Semiconductors

INTRODUCTION:
Most of the solids can be placed in one of the two
classes: Metals and insulators. Metals are those through
which electric charge can easily flow, while insulators
are those through which electric charge is difficult to
flow. This distinction between the metals and the
insulator scan be explained on the basis of the number
of free electrons in them. Metals have a large number
of free electrons which act as charge carriers, while
insulators have practically no free electrons. There are
however, certain solids whose electrical conductivity is
intermediate between metals and insulators.
They are called ‘Semiconductors’.
Carbon, silicon and germanium are examples of semi-
conductors. In semiconductors the outer most electrons
are neither so rigidly bound with the atom as in an
insulator, nor so loosely bound as in metal. At absolute
zero a semiconductor becomes an ideal insulator.

Theory and definition:

Semiconductors are the materials whose
electrical conductivity lies in between metals and
insulator.
The energy band structure of the semiconductors is
similar to the insulators but in their case, the size of the
forbidden energy gap is much smaller than that of the
insulator. In this class of crystals, the forbidden gap is
of the order of about 1ev, and the two energy bands
are distinctly separate with no overlapping. At absolute
o0, no electron has any energy even to jump the
forbidden gap and reach the . Therefore the substance
is an insulator.
But when we heat the crystal and thus provide some
energy to the atoms and their electrons, it becomes an
easy matter for some electrons to jump the small ( ͌ 1
ev) energy gap and go to conduction band. Thus at
higher temperatures, the crystal becomes a
conductors. This is the specific property of the crystal
which is known as a semiconductor.

Effect of temperature on conductivity of Semiconductor :

At 0K, all semiconductors are insulators.
The valence band at absolute zero is completely filled
and there are no free electrons in conduction band. At
room temperature the electrons jump to the conduction
band due to the thermal energy. When the temperature
increases, a large number of electrons cross over the
forbidden gap and jump from valence to conduction
band. Hence conductivity of semiconductor increases
with temperature.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS :
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-
conductors.
In a pure semiconductor, each atom behaves as if
there are 8 electrons in its valence shell and therefore
the entire material behaves as an insulator at low
temperatures.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of
1.1ev to shake off the valence electron. This energy
becomes available to it even at room temperature. Due
to thermal agitation of crystal structure, electrons from
a few covalent bonds come out. The bond from which
electron is freed, a vacancy is created there. The
vacancy in the covalent bond is called a hole.
This hole can be filled by some other electron in a
covalent bond. As an electron from covalent bond
moves to fill the hole, the hole is created in the
covalent bond from which the electron has moved.
Since the direction of movement of the hole is opposite
to that of the negative electron, a hole behaves as a
positive charge carrier. Thus, at room temperature, a
pure semiconductor will have electrons and holes
wandering in random directions. These electrons and
holes are called intrinsic carriers.
As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons
will be equal to the number of holes. In an intrinsic
semiconductor, if ne denotes the electron number
density in conduction band, nh the hole number density
in valence band and ni the number density or
concentration of charge carriers, then

EXTRINSIC SEMOCONDUCTOR:
As the conductivity of intrinsic semi-conductors is poor,
so intrinsic semi-conductors are of little practical
importance. The conductivity of pure semi-conductor
can, however be enormously increased by addition of
some pentavalent or a trivalent impurity in a very small
amount (about 1 to 106 parts of the semi-conductor).
The process of adding an impurity to a pure
semiconductor so as to improve its conductivity is
called doping. Such semi-conductors are called
extrinsic semi-conductors. Extrinsic semiconductors are
of two types :
i) n-type semiconductor
ii) p-type semiconductor

n type semiconductor :
When an impurity atom belonging to group V of the
periodic table like Arsenic is added to the pure semi-
conductor, then four of the five impurity electrons form
covalent bonds by sharing one electron with each of the
four nearest silicon atoms, and fifth electron from each
impurity atom is almost free to conduct electricity. As
the pentavalent impurity increases the number of free
electrons, it is called donor impurity. The electrons so
set free in the silicon crystal are called extrinsic carriers
and the n-type Si-crystal is called n-type extrinsic
semiconductor. Therefore n-type Si-crystal will have a
large number of free electrons (majority carriers) and
have a small number of holes (minority carriers).
In terms of valence and conduction band one can think
that all such electrons create a donor energy level just
below the conduction band as shown in figure. As the
energy gap between donor energy level and the
conduction band is very small, the electrons can easily
raise themselves to conduction band even at room
temperature. Hence, the conductivity of n-type extrinsic
semiconductor is markedly increased.
In a doped or extrinsic semiconductor, the number
density of the conduction band (ne) and the number
density of holes in the valence band (nh) differ from
that in a pure semiconductor. If ni is the number density
of electrons is conduction band, then it is proved that
p type semiconductor :
If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure semi-
conductor, the impurity atom can provide only three
valenceelectrons for covalent bond formation. Thus a
gap is left inone of the covalent bonds.The gap acts as a
hole that tends to accept electrons. As thetrivalent
impurity atoms accept electrons from the siliconcrystal,
it is called acceptor impurity. The holes so createdare
extrinsic carriers and the
p-type Si-crystal so obtained iscalled p-type extrinsic
semiconductor. Again, as the pure Si-crystal also
possesses a few electrons and holes, therefore, the p-
type si-crystal will have a large number of holes
(majoritycarriers) and a small number of electrons
(minority carriers).
It terms of valence and conduction band one can think
that all such holes create an accepter energy level just
above the topof the valance band as shown in figure.
The electrons fromvalence band can raise themselves to
the accepter energylevel by absorbing thermal energy
at room temperature and inturn create holes in the
valence band.
Number density of valence band holes (nh) in p-type
semiconductor is approximately equal to that of the
acceptoratoms (Na) and is very large as compared to
the numberdensity of conduction band electrons (ne).
Thus,