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Christian Karpfinger

Calculus and
Linear Algebra
in Recipes
Terms, phrases and numerous examples in
short learning units
Calculus and Linear Algebra in Recipes
Christian Karpfinger

Calculus and Linear Algebra

in Recipes
Terms, phrases and numerous examples
in short learning units
Christian Karpfinger
Technische Universität München
Zentrum Mathematik
München, Germany

ISBN 978-3-662-65457-6 ISBN 978-3-662-65458-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65458-3

The translation was done with the help of artificial intelligence (machine translation by the service DeepL.com).
A subsequent human revision was done primarily in terms of content.

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage
and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or
hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does
not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective
laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are
believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors
give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions
that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of Springer
Nature.
The registered company address is: Heidelberger Platz 3, 14197 Berlin, Germany
Foreword to the Third Edition

In the present third edition, we have revised and extended the recipe book: all known
errors have been corrected, new tasks have been added, and further topics have been
added, namely residual element estimation in Taylor expansion, the numerical solution of
boundary value problems, and the solution of first-order partial differential equations by
means of the characteristic method. Thus, we have presented further topics on numerical
mathematics or differential equations, which are important for the engineer, in a proven
and understandable manner.
On the website of the book you will find, besides the previous add-ons, video
animations and apps that illustrate some of the mathematical contents of the recipe book.
The website for this book can be found via
http://www.springer-spektrum.de/

Munich, Germany Christian Karpfinger

April 2017

v
Preface to the Second Edition

The main new features in this second edition are the chapter on the solution of partial
differential equations using integral transformations and a section on the numerical
solution of the wave equation. This is intended to introduce further important methods
for finding solutions of the partial differential equations which are so fundamental in the
natural sciences and technology.
Many small improvements or additions to explanations or examples have found their
way into the second edition, and of course all known erroneous passages in the text have
been corrected. We have also increased the number of exercises, especially in the later
chapters, in order to promote the practice of the formulas and the understanding of the
later and more difficult topics.
On the website for this book, as a special extra, you will find video recordings of
many lectures that follow the present text. In addition, we have supplemented the script
“Introduction to MATLAB”, which can be found on the website for this book, with the
part “MATLAB—a great calculator”. Mr. Benjamin Rüth contributed significantly to the
creation of this script, and I would like to thank him very much. Also the MATLAB codes,
which are used in the recipe book as well as in the accompanying workbook, and also the
solutions to most of the exercises can be found on the mentioned website. The link to the
website can be found via
http://www.springer-spektrum.de/
Further comments from the readership are always welcome.

Munich, Germany Christian Karpfinger

April 2014

vii
Preface to the First Edition

Joining the many books on higher mathematics is another, the present book Calculus and
Linear Algebra in Recipes. In writing the book, the author had the following aspects in
mind:

• Many typical problems in higher mathematics can be solved in recipes. The book
provides a collection of the most important recipes.
• A clear presentation of the topics that can be covered in four semesters of Calculus and
Linear Algebra.
• An inexpensive book for undergraduates that covers all the major content.
• Numerous examples that reinforce the theories and practice using the recipes.
• A division of the material into many roughly equally short teaching or learning units
(each chapter can be covered in about a 90-minute lecture).
• Omitting content that is usually only actually understood by about 10 percent of the
student body and that is of lesser importance for practice.
• Numerical mathematics and also the use of MATLAB are an integral part of the content.

It is customary, but perhaps not entirely correct, to teach higher mathematics as proof-
completely as possible. The disadvantages are obvious: desperate students who then
quickly realize that the exams can largely be passed without the proofs. It might make
more sense to use the time gained by omitting proofs to cover the topics that are so
important for practice, such as numerics and MATLAB. We cover a few topics in numerical
mathematics, punctuating them with numerous examples, and always showing how to
use MATLAB as a great calculator in the engineering mathematics problems covered.
Occasionally, especially in the assignments, we also solve programming problems using
MATLAB. Thereby hardly any previous knowledge for MATLAB are necessary. We put on
the Internet page to this book under
http://www.springer-spektrum.de/
a short introduction course to MATLAB on a few pages.

ix
x Preface to the First Edition

The inputs to MATLAB we always formulate with an excellent font type. And
instead of a comma we do like MATLAB we also put a dot, so we write 1.25 for 5/4.
Occasionally we calculate with M ATLAB symbolically, which is possible thanks to the
SYMBOLIC MATH TOOLBOX this is also possible, note that you also have this toolbox
installed.
We summarize the special features of this book once again:

• We do not attempt to erect the abstract edifice of mathematics, created over millennia,
in a few 100 pages as comprehensively and proof-completely as possible. We address
the topics of mathematics that are important to engineers, make concepts and rules
plausible if only that is feasible, and use examples and many problems to learn how to
solve problems.
• We divide the topics of higher mathematics into nearly 100 chapters of roughly equal
length and formulate numerous problem-solving strategies in a recipe-like fashion.
Each chapter covers about the material of a 90-minute lecture. This provides an
overview and the opportunity to plan, both for students and lecturers.
• We use the computer, in particular MATLAB as a powerful calculator to deal with
realistic examples instead of the usual academic examples.

At the end of the chapters some exercises are given, which are recommended to work
on. These exercises can be used to check the understanding of the presented recipes and
methods. On the Internet page to the book under
http://www.springer-spektrum.de/
we have provided detailed solution suggestions for a lot of the exercises. The exercises and
solutions are also printed in the accompanying workbook.
The creation of this comprehensive book was not possible without the help of
many colleagues and collaborators. For proof-reading, for numerous hints, suggestions,
proposals for improvement, tasks, examples, sketches and MATLAB programs, I would
like to thank Dr. L. Barnerßoi, Prof. Dr. D. Castrigiano, S. Dorn, F. Ellensohn, Dr. H.-J.
Flad, P. Gerhard, S. Held, Dr. F. Himstedt, Dr. F. Hofmaier, Prof. Dr. O. Junge, Dr. S.
Kaniber, B. Kleinherne, Y. Kochnova, A. Köhler, Dr. M. Kohls, Dr. P. Koltai, A. Kreisel,
Prof. Dr. C. Lasser, Dr. D. Meidner, N. Michels, S. Otten, M. Perner, P. Piprek, Dr. M.
Prähofer, F. Reimers, Dr. K.-.D. Reinsch, Prof. Dr. P. Rentrop, B. Rüth, M. Ritter, Th.
Simon, A. Schreiber, Dr. Th. Stolte, Prof. Dr. B. Vexler, Dr. H. Vogel, J. Wenzel and E.
Zindan.
Preface to the First Edition xi

Special thanks go to Dr. Ch. Ludwig, who not only always had an open ear for my
questions, whether during the day or at night, he also always had a solution ready. Finally,
my thanks also go to Th. Epp, who created most of the pictures, and to B. Alton and Dr. A.
Rüdinger of Springer Spektrum, who accompanied the creation of the book with numerous
pieces of advice.

Munich, Germany Christian Karpfinger

August 2013
Contents

1 Speech, Symbols and Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Speech Patterns and Symbols in Mathematics .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Summation and Product Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Powers and Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Symbols of Set Theory .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 The Natural Numbers, Integers and Rational Numbers . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.1 The Natural Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 The Integers .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 The Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 The Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.1 Basics . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Real Intervals .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 The Absolute Value of a Real Number .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4 n-th Roots . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.5 Solving Equations and Inequalities .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.6 Maximum, Minimum, Supremum and Infimum .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.7 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4 Machine Numbers .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.1 b-adic Representation of Real Numbers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2 Floating Point Numbers .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

5 Polynomials.. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.1 Polynomials: Multiplication and Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.2 Factorization of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

xiii
xiv Contents

5.3 Evaluating Polynomials .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.4 Partial Fraction Decomposition .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.5 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

6 Trigonometric Functions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.1 Sine and Cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.2 Tangent and Cotangent .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.3 The Inverse Functions of the Trigonometric Functions . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.4 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

7 Complex Numbers: Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

7.1 Construction of C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.2 The Imaginary Unit and Other Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.4 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

8 Complex Numbers: Polar Coordinates.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

8.1 The Polar Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.2 Applications of the Polar Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.3 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

9 Linear Systems of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

9.1 The Gaussian Elimination Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.2 The Rank of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.3 Homogeneous Linear Systems of Equations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.4 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

10 Calculating with Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

10.1 Definition of Matrices and Some Special Matrices . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
10.2 Arithmetic Operations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
10.3 Inverting Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.4 Calculation Rules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
10.5 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

11 LR-Decomposition of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

11.1 Motivation . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11.2 The L R-Decomposition: Simplified Variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.3 The L R-Decomposition: General Variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
11.4 The L R-Decomposition-with Column Pivot Search . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.5 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Contents xv

12 The Determinant . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

12.1 Definition of the Determinant.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
12.2 Calculation of the Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
12.3 Applications of the Determinant.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
12.4 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

13 Vector Spaces . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

13.1 Definition and Important Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
13.2 Subspaces . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
13.3 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

14 Generating Systems and Linear (In)Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

14.1 Linear Combinations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
14.2 The Span of X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
14.3 Linear (In)Dependence.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
14.4 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

15 Bases of Vector Spaces .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

15.1 Bases . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15.2 Applications to Matrices and Systems of Linear Equations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
15.3 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

16 Orthogonality I . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
16.1 Scalar Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
16.2 Length, Distance, Angle and Orthogonality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
16.3 Orthonormal Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
16.4 Orthogonal Decomposition and Linear Combination with Respect
to an ONB . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
16.5 Orthogonal Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
16.6 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

17 Orthogonality II . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
17.1 The Orthonormalization Method of Gram and Schmidt. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
17.2 The Vector Product and the (Scalar) Triple Product .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
17.3 The Orthogonal Projection .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
17.4 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

18 The Linear Equalization Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

18.1 The Linear Equalization Problem and Its Solution . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
18.2 The Orthogonal Projection .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
18.3 Solution of an Over-Determined Linear System of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . 179
xvi Contents

18.4 The Method of Least Squares.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

18.5 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

19 The QR-Decomposition of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

19.1 Full and Reduced Q R-Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
19.2 Construction of the Q R-Decomposition.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
19.3 Applications of the Q R-Decomposition .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
19.4 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

20 Sequences . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
20.1 Terms . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
20.2 Convergence and Divergence of Sequences.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
20.3 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

21 Calculation of Limits of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

21.1 Determining Limits of Explicit Sequences.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
21.2 Determining Limits of Recursive Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
21.3 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

22 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
22.1 Definition and Examples .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
22.2 Convergence Criteria .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
22.3 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

23 Mappings . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
23.1 Terms and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
23.2 Composition, Injective, Surjective, Bijective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
23.3 The Inverse Mapping .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
23.4 Bounded and Monotone Functions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
23.5 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

24 Power Series . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

24.1 The Domain of Convergence of Real Power Series . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
24.2 The Domain of Convergence of Complex Power Series . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
24.3 The Exponential and the Logarithmic Function . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
24.4 The Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
24.5 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

25 Limits and Continuity .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

25.1 Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
25.2 Asymptotes of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
25.3 Continuity . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Contents xvii

25.4 Important Theorems about Continuous Functions .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

25.5 The Bisection Method.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
25.6 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

26 Differentiation . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
26.1 The Derivative and the Derivative Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
26.2 Derivation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
26.3 Numerical Differentiation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
26.4 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

27 Applications of Differential Calculus I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

27.1 Monotonicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
27.2 Local and Global Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
27.3 Determination of Extrema and Extremal Points . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
27.4 Convexity . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
27.5 The Rule of L’Hospital .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
27.6 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

28 Applications of Differential Calculus II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

28.1 The Newton Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
28.2 Taylor Expansion .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
28.3 Remainder Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
28.4 Determination of Taylor Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
28.5 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

29 Polynomial and Spline Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

29.1 Polynomial Interpolation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
29.2 Construction of Cubic Splines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
29.3 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

30 Integration I . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
30.1 The Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
30.2 The Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
30.3 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

31 Integration II . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
31.1 Integration of Rational Functions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
31.2 Rational Functions in Sine and Cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
31.3 Numerical Integration .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
31.4 Volumes and Surfaces of Solids of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
31.5 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
xviii Contents

32 Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

32.1 Calculation of Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
32.2 The Comparison Test for Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
32.3 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

33 Separable and Linear Differential Equations of First Order . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

33.1 First Differential Equations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
33.2 Separable Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
33.3 The Linear Differential Equation of First Order . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
33.4 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

34 Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

34.1 Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations with Constant
Coefficients . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
34.2 Inhomogeneous Linear Differential Equations with Constant
Coefficients . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
34.3 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

35 Some Special Types of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

35.1 The Homogeneous Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
35.2 The Euler Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
35.3 Bernoulli’s Differential Equation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
35.4 The Riccati Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
35.5 The Power Series Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
35.6 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

36 Numerics of Ordinary Differential Equations I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

36.1 First Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
36.2 Runge-Kutta Method .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
36.3 Multistep Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
36.4 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

37 Linear Mappings and Transformation Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

37.1 Definitions and Examples .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
37.2 Image, Kernel and the Dimensional Formula .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
37.3 Coordinate Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
37.4 Transformation Matrices .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
37.5 Exercises . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

38 Base Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

38.1 The Tansformation Matrix of the Composition of Linear Mappings . . . . 419
38.2 Base Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
office in a free country. Are we torn from our friends and kindred,
sold and driven about like cattle, chained and whipped, and not
allowed to speak one word in self-defence? We can appeal to the
laws for redress, while the slaves cannot.... And now, Mr. Clemens, I
would most earnestly invite you, Mr. Foote, and all other Southern
men who want to know anything about us, to come and see us. We
will treat you with all the politeness in our power. I should be
pleased to see you at my boarding-place, No. 61 Kirk Street, Boott
Corporation. In closing, I must say that I pity not only the slave, but
the slave-owner. I pity him for his want of principle, for his hardness
of heart and wrong education. May God, in his infinite mercy,
convince all pro-slavery men of the great sin of holding their fellow-
men in bondage! May he turn their hearts from cruelty and
oppression to the love of himself and all mankind! Please excuse me
for omitting the “Hon.” before your name. I cannot apply titles where
they are not deserved.
Clementine Averill.

Miss Averill had many letters of congratulation upon this letter,

from different parts of the country; and among them was one from
the celebrated Quaker philanthropist, Isaac T. Hopper, who indorsed
her words, as follows:—

New York, 3d mo., 19th, 1850.

My much esteemed friend, Clementine Averill,—I call thee so on
the strength of thy letter of the 6th inst., addressed to Senator
Clemens, which I have read in the Tribune of this morning with
much satisfaction. I ought to apologize for thus intruding upon thy
attention, being an entire stranger; but really I experienced so much
gratification on reading it that I could not resist the inclination I felt
to tell thee how much I was pleased with it. The information it
contained, though perhaps not very gratifying to the advocates of
slavery, may be useful, as it so clearly exhibits the wide difference
there is between liberty and slavery, and it shows the ignorance of
the Southern people as to the condition of the Northern operatives. I
think Senator Clemens must have been greatly surprised in reading
thy letter, not only at its statement of facts, but at the talent
displayed by a “factory-girl” in answering his questions. Some years
ago I attended a meeting appointed at Lowell by a minister of the
Society of Friends, at which it was said there were about three
hundred “factory-girls;” and I have often expressed the satisfaction I
felt in observing their independent and happy countenances and
modest and correct deportment. I saw nothing like gloom or
despondency. Indeed, I think in a general way they would not suffer
by a comparison with the daughters of the Southern slaveholders. I
believe it would be found, that, for refinement, intelligence, and for
any qualification that is requisite to constitute an agreeable
companion, the “factory-girls” are not inferior to any class of women
in the South, notwithstanding the slurs that are often flung at them.
It is surely true, that as the benign spirit of the gospel pervades the
minds of men, slavery will be seen in its true character, and be
finally abolished from every community professing Christianity. I
would not limit the mercy of our beneficent Creator, but I am free to
confess that I am unable to see what claim a slaveholder can have
to the name of Christian. Avarice and an undue love of the world
blinds the eyes and hardens the hearts of many. The speech of
Daniel Webster, from whom the friends of liberty had a right to
expect much, has disappointed them, and has not pleased his pro-
slavery coadjutors. He has manifested himself to be a timeserver, a
character not very desirable. If he had possessed as much Christian
principle and independence of mind as thy letter exhibits, he would
have given utterance to sentiments that would have gained him the
applause of the wise and good, and have been a lasting honor to
himself. “With the talents of an angel a man may make himself a
fool.” The subject of slavery is not new to me. I have been
instrumental in rescuing from the hand of the oppressor some
hundreds, and now in my declining years I can look back upon those
labors with unmingled satisfaction. I don’t know how to express my
views of slavery better than in the language of John Wesley, “It is
the sum of all villanies.”
 I am, with sincere regard,
Thy friend,
Isaac T. Hopper.

I am indebted to Miss Averill’s sister, Mrs. A. L. O. Stone of

Cleveland, Ohio, for the means of communicating with her, and of
obtaining some account of her life. Miss Averill’s letter is as
follows:—

“Valrico, Fla., Mar. 15, 1893.

Dear Mrs. Robinson,— ... I do not remember the date of my first
entrance into the City of Spindles, but think it must have been in
1828; and it was the summer of 1830 that I was baptized in the
Concord River, at the age of fifteen, and joined the First Baptist
Church. I was born at Mt. Vernon, N.H., in the year 1815; so now I
am seventy-eight.
About my Florida life, I must first tell the motive.
As you are aware, after the war, many were out of employment;
and it was a great question, what should be done with them. I could
see no better way than co-operative homes. Therefore, with two
others, I started out to find a place, and set an example. I thought
of some other places, but was much interested in Florida, having
just read its history, and also my friends wished to come here. And,
indeed, they did come before I was quite ready. A month later I
came alone, December, 1877, just at Christmas time, and found the
people here celebrating the day by firing guns. At Tampa I found
one of my friends who had already selected land, and wished me to
take an adjoining quarter-section. Had to come out from Tampa
twelve miles to examine the land before I could enter my claim, then
returned to register, and move my baggage out to a deserted log
cabin in an old field by the side of the woods. The cabin had no floor
but the bare ground, no window, and but one door. I spread a carpet
of pine straw, and slept well.”
 She spent the winter in her forlorn log cabin, but in the spring
she had a kitchen and bedroom, and soon after a split board floor.
She “planted two hundred orange-trees, and cared for them two
years.” She made a living by “keeping transient boarders, by
washing, needlework, baking bread and cakes to sell, and keeping
house for various persons.”
When her health began to fail, she made an agreement with one
of her neighbors, Mr. Green, “to take care of me as long as I lived
for half of my land; so the deed was made out and recorded, and I
have only sixty acres for the industrial home.” Later she writes:—

“I have never, for a moment, given up the idea of having an

industrial home and school here sometime.
It is a pleasant location, having a small pond all under my control,
with beautiful pine and oak trees all around it, and green slope down
to the water. It is only ten minutes’ walk to the station and post-
office, and most of the way on my land. I gave right of way for a
railroad through one corner, and yesterday gave one acre for a
Baptist church.
I want a co-operative home here, established by homeless people
who are willing to form a Mutual Aid Society. Then I can deed my
land to the society, for a perpetual home here, as long as human
beings need a home on this earth.
Perhaps you know some persons who might wish to join this
home. If you do, please put me in communication with them, and
they can ask all the questions they wish, and I will answer.
This station is fourteen miles east of Tampa, on the Florida
Central and Peninsula Railroad.
Truly your friend,
Clementine Averill.”
 CHAPTER IX.

THE COTTON-FACTORY OF TO-DAY.

God has not gone to some distant star;

He’s in the mill where the toilers are.
Anna J. Grannis.

I should not feel that the whole purpose of this book had been
fulfilled unless I added a word in behalf of the factory population of
to-day.
It will probably be said that the life I have described cannot be
repeated, and that the modern factory operative is not capable of
such development. If this is a fact, there must be some reason for it.
The factory of to-day might and ought to be as much of a school to
those who work there as was the factory of fifty or sixty years ago.
If the mental status of these modern operatives is different, then the
opportunities of development should be adapted correspondingly to
their needs. The same results, perhaps, cannot be reached, because
the children of New England ancestry had inherited germs of
intellectual life. But is it not also possible that the children of the
land of Dante, of Thomas Moore, of Racine, and of Goethe may be
something more than mere clods? I do not despair of any class of
artisans or operatives, because I believe that there is in them all
some germ of mental vigor, some higher idea of living, waiting for a
chance to grow; and the same encouragement on the part of
employers, the same desire to lift them to a higher level, would soon
show of what the present class of operatives is capable.
 What these poor people need is time, and a great deal of help,
before it can be decided what either they or their descendants can
make of themselves. Before an infallible decision can be given, there
must be, perhaps, two or three generations of growth under free
institutions, and under employers who think of something besides
coining the bodies and souls of their employees into dollars and
cents.
No one can grow mentally, who has not time to read or to think,
and whose life is a constant struggle to get enough food and
clothing for himself and his family. Our working-people have their
intellectual freedom, as well as the wage-question, to fight for, just
as the ancestors of the early factory-operatives fought for their social
and constitutional liberty. They will carry on the warfare in their own
way; and if employers are wise they will try to do something
practical to prevent strikes, riots, and labor-unions, which are the
working-man’s weapons of defence, and so to “lock the door before
the horse is stolen.”
Not long ago I was invited to speak to a company of the Lowell
mill-girls, and to tell them something about my early life as a
member of the guild. I was doubly willing to do this, as I was
desirous of forming some estimate of the status of these successors
of the early mill-girls.
About two hundred of them assembled in the pleasant parlors of
the People’s Club, and listened attentively to my story. When it was
over, a few of them gathered around, and asked me many questions.
In turn I questioned them,—about their work, their hours of labor,
their wages, and their means of improvement. When I urged them
to occupy their spare time in reading and study, they seemed to
understand the necessity of it, but answered sadly: “We will try; but
we work so hard, we tend so much machinery, and we are so tired.”
It was plainly to be seen that these operatives did not go to their
labor with the jubilant feeling that the old mill-girls used to have;
that their work was drudgery, done without aim and purpose; that
they took little interest in it beyond the thought that it was the
means of earning their daily bread. There was a tired hopelessness
about them that I am sure was not often seen among the early mill-
girls, and they had an underfed, prematurely old look.
The hours of labor are now less, it is true; but the operatives are
obliged to do a far greater amount of work in a given time. They
tend so many looms and frames that they have no time to think.
They are always on the jump; and so have no opportunity to
improve themselves. They are too weary to read good books, and
too overworked to digest what they have read. The souls of many of
these mill-girls seemed starved, and looked from their hungry eyes
as if searching for mental food.
Why are they not fed? The means of education are not wanting.
Public libraries are provided, and they have more leisure to read
than the mill-girls of forty years ago. But they do not seem to know
how to improve it. Their leisure only gives them the more time to be
idle in; more time to waste in the streets, or in reading cheap novels
and stories. It might almost be said that they are worse off than if
they had longer hours, or did not know how to read, unless they can
use to better advantage their extra time, or have the means of
suitable education provided for them.
Let it not be understood that I would take from the operative or
the artisan one of the chances of education. But I would have them
taught how to use wisely those privileges, forced, we might almost
say, on them and on their children. I would also have them taught
how inwardly to digest what they are made to learn. The tools are
given them; but as they are not taught how to use them, these
prove but an additional weapon of defence against employers, and
make them more discontented, and ready to listen to the political
demagogue, or the so-called labor reformer. Then strikes ensue,
which usually end, as the first Lowell one did, for the time being at
least, in the success of the employer, rather than of the employee.
The solution of the labor problem is not in strikes, but, as another
has said, in “bringing the question down to its simplest form, a
practical carrying out of the golden rule; by the employer elevating
the working-man in his own esteem by fair dealing, courteous
treatment, and a constant appeal to his better side; and, on the
other hand, in the working-man himself by the absence of
malingering, by honest work, and a desire to further his employer’s
interests; and finally, to cement the two, a fair distribution of
profits.” “Not what we give, but what we share,” is a good motto for
the employers. Treat your employees as you would be treated, if, by
the “accident of birth,” loss of employment, or hard luck, you were in
their condition. Treat them as if they, too, had something of God in
them, and, like yourselves, were also His children. This is the
philosophy of the labor question.
The factory population of New England is made up largely of
American-born children of foreign parentage,—two-thirds it is
estimated; as a rule, they are not under the strict control of the
church of their parents, and they are too apt to adopt the vices and
follies, rather than the good habits, of our people. It is vital to the
interests of the whole community, that they should be kept under
good moral influences; that they should have the sympathy, the
help, of employers. They need better homes than they find in too
many of our factory towns and cities, and a better social
atmosphere, that they may be lifted out of their mental squalor into
a higher state of thought and of feeling.
The modern system of overcrowding the mill-people is to be
especially deprecated. In the old time, not more than two or three
beds were put into one large bedroom, which was used only as a
bedroom; but not long ago, according to an article in the Springfield
Republican on “How Mill-People Live,” it appears that Mr. H. R.
Walker, agent of the Chicopee Board of Health, in his official report
to the board, states that he found “twelve persons living and
sleeping in a suite of two rooms, and sixteen persons living and
sleeping in a tenement of four rooms.” And in another block, owned
by a “wealthy gentleman in that city,” he found that “thirty-eight
rooms were occupied by ninety-seven men, women, and children.”
Under such conditions, how can young people be brought up
virtuously?
 These are examples of overcrowding which I hope are not
followed to any extent by the better class of manufacturing
corporations; although there is reason to fear that overcrowding is
getting to be the rule, rather than the exception.
The cotton-factories themselves are not so agreeable nor so
healthful to work in as they used to be. Once they were light, well
ventilated, and moderately heated; each factory-building stood
detached, with pleasant sunlit windows, cheerful views, and fresh air
from all points of the compass. But these buildings are now usually
made into a solid mass by connecting “annexes,” and often form a
hollow square, so that at least one-half of the operatives can have
no outlook except upon brick walls, and no fresh air but that which
circulates within this confined space.
A year or two ago I revisited the dressing-room where I used to
work, and found the heat so intense that I could hardly breathe; and
the men who were working there (there were no women in the
room) wore the scantiest of clothing, and were covered with
perspiration.
The drying of the beams is done by hot air, though sometimes
fans are added; the windows and doors are kept shut, except in very
fine weather; and this makes an atmosphere unfit to breathe. My old
overseer, who had had charge of one room for over forty years, told
me that some time ago he had been obliged to change his
occupation in the mill on account of the intense heat consequent on
the introduction of this new method of drying the beams.
Nor are the houses kept clean and in repair as they used to be. In
Lowell, when I last walked among the “blocks” where I lived as a
child, I found them in a most dilapidated condition,—houses going to
decay, broken sidewalks, and filthy streets; and contrasting their
appearance with that of the “corporation” as I remember it, I felt as
if I were revisiting the ruins of an industry once clean and
prosperous. Would that I could say one word that would lead
stockholders to see that it is not from out of such surroundings that
the best dividends can be secured!
 To one who has watched with sad interest the gradual decline of
the cotton-factory industry in New England, and has marked the
deterioration of its operatives, it has often seemed as if something
might be done to restore this great factor in our national prosperity
to its early influence and importance. Many schemes have been
advanced by political economists, but, thus far, they have borne no
fruit, and at this present writing, the Massachusetts Legislature itself
has placed the whole subject in the hands of the Committee on
Labor, who are to report on the several items submitted to its
decision. While I would not venture here to discuss the various
points on which this committee is to report, I cannot forbear calling
attention to the first section, which relates to the “Dingley Tariff.”
This section enquires, substantially, whether the Dingley tariff has
had any influence in producing the present stagnation of the New
England cotton industry. As a help to the solution of this question, or
a suggestion at least, I will venture to quote from an article in the
report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, on “The
Age of Factory Establishments,” where it is stated that “Quite one-
half of the whole product of the State is made by manufactories
which were in existence before 1860, and most of these
establishments were founded in the industrial period following the
beginning of the reduction of the tariff of 1828; and it can be said,
with truth, that the great manufacturing industry of Massachusetts
was planted in low-tariff times.”
If this statement is correct, of which there can be no doubt, it has
a significance worthy of attention, when we see the downward
movement of the cotton industry under the present high-tariff. It
was these “low-tariff times” that enabled working-people to buy
goods that would last, which they cannot do in these days of “home
production” shoddy, protected, as it is, by the Dingley tariff. And,
without entering into the discussion, it would seem that a low tariff
is certainly desirable for working-people, at least, since it enables
them to get the best there is for their money, whether it be of
foreign or domestic manufacture. An able writer has said: “The great
trouble with the New England mills now is, that the people want a
better class of goods which can compete with other textile products.”
This is certainly true, as applied to the buyer. A person of limited
means can better afford to buy goods of foreign manufacture, no
matter how high the tariff is. For woollens we look to England; for
silks, to Lyons or Zurich; and lighter material must be of French
manufacture. And the dealer says to you, as the best
recommendation for the goods you wish to purchase, “It is English,
or it is French goods, that I am showing you.”
As for cheap American prints, who prefers to buy them
nowadays? Certainly no woman who remembers with affection the
good, pretty, durable, and washable old Merrimack print,—the old-
time calico, that, when partly worn out, would still do for gowns and
“tiers” for the children, or for comforters for the family beds.
Gentlemen! mill-owners and managers! give us as good material as
that we can buy of English and French manufacture, and we will
wear no more dress-goods that are not of “home production,” and
will cheerfully pay you whatever price you may ask for them. This
can certainly be done, with all your inventive genius, and you need
no longer fear either foreign or Southern competition.
One more suggestion. It has often seemed that one great cause
of the decline of the cotton industry is to be found in the change in
the character of the operatives themselves. But could not some
inducement be offered to call to this industry a better class of
operatives, or to elevate a part of them towards the status of the
old-time mill-girls? The factory-operatives of to-day are more like
those of England, whom I have described, when the cotton
manufacture first began in America. Then, mill-owners and
stockholders knew that the daughters of New England would not
become mill-girls under existing conditions, and unless they were
sure of good wages and of being treated like human beings. This
assurance was given; and the consequence was that they flocked
from their homes, and so helped to build up an industry that was to
give the first great impetus to the coming prosperity of the whole
country. Could not this experiment be tried anew? There must be—
there are—thousands of young women, all over New England,
working for almost a pittance in stores and workshops, some of
them twelve hours a day, subject to temptations that would never
reach them in the cotton-factory,—women and girls who have no
homes, who would gladly go to the factories, if a comfortable home,
short hours, sure work, and steady wages were assured to them. Let
the best of them work by the job or piece, as far as possible; for this
shows, more than any other “reform in labor,” where the best class
of operatives can be found, and the best result of their work can be
secured. Why not try these or some better experiments, and so
uplift gradually the status of the modern factory-operative?
These suggestions regarding a better class of goods and a better
class of operatives, if carried out, will involve sacrifice for a time on
the part of the mill-owners and stockholders. But it is certainly better
to sacrifice even a great deal than it is to lose all; and there seems
to be danger of this if something radical and far-reaching cannot
soon be done to improve the present condition of our New England
cotton-factories and their operatives.
It is claimed that the factory is not a “philanthropic institution,”
and that corporations are not responsible for the well-being of those
they employ. But until Boards of Health and Factory Inspectors can
succeed in reforming the abuses which exist among the mill-people,
who but the corporation ought to be held responsible for the
unwholesome surroundings and the hard life which is undermining
the vitality and poisoning the blood of so large a portion of our
working-people?
“Labor is worship,” says the poet. Labor is education, is the
teaching of the wise political economist. If factory-labor is not a
means of education to the operative of to-day, it is because the
employer does not do his duty. It is because he treats his work-
people like machines, and forgets that they are struggling, hoping,
despairing human beings. It is because, as he becomes rich, he
cares less and less for the well-being of his poor, and, beyond paying
them their weekly wages, has no thought of their wants or their
needs.
 The manufacturing corporation, except in comparatively few
instances, no longer represents a protecting care, a parental
influence, over its operatives. It is too often a soulless organization;
and its members forget that they are morally responsible for the
souls and bodies, as well as for the wages, of those whose labor is
the source of their wealth. Is it not time that more of these Christian
men and women, who gather their riches from the factories of the
country, should begin to reflect that they do not discharge their
whole duty to their employees when they see that the monthly
wages are paid; that they are also responsible for the unlovely
surroundings, for the barren and hopeless lives, and for the moral
and physical deterioration of them and their children?
The cotton-factory gave the first impetus towards uplifting the
social status of the working-men and the working-women of New
England, if not of the whole country. It should not be a cause of its
decadence, as it certainly is in danger of becoming unless
corporations can be induced to seriously consider whether it is better
to degrade those who work for them to a level with the same class
in foreign countries, or, to mix a little conscience with their capital,
and so try to bring back, into the life of the factory-operative of to-
day, this “lost Eden” which I have tried to describe.

Transcriber’s Note
Illustrations have been moved to be near the text they illustrate.
Variant spelling, and inconsistent hyphenation have been retained.
The one apparently mispelt word that has been changed is on page 12,
where “imigrants” has been changed to “immigrants”.
Quotation marks are not used consistently, they have mainly been left as
printed, with the exception of:
Page 73 - the closing quotation mark has been removed from the end of the
paragraph before the signature of the discharge letter;
Page 106 - a closing quotation mark has been added after “Lowell, Nov. 25,
1843”;
Page 129 - the closing quotation mark has been removed from the very end of
the letter;
Page 193 - an opening quotation mark has been added at the start of Miss
Averill’s letter;
Punctuation in the Table of Contents has been made consistent.
Occasionally a character did not print completely, or a word was duplicated
across the end of a printed line. These have been corrected silently.
The copy of the book from which is transcribed here was the author’s own. It
is unclear whether the captions handwritten on the photographs were printed in
the book or handwritten later by the author.
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