = \frac{n!}{k!(n - k)!}C(n,k)=k!
(n−k)!n!
7. Number Theory
Divisibility:
Divisor: An integer ddd is a divisor of nnn if nnn divided by ddd leaves no
remainder.
Prime Numbers: Natural numbers greater than 1 that have no positive
divisors other than 1 and themselves.
Greatest Common Divisor (GCD):
Euclidean Algorithm: A method to find the GCD of two numbers.
Modular Arithmetic:
Modulus Operation: For integers aaa and bbb, amod ba \mod bamodb is
the remainder when aaa is divided by bbb.
8. Algorithms and Complexity
Algorithm:
Definition: A step-by-step procedure for calculations, data processing,
and automated reasoning tasks.
Complexity:
Time Complexity: Measures how the runtime of an algorithm changes
with the input size.
Space Complexity: Measures how the memory usage of an algorithm
changes with the input size.
Big O Notation: A notation used to describe the upper bound of the time or
space complexity.
9. Proof Techniques
Types of Proofs:
Direct Proof: Derives the conclusion directly from the premises.
Indirect Proof: Includes proof by contradiction and proof by
contrapositive.
Mathematical Induction: A method to prove statements about integers
by showing the base case and the inductive step.
