MATHEMATICS

Chapter 2: Polynomials
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Polynomials
1. A polynomial p(x) in one variable x is an algebraic expression in x of the form p(x) = a n
xn + an-1 xn-1 + an-2 xn-2 + ……. +a2x2 + a1x + a0, where.

i. a0, a1, a2 …. an are constants

ii. x is a variable

iii. a0, a1, a2, ….. an are respectively the coefficients of xi

iv. Each of anxn, an-1, xn-1, an-2xn-2, ….. a2x2, a1x, a, 0 with an ≠ 0, is called a term of a
polynomial.

2. The highest power of the variable in a polynomial is called the degree of the
polynomial.

3. A polynomial with one term is called a monomial.

4. A polynomial with two terms is called a binomial.

5. A polynomial with three terms is called a trinomial.

6. A polynomial with degree zero is called a constant polynomial. For example: 1, -3. The
degree of non-zero constant polynomial is zero

7. A polynomial of degree one is called a linear polynomial. It is of the form ax + b. For

example: x - 2, 4y + 89, 3x - z.

8. A polynomial of degree two is called a quadratic polynomial. It is of the form ax2 + bx +

c. where a, b, c are real numbers and a ≠ 0 For example: x2 - 2x + 5 etc.

9. A polynomial of degree three is called a cubic polynomial and has the general form ax3
+ bx2 + cx +d. For example: x2 + 2x2 - 2x + 5 etc.

10. A bi-quadratic polynomial p(x) is a polynomial of degree four which can be reduced to
quadratic polynomial in the variable z = x2 by substitution.

11. The constant polynomial 0 is called the zero polynomial. Degree of zero polynomial is
not defined.

12. The value of a polynomial f(x) at x = p is obtained by substituting x = p in the given

polynomial and is denoted by f(p).

13. A real number ‘a’ is a zero or root of a polynomial p(x) if p (a) = 0.

14. The number of real zeroes of a polynomial is less than or equal to the degree of
polynomial.

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15. Finding a zero or root of a polynomial f(x) means solving the polynomial equation f(x) =
0.

16. A non-zero constant polynomial has no zero.

17. Every real number is a zero of a zero polynomial.

18. Division algorithm

If p(x) and g(x) are the two polynomials such that degree of p(x) ≥ degree of g(x) and
g(x) ≠ 0, then we can find polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that:

p(x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x)

where, r(x) =0 or degree of r(x) < degree of g(x).

19. Remainder theorem

Let p(x) be any polynomial of degree greater than or equal to one and let a be any real
number. If p(x) is divided by the linear polynomial (x – a), then remainder is p(a).

If the polynomial p(x) is divided by (x + a), the remainder is given by the value of p (-a).

If p(x) is divided by ax + b = 0; a ≠ 0, the remainder is given by

| − 𝑏|
𝑃( );𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎

If p (x) is divided by ax - b = 0, a ≠ 0, the remainder is given by

𝑏
𝑃( );𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎

20. Factor theorem

Let p(x) is a polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 and a is any real number such that p(a) = 0, then
(x - a) is a factor of p(x).

21. Converse of factor theorem

Let p(x) is a polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 and a is any real number. If (x - a) is a factor of

p(x), then p(a) = 0.

i. (x + a) is a factor of a polynomial p(x) iff p(-a) = 0.

ii. (ax - b) is a factor of a polynomial p(x) iff p(b/a) = 0.

iii. (ax + b) is a factor of a polynomial p(x) iff p(-b/a) = 0.

iv. (x - a)(x - b) is a factor of a polynomial p(x) iff p(a) = 0 and p(b) = 0.

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22. For applying factor theorem, the divisor should be either a linear polynomial of the form
(ax + b) or it should be reducible to a linear polynomial.

23. A quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c is factorised by splitting the middle term by

writing b as ps + qr such that (ps) (qr) = ac.

Then, ax2 + bx+ c = (px + q) (rx + s)

24. An algebraic identity is an algebraic equation which is true for all values of the variables
occurring in it.

25. Some useful quadratic identities:

i. (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2

ii. (x - y)2 = x2 - 2xy + y 2

iii. (x - y)(x - y) = x2 - y 2

iv. (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab

v. (x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx

Here x, y, z are variables and a, b are constants.

26. Some useful cubic identities:

i. (x + y )3 = x3 + y 3 + 3xy(x + y )

ii. (x − y )3 = x3 − y 3 − 3xy(x − y )

iii. x3 + y 3 = (x + y )(x2 − xy + y 2 )

iv. x3 − y 3 = (x − y )(x2 + xy + y 2 )

v. x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz = (x + y + z)(x2 + y 2 + z2 − xy − yz − zx)

vi. if x + y + z = 0 then x3 + y 3 + z3 = 3xyz

Here, x, y and z are variables.

Polynomial
Polynomials are expressions with one or more terms with a non-zero coefficient. A
polynomial can have more than one term. In the polynomial, each expression in it is called a
term. Suppose x2 + 5x + 2 is polynomial, then the expressions x2, 5x, and 2 are the terms of
the polynomial. Each term of the polynomial has a coefficient. For example, if 2x + 1 is the
polynomial, then the coefficient of x is 2.

The real numbers can also be expressed as polynomials. Like 3, 6, 7, are also polynomials

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without any variables. These are called constant polynomials. The constant polynomial 0 is
called zero polynomial. The exponent of the polynomial should be a whole number. For
example, x-2 + 5x + 2, cannot be considered as a polynomial, since the exponent of x is -2,
which is not a whole number.

The highest power of the polynomial is called the degree of the polynomial. For example, in
x3 + y3 + 3xy (x + y), the degree of the polynomial is 3. For a non-zero constant polynomial,
the degree is zero. Apart from these, there are other types of polynomials such as:

Polynomials in One Variable

The formulas with only one variable are known as polynomials in one variable. A polynomial
is a mathematical statement made up of variables and coefficients that involves the
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and exponentiation.

Below are Some Instances of Polynomials in One Variable:

x2 + 3x − 2

3y3 + 2y2 – y + 1

m4 − 5m2 + 8m – 3

Coefficient of Polynomials.
A coefficient is a number or quantity that is associated with a variable. It's generally an
integer multiplied by the variable immediately adjacent to it.

For example, in the expression 3x,3 is the coefficient but in the expression x 2 + 3, 1 is the
coefficient of x2.

Terms of Polynomial.
Polynomial terms are the portions of the equation that are usually separated by "+" or "-"
marks. As a result, each term in a polynomial equation is a component of the polynomial.
The number of terms in a polynomial like 2 2 + 5 + 4 is 3.

Types of Polynomials:

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Degree of Polynomial
The largest exponential power in a polynomial equation is called its degree. Only variables
are taken into account when determining the degree of any polynomial; coefficients are
ignored.

4x5 + 2x3 – 20

In the above polynomial degree will be 5.

Zeros of Polynomials
The polynomial zeros are the x values that fulfil the equation y = f(x). The zeros of the
polynomial are the values of x for which the y value is equal to zero, and f(x) is a function of
x. The degree of the equation y = f(x), determines the number of zeros in a polynomial.

Factorization of Polynomials

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You know that any polynomial of the form p(a) can also be written as p(a) = g(a) × h(a) +
R(a)

Dividend = Quotient × Divisor + Remainder

If the remainder is zero, then p(a) = g(a) x h(a). That is, the polynomial p(a) is a product of
two other polynomials g (a) and h(a). For example, 3a + 6a 2 = 3a × (1 + 2a).

A polynomial may be expressed in more than one way as the product of two or more
polynomials.

Study the polynomial 3a + 6a2 = 3a x (1 + 2a).

Methods of Factorizing Polynomials

A polynomial can be factorised in a number of ways.

● Factorization, which is done by dividing the expression by the HCF of the words in the
provided expression.

● Factorization by grouping the terms of the expression.

● Factorization using identities.

Factorization is achieved by dividing the expression by the HCF of the given expression's
terms.

The biggest monomial in a polynomial is the HCF, which is a factor of each term in the
polynomial. We can factorise a polynomial by determining the expression's Highest
Common Factor (HCF) and then dividing each term by its HCF. The factors of the above
equation are HCF and the quotient achieved.

Steps for Factorization

● Determine the HCF of the supplied expression's terms.

● Find the quotient by dividing each term of the provided equation by the HCF.

● As a product of HCF and quotient, write the given expression.

Factorization by Grouping the Expression's Terms

We come encounter polynomials in a variety of circumstances, and they may or may not
contain common factors among their components. In such instances, we arrange the
expression's terms so that common factors exist among the terms of the resulting groups.

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Steps for Factorization by Grouping

● If required, rearrange the terms.

● Assemble the provided phrase into groups, each with its own common component.

● Determine each group's HCF.

● Find out what the other component is.

● Convert the phrase to a product of the common and additional factors.

Factorization Using Identities

To Locate the Products, Recall the Following Identities:

Observe that the LHS in the identities are all factors and the RHS are their products. Thus,
we can write the factors as follows:

We may deduce from the preceding identities that a given statement in the form of an

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identity can be expressed in terms of its components.

Steps for Factorization Using Identities

Recognize the correct persona.

In the form of the identity, rewrite the provided statement.

Using the identity, write the factors of the given equation.

Factorization of Trinomials of the Form x2 + bx + c

Trinomials are expressions with three terms. For example, x2 + 14x + 49 is a trinomial. All
trinomials cannot be factorised using a single approach. We must investigate the pattern in
trinomials and select the best approach for factorising the given trinomial.

Factorizing a Trinomial by Splitting the Middle Term

The product of two binomials of the type (x + a) and (x + b) is (x + a) × (x + b) x2 + x(a + b) +

ab [a trinomial]

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Important Questions
Multiple Choice Questions-
Question. 1 x2-2x +1 is a polynomial in:
a. One Variable
b. Two Variables
c. Three variable
d. None of the above
Question. 2 The coefficient of x2 in 3x3+2x2-x+1 is:
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. -1
Question. 3 A binomial of degree 20 in the following is:
a. 20x + 1
b. x/20 + 1
c. x20 +1
d. x2+20
Question. 4 The degree of 4x3-12x2+3x+9 is
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3
Question. 5 x2 – x is ________ polynomial.
a. Linear
b. Quadratic
c. Cubic
d. None of the above
Question. 6 x – x3 is a ________ polynomial.
a. Linear
b. Quadratic
c. Cubic
d. None of the above

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Question. 7 1 + 3x is a _________ polynomial.

a. Linear
b. Quadratic
c. Cubic
d. None of the above
Question. 8 The value of f(x) = 5x−4x2+3 when x = -1, is:
a. 3
b. -12
c. -6
d. 6
Question. 9 The value of p(t) = 2+t+2t2−t3 when t=0 is
a. 2
b. 1
c. 4
d. 0
Question. 10 The zero of the polynomial f(x) = 2x+7 is
a. 2/7
b. -2/7
c. 7/2
d. -7/2
Very Short:
1. Factorise: 125x3 – 64y3
2. Find the value of (x + y)2 + (x – y)2.
3. If p(x)= x2 – 2√2x+1, then find the value of p(2√2)
4. Find the value of m, if x + 4 is a factor of the polynomial x 2 + 3x + m.
1
5. Find the remainder when x3+ x2 + x + 1 is divided by 𝑥 − using remainder
2
theorem.
6. Find the common factor in the quadratic polynomials x 2 + 8x + 15 and x2 + 3x
– 10.
Short Questions:
1. Expand:
(i) (y – √3)2

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(ii) (x – 2y – 3z)2
1
2. If, 𝑥 + = .= 7
𝑥

3. then find the value of

4. Show that p – 1 is a factor of p10 + p8 + p6 – p4 – p2 – 1.
5. If 3x + 2y = 12 and xy = 6, find the value of 27x3 + 8y3
6. Factorise: 4x2 + 9y2 + 16z22 + 12xy – 24 yz – 16xz.
7. Factorise: 1 – 2ab – (a2 + b2).
8. Factories:

Long Questions:
1. Prove that (a + b + c)3 – a3 – b3 – c3 = 3(a + b) (b + c) (c + a).
2. Factorise: (m + 2n)2 x2 – 22x (m + 2n) + 72.
3. If x – 3 is a factor of x2 – 6x + 12, then find the value of k. Also, find the other
factor of the – polynomial for this value of k.
4. Find a and b so that the polynomial x 3– 10x2 + ax + b is exactly divisible by
the polynomials (x – 1) and (x – 2).
5. Factorise: x2 – 6x2 + 11x – 6.
Assertion and Reason Questions:
1. In these questions, a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is
given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.
a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct
explanation for assertion.
b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct
explanation for assertion.
c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.
Assertion: If f(x) = 3x7 – 4x6 + x + 9 is a polynomial, then its degree is 7.
Reason: Aromatic aldehydes are almost as reactive as formaldehyde.
2. In these questions, a statement of assertion followed by a statement of
reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.
a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct
explanation for assertion.

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b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct
explanation for assertion.
c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
d) Assertion is wrong statement but reason is correct statement.
Assertion: The expression 3x4 – 4x3/2 + x2 = 2 is not a polynomial because the
term – 4x3/2
contains a rational power of x.
Reason: The highest exponent in various terms of an algebraic expression in
one variable is called its degree.

Answer Key:
MCQ:
1. (a) One Variable
2. (b) 2
3. (c) x20 +1
4. (d) 3
5. (b) Quadratic
6. (c) Cubic
7. (a) Linear
8. (c) -6
9. (a) 2
10. (d) -7/2

Very Short Answer:

1. 125x3– 6443 = (5x)3 – (4y)3
By using a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2), we obtain
125x3– 64y3 = (5x – 4y) (25x2 + 20xy + 16y2)
2. (x + y)2 + (x – y)2 = x2 + y2 + 2xy + x2 + y2 – 2xy
= 2x2 + 2y2 = 21x2 + y2)
3. Put x = 2√2 in p(x), we obtain
p(2√2) = (2√2)2 – 2√2(2√2) + 1 = (2√2)2 – (2√2)2 + 1 = 1
4. Let p(x) = x2 + 3x + m
Since (x + 4) or (x – (-4)} is a factor of p(x).
∴ p (-4) = 0

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⇒ (-4)2 + 3(-4) + m = 0
⇒ 16 – 12 + m = 0
⇒ m = -4
1
5. Let p(x) = x3+ x2 + x + 1 and q(x) = 𝑥 −
2
Here, p(x) is divided by q(x)
∴ By using remainder theorem, we have

6. x2 + 8x + 15 = x2 + 5x + 3x + 15 = (x + 3) (x + 5)
x2 + 3x - 10 = x2 + 5x - 2x - 10 = (x - 2) (x + 5)
Clearly, the common factor is x + 5.

Short Answer:
Ans: 1. (y - √3)2 = y2 -2 × y × √3 + (√3)2 = y2 - 2√3 y + 3 (x - 2y – 3z)2
= x2 + 1 - 2y)2 + (-3z)2 + 2 × x × (-2y) + 2 × (-2y) × (-3z) + 2 × (-3z) × x
= x2 + 4y2 + 9z2 - 4xy + 12yz - 6zx
1
Ans: 2. We have 𝑥 + = 7
𝑥
Cubing both sides, we have

Ans: 3. Let f(p) = p10 + p8 + p6 – p4 – p2 – 1

Put p = 1, we obtain
f(1) = 110 + 18 + 16 – 14 – 12 – 1
=1+1+1–1–1–1=0
Hence, p – 1 is a factor of p10 + p8 + p6 – p4 – p2 – 1

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Ans: 4. We have 3x + 2y = 12
On cubing both sides, we have
⇒ (3x + 2y)3 = 123
⇒ (3x)3 +(2y)3 + 3 × 3x × 2y(3x + 2y) = √728
⇒ 27x3+ 8y3 + 18xy(3x + 2y) = √728
⇒ 27x3+ 8y3 + 18 × 6 × 12 = √728
⇒ 27x3+ 8y3 + 1296 = √728
⇒ 27x3+ 8y3 = √728 – 1296
⇒ 27x3+ 8y3 = 432
Ans: 5. 4x2 + 9y2 + 16z22 + 12xy – 24yz – 16xz
= (2x)2 + (3y)2 + (-4z)2 + 2(2x)(3y) + 2(3y)(= 42) + 2(- 42)(2x)
By using a2 + b2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca = (a + b + c)2, we obtain
= (2x + 3y – 4z)2 = (2x + 3y – 4z) (2x + 3y – 4z)
Ans: 6. 1 – 2ab – (a2 + b2) = 1 – (a2 + b2 + 2ab)
= 12 – (a + b)2
= (1 + a + b) (1 – a – b)
[∵ x2 – y2 = (x + y) (x – y)]

Ans: 7.

Long Answer:
Ans: 1. L.H.S. = (a + b + c)3 – a3– b3 – c3
= {(a + b + c) 3 – 3} – {b3 + c3}
= (a + b + c – a) {(a + b + c)2 + a2 + a(a + b + c)} – (b + c) (b2 + c2 – bc)
= (b + c) {a2 + b2 + 2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca + a2 + a2 + ab + ac – b2 – a2 + bc)
= (b + c) (3a2 + 3ab + 3bc + 3ca}
= 3(b + c) {a2 + ab + bc + ca}
= 31b + c) {{a2 + ca) + (ab + bc)}
= 3(b + c) {a(a + c) + b(a + c)}

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= 3(b + c)(a + c) (a + b)
= 3(a + b)(b + c) (c + a) = R.H.S.
Ans: 2. Let m + 2n = a
∴ (m + 2n) 2 x2 – 22x (m + 2n) + 72 = a2x2 – 22ax + 72
= a2x2– 18ax – 4ax + 72
= ax(ax – 18) – 4(ax – 18)
= (ax – 4) (ax – 18)
= {(m + 2n)x – 4)} {(m + 2n)x – 18)}
= (mx + 2nx – 4) (mx + 2nx – 18).
Ans: 3. Here, x – 3 is a factor of x2 – kx + 12
∴ By factor theorem, putting x = 3, we have remainder 0.
⇒ (3)2 – k(3) + 12 = 0
⇒ 9 – 3k + 12 = 0
⇒ 3k = 21
⇒k=7
Now, x2 – 7x + 12 = x2 – 3x – 4x + 12
= x(x – 3) – 4(x – 3)
= (x – 3) (x – 4)
Hence, the value of k is 7 and other factor is x – 4.
Ans: 4. Let p(x) = x3– 10x2 + ax + b
Since p(x) is exactly divisible by the polynomials (x – 1) and (x – 2).
∴ By putting x = 1, we obtain
(1)3 – 10(1)2 + a(1) + b = 0
⇒a+b=9
And by putting x = 2, we obtain
(2)3 – 10(2)2 + a(2) + b = 0
8 – 40 + 2a + b = 0
⇒ 2a + b = 32
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we have
a = 23
From (i), we have 23 + b = 9 = b = -14
Hence, the values of a and b are a = 23 and b = -14
Ans: 5. Let p(x) = x2 – 6x2 + 11x – 6

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Here, constant term of p(x) is -6 and factors of -6 are ± 1, ± 2, ± 3 and ± 6

By putting x = 1, we have
p(1) = (1)3 – 6(1)2 + 11(1) – 6 = 1 – 6 + 11 -6 = 0
∴ (x – 1) is a factor of p(x)
By putting x = 2, we have
p(2) = (2)3 – 6(2)2 + 11(2) – 6 = 8 – 24 + 22 – 6 = 0
∴ (x – 2) is a factor of p(x)
By putting x = 3, we have
p(3) = (3)3 – 6(3)2 + 11(3) – 6 = 27 – 54 + 33 – 6 = 0
∴ (x – 3) is a factor of p(x) Since p(x) is a polynomial of degree 3, so it cannot
have more than three linear factors.
∴ x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = k (x – 1) (x – 2) (x – 3)
By putting x = 0, we obtain
0 – 0 + 0 – 6 = k (-1) (-2) (3)
-6 = -6k
k=1
Hence, x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = (x – 1) (x – 2)(x – 3).
Assertion and Reason Answers:
1. a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct
explanation for assertion.
2. b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not
correct explanation for assertion.

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