SUSTAINABILITY

FLORIAN WILD1, MICHAEL CZERNY2, ANKE M. JANSSEN3, ADRIAAN P.W. KOLE3,

MARIJA ZUNABOVIC4, KONRAD J. DOMIG4*
*Corresponding author
1. Food Technology Consulting, Heiliggeistgasse 6, 85354 Freising, Germany
2. Fraunhofer-Institut für Verfahrenstechnik und Verpackung IVV,
Giggenhauser Str. 35, 85354 Freising, Germany
3. Wageningen UR, Food & Biobased Research, 6700 AN Wageningen, The Netherlands
4. Department of Food Science and Technology, BOKU – University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Florian Wild Vienna, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria

The evolution of a plant-based

alternative to meat
From niche markets to widely accepted meat alternatives

KEYWORDS: plant-based meat alternative, consumer demands, sensory evaluation, cooking extrusion, microbiology, new product
development

Abstract Plant-based alternatives to meat are a growing market segment. The European LikeMeat project
investigated consumers’ motivation for shifting their diets towards meat alternatives and developed a meat
alternative product that resembles the fibrous structure, bite and juicy mouth-feel of meat. In a high moisture cooking extrusion
process, plant proteins are converted to a base product that has a meat-like structure. Various protein sources and their combinations
with further food ingredients were tested to develop this base product, including the creation of flavour components and the addition
of aroma ingredients and spices. Furthermore, focus was put on the microbiota. Microbiota were analysed in raw materials as were
their inactivation rates during the cooking extrusion process and their potential growth in the refined and packed food product. The
LikeMeat base product serves as the base for a wide range of food preparations.

INTRODUCTION and tempeh have been consumed in Asia for centuries.

In addition to these traditional Asian products, the launch
A growing awareness in the population about healthy and of meat analogues started with the production of dry
sustainable foods has led to a rising interest in plant protein texturised vegetable protein (TVP), which is produced by
based meat alternatives in many European countries and cooking extrusion of usually defatted soy meal, soy protein
worldwide. The new consumer group of “flexitarians”, concentrate or wheat gluten (4). These products have
who reduce their meat consumption in their daily diet, is an elastic and somewhat spongy texture that is utilised
growing rapidly (1). This change in eating pattern requires favourably in patties, stews and sauces. A further approach
new products that fulfil consumer demands of healthy and to mimic the fibrous and elastic meat structures are fibrous
tasty products which both replace the function of meat raw materials such as shredded TVP and mycoprotein or milk
in a dish and contribute a similar high protein nutritional protein preparations. These raw materials are mixed with
value. A consortium of academic researchers, along with water, a binding component and further ingredients, and
small and medium sized enterprises, developed new meat are then formed and subsequently steamed (5). A broad
alternatives within the European research project “LikeMeat“ range of ingredients can be used for these products which,
(11/2010-02/2013). This consortium simultaneously addressed compared to TVP, provide strong differentiation in shapes
technological development, food safety and consumer and flavours as well as products that fulfil attributes such
aspects. Fibrous meat-like structures were created from plant as “vegan”, “organic” and “gluten-free”. Research on the
proteins in an adapted cooking extrusion process and were high moisture cooking extrusion process at the beginning
subsequently processed into tasty food products. Product of the 1990s led to new possibilities for texturing food
development was accompanied iteratively by consumer proteins into distinctive fibrous structures to mimic muscle
research and extensive microbial analysis to guarantee safe meat. This process produces in one step a fibrous, muscle
and stable foods. meat-like structure that has a similar moisture level to meat
and mimics its bite and mouth-feel (6, 7). The LikeMeat
project enhanced our knowledge of suitable raw materials
MEAT ALTERNATIVES and their characteristics, the influence and interaction
of further functional ingredients and flavouring. Adapted
The introduction of meat analogues (also termed meat and enhanced post extrusion processes, consumer-
substitutes, meat surrogates and meat replacement food) in oriented product development and new smart packaging
Western markets is a relatively recent development, starting and preservation solutions opened the market for a new
in the early 1960s (2, 3). In contrast, products such as tofu generation of meat alternatives.

Agro FOOD Industry Hi Tech - vol 25(1) - January/February 2014 45

ALTERNATIVE PROTEIN SOURCES

Proteins are essential the building blocks of the human body.

Proteins of animal origin have a similar amino acid pattern to
those in humans and are thus regarded as particularly nutritious.
However, meat consumption in industrialised countries (e.g. in
Europe 66.2 kg per capita per year in 2010-2012 (8)) exceeds the
required amount considerably. This excess meat consumption
can be linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease and
gastrointestinal cancer (2, 9). Furthermore, the associated
purines promote arthropathy. The German Nutrition Society
(DGE) recommends reducing meat consumption to two or three
servings per week (300 – 600 g meat / week) (10).
Soy protein and wheat gluten have been the dominant raw
materials for meat surrogates for a long time. Over recent
decades, protein products from other plant based raw materials
such as peas, chickpeas, lupins, rice, maize and canola have
Figure 1. Structured protein produced by high moisture cooking extrusion
been developed in food grade quality. Additionally, protein
products from animal-based sources such as milk and eggs
and from new sources such as fungi and bacteria are available
nowadays. All these proteins have unique techno-functional,
taste and nutritional properties depending on their origin
and how they are processed. The use of new proteins and,
in particular, the use of new combinations offer a wealth of
opportunities for creating improved and new meat analogue
properties and taste sensations. In addition, they allow
consideration of further aspects such as free-from gluten, soya,
lupine, lactose (milk), or animal derived proteins within the meat
analogue category, thus opening up a more differentiated
product range for consumers with food-related intolerances
and allergies (5). In order to pursue this approach by carrying
out research and development, a total of ten different proteins
were analysed for their processing behaviour during the cooking
extrusion process and analysed for changes to their taste profile
during the hydrothermal treatments undertaken in the LikeMeat
project.
Figure 2. Twin screw extruder with opened barrel. Source of all figures:
Fraunhofer IVV, Freising, Germany

CREATING A MEAT-LIKE STRUCTURE

structure (11-13).
Plant and animal based proteins need to unfold, cross-link The processing of meat analogues in such cooking extruders
and align themselves to form microscopic and macroscopic involves a multitude of machine and process parameters.
fibres. The high moisture cooking extrusion process, which is Furthermore, the composition of the matrix, the variety of
characterised by water levels up to 70 percent, provides the ingredients and the water content has a major effect on the final
required process conditions. Co-rotating twin screw extruders product. However, literature data about the individual impacts
equipped with long screws and specially adapted long cooling of each parameter and their interactions on fibre formation and
dies proved to be effective for processing the low viscosity mass the final product quality are scarce and are limited to soy, wheat
into a protein strand with a distinctive fibrous structure (Figure 1, and pea protein. High protein levels in the recipe and the use
2) (6, 7). In a first step the ingredients, in particular food protein of proteins with an adequate cross-linking capability have been
powders and water, are continuously fed into a long extruder shown to be favourable (6, 7, 14, 15). Therefore, the LikeMeat
barrel. The co-rotating screws mix the ingredients thoroughly project aimed to expand this knowledge to complex recipes
while the mass is steadily heated to temperatures of 130-180°C and the influence of various ingredients on the fibre formation.
and is moved towards the die section. During the hydrothermal The approach to mix protein ingredients and further components
treatment, the proteins unfold and form new covalent such as starches and fibres was very effective for creating
intermolecular bonds. Once the mass enters the cooling die products with a meat-like bite and a juicy mouth-feel as well as
section, drag and shear flows align the proteins in the flow for avoiding dominant, disturbing flavours from single ingredients.
direction. The strong cooling in the long die section has several Further, it allowed the adaption of recipes in a modular way to
effects. The temperature gradient from the core of the strand to specific attributes such as vegetarian, vegan and gluten-free.
the die wall increases the shear flow, effects the cooling of the The formed strand serves as a raw material for various post-
mass to a core temperature below 100°C and avoids product extrusion processing steps in order to create vegetarian dishes.
expansion caused by evaporation of superheated water. Along Equipment that is typically used for meat processing can often
with the cooling, non-covalent hydrogen bonds, electrostatic be used. The preparation of LikeMeat is easy due to its pre-
interactions and van der Waals interactions develop. The cooked character and - depending on the product – is similar to
viscosity rises and the mass solidifies to a strand with a meat-like the preparation of the corresponding meat product.

46 Agro FOOD Industry Hi Tech - vol 25(1) - January/February 2014

FLAVOUR AND TASTE packaging treatments such as sterilization, pasteurization and
freezing of final products should be considered.
Besides textural properties, an attractive flavour is a key Within the LikeMeat project the microflora in a broad spectrum
prerequisite for consumer acceptance and market launch of of potential protein ingredients and extruded products were
new meat alternatives (2). These products should be free of characterised with respect to quantitative level and species
off-flavours and the flavour has to meet the expectations of composition. An established set of ISO based standard methods
consumers. Many meat alternatives developed in the past, was used to detect indicator and pathogenic/toxinogenic
however, lacked aroma and taste quality, which might be one microorganisms. The identification of isolates to the species
reason for their low market success. Foods can be flavoured and strain level was undertaken using a set of molecular
either (i) by addition of flavourings or spices or (ii) by odourless methods including 16S rRNA gene sequencing and PCR-based
and tasteless ingredients which are converted during thermal techniques. Furthermore, inoculation trials to demonstrate the
processing into sensorially active compounds. One natural inactivation of bacterial endospores during extrusion cooking
and well understood process is the Maillard reaction. This were performed. The results showed that the microbiological
reaction occurs during heat treatment of almost every food quality of raw ingredients was satisfactory. In detail, the total
and bio-converts amino acids and sugars into various odorants, microbial load of all extruded products was generally low (<
tastants and colorants (16, 17). The LikeMeat project therefore 100 CFU/g). Based on culture-based microbiological methods,
aimed to produce meat analogues with high aroma and taste a comparable sporicidal and bactericidal effect was found for
quality by applying and investigating all possible applications of both pilot plant-scale and lab-scale extrusion processes. The
flavouring. microbiota of the extruded meat analogue did not contain any
The pure LikeMeat products were not affected by an off-flavour Gram-negative bacteria and very low concentrations of Gram-
because the protein raw materials were carefully selected and positive bacteria (<< 100 CFU/g). The results of the microbial
mixed. The meat analogues exhibited only a very weak aroma, analysis of the refined products demonstrated the need for
they were almost tasteless and the texture properties were close post-process heat treatment in order to ensure a shelf-life of
to meat. Depending on the ingredient mixtures, some strands several weeks under chilled storage conditions. Alternatively,
even smelled slightly like chicken meat. The addition of spices, freezing of the intermediate product would be possible.
aroma ingredients and/or salt to the mixture prior to extrusion Pasteurised or sterilised intermediate and final meat analogue
as well as post-extrusion flavouring produced several products products did not show any microbiological activity, even after
with very pleasant aroma and taste. Otherwise, no effect on several weeks of storage at 6°C. The shelf-life of intermediate
the fibrous texture was observed. Several meat alternatives LikeMeat products without preservatives and without post-
with very different meat flavours (e.g. chicken, beef) were process heat treatment is comparable to fresh meat products.
obtained showing that it is possible to produce a wide range of
products from LikeMeat. Supplementation of flavour precursors
such as amino acids and sugars was found to be an alternative CONSUMER MOTIVATION
way of flavouring but some limitations regarding precursor
combinations and amounts were encountered. The number of vegetarians and number of consumers who
are reducing their meat consumption has been increasing in
Europe over recent years (1, 19, 20). Environmental, ethical
MICROBIAL CONTROL AND FOOD SAFETY and health reasons are largely responsible for this – depending
on the type of consumer (20). Other reasons are an increased
Due to their almost neutral pH and high protein and moisture consumer interest in variation and in “new” foods. Thus, in
content, meat analogues are highly susceptible to spoilage. order to achieve a considerable reduction in the consumption
Microbiological activity is the major factor as microbial enzymes of meat one approach is to develop meat analogues that
and metabolites play a secondary role. Data describing the compete directly with meat products. Another approach is
microflora of high-moisture meat analogues produced from to introduce protein products that meet the need for more
plant proteins are not widely available in the scientific literature variation and/or new products. The market for meat analogues
(18). Therefore, comprehensive microbial analysis of the is still quite small. For example in the Netherlands, the share of
ingredients and the newly developed products was necessary meat substitutes is only about 1% of the total market for meat
in order to identify and characterize relevant spoiling and and meat products, probably due to the fact that present
potentially hazardous microorganisms. The low water activity of meat analogues do not meet consumer preferences with
powdered plant-based proteins does not promote the growth regard to sensory quality (21-23). In particular the bite, taste
of microorganisms. On the other hand, endospore-forming and juiciness score low compared to meat. To obtain a larger
bacteria (e.g. Bacillus spp. and Clostridium spp.) may potentially market share, meat analogues need to compare better to real
survive the extrusion process. Depending on the microbial meat. The approach that looks for new products is particularly
load of the selected raw materials, relevant concentrations of fit for a consumer oriented product development (23).
microorganisms can occur in the pre-mixtures and recipes. This In the LikeMeat project the consumer research addressed meat
includes the possible presence of pathogenic and toxicogenic consumers that already skip meat at least once a week for their
microbial species. Based on the process temperature and main meal. Within this group, four segments were identified with
pressure conditions (130 - 180°C, 20 - 50 bar for seconds to respect to their attitudes and behaviour in relation to protein
minutes) as well as the water content during a typical cooking products. The four main types were classified as respectively
extrusion process, vegetative microbial cells as well as bacterial health, animal friendly, hedonist and convenience oriented
endospores are inactivated to a very high extent. All post- consumers. Based on these consumer groups, conceptual
process steps are critical regarding product hygiene and the products were generated, recipes were developed and
re-contamination risk from the handling and packaging of the storage, packaging and practical safety issues were taken
meat analogue needs to be minimized. Therefore different post- into account. Using all this input, (near-) final products were

Agro FOOD Industry Hi Tech - vol 25(1) - January/February 2014 47

developed. A selection of these products was tested by 88 as innovative. The Mexican dish seemed to appeal to most
(mostly Dutch) consumers both at a central location, at their consumer segments; hence this product has potential, from
homes and in a restaurant setting in the Restaurant of the Future both a marketing and business perspective. Next, the schnitzel
Wageningen UR. In the latter testing location, the aim was to might have potential to become a successful product as it
make the testing situation resemble real life as much as possible. was also highly rated by the participants in the central location
In this real life test in the Restaurant of the Future the objective taste test. Some of the products were liked slightly better when
was to determine what is lacking or what needs to be improved information was provided. Probably the information helped
to maximise a positive consumer experience. One aspect to consumers to understand product deviations from “normal”,
make testing more realistic was repeated consumption of the which made them more positive. The findings support our view
products by the consumers. Also a free choice of products that the LikeMeat products not necessarily need to be perfect
was part of the testing procedure and product information imitations of meat: they can be different, in order to meet the
about the meat alternative was provided to the consumer. different needs and expectations of the different consumer
Thus, several aspects of realistic consumer behaviour were segments. In all cases, expectations need to be well managed
incorporated into the product testing. in order to avoid contrast effects in perception (23, 24).
Several food preparations made with the meat alternative From the findings of the consumer study, workshops with
such as a burger, a schnitzel (Figure 3) , an Italian pasta sauce, consumers and limited global market analysis that was
a Mexican dish with minced meat analogue (Figure 4), curry performed in the LikeMeat project, it was concluded that meat
flavoured baked strips and unflavoured LikeMeat material analogues that have success in the market look acceptable,
that was presented as a “chicken fillet“ were tested by the have good sensory properties (especially taste, texture), are
88 participants in the out-of-home and in-home real life tests. convenient and have one or more characteristics that are
The Mexican dish was the most successful product as rated by valued but cannot necessarily be verified by the consumer (e.g.
the participants, their sensory evaluation, choice behaviour, healthiness or environmental friendliness).
experiences at home and their remarks. Also the likelihood of
eating this LikeMeat dish again and consumer willingness to
buy it in a shop was highest. The quantity eaten was highest for A LOOK INTO THE FUTURE
the Mexican dish (measured as the percentage of each meal
consumed) – probably one of the best indicators of potential Plant-based food preparations produced, for example, from
success. Additionally, participants judged the Mexican dish pulses or grains have always been a major source of protein
in the human diet. These raw materials are readily available,
can be stored and are affordable. Some of these plant protein
preparations such as tofu, tempeh and seitan have very high
protein contents and can compete with meat or fish both in
their nutritional value and in their function as outstanding food
components. Whereas the use of plant-based meat alternatives
was motivated for centuries by economic or religious reasons,
animal welfare became another key motivation from the 1960s
onwards.
Recently consumers have started to move towards meat
alternatives in order to have a healthy, sustainable and
convenient diet and because they want to try new food
products. This recent trend is being accompanied and
promoted by a growing number of ever more sophisticated
new food products from various raw materials. Simultaneously,
meat alternatives are becoming widely available in shops and
Figure 3. LikeMeat preparation type “Schnitzel” restaurants. Consumer research has indicated that there are
opportunities in the rapidly growing market segment of meat
alternatives providing one or more of the mentioned target
groups are targeted. Selling points for meat alternatives should
focus on aspects such as “health”, “convenience”, “sustainable
production” and “animal friendly”, and/or be associated with
“fun” or a particular cultural style for social events. The LikeMeat
material and the variety of products that were developed
in the project combine one or more of these “must have”
characteristics – either intrinsically and/or in their marketing and
communication characteristics.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The research leading to these results has received funding

from the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme,
managed by REA-Research Executive Agency http://
ec.europa.eu/research/rea (FP7/2007-2013) under grant
Figure 4. LikeMeat preparation type “Mexican dish”
agreement n°262560 (LikeMeat).

48 Agro FOOD Industry Hi Tech - vol 25(1) - January/February 2014

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NEW CHOCOLATE AND COCOA INNOVATIONS

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Researchers from Aker BioMarine Antarctic AS have announced the acceptance of a new study on Superba™ Krill oil in the journal
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