Structural Engineering 4A12 SUS4A12 Lecturer: Prof. M Dundu1 LIMIT STATE DESIGN 1.1 Limit state design principles ‘The central concepts of limit state design are that: 1) All the separate conditions that make the structure unfit for use are taken into account. These are the separate limit states. 2) The design is based on the actual behaviour of matenals and performance of structure in service. 3) Ideally, design should be based on statistical methods with a small probability of the structure reaching a limit state, ‘The three concepts are examined in more detail below. Requirement (1) means that the structure should not overtum under applied loads and its members and joints should be strong enough to carry the forces to which they are subjected. In addition, other conditions such as excessive deflection of beams or unacceptable vibration, though not in fact causing collapse, should not make the structure unfit for use. In concept (2) the strengths are calculated using the plastic and post buckling is taken into account. The effect of imperfections on design strength is also included. It is recognised that calculations cannot be made in all cases to ensure that limit states are not reached. In cases such as brittle fracture, good practice must be followed to ensure that damage or failure does not occur. Concept (3) implies recognition of the fact that loads and material strengths vary, approximations are used in design and imperfections in fabrication and erection affect the strength in service. All these factors can only be realistically assessed in Statistical terms. However, it is not yet possible to adopt a complete probability basis for design, and the method is to ensure safety by using suitable factors, Partial factors of safety are introduced to take account of all uncertainties in loads, material strengths, etc, mentioned above. These are discussed more fully below.1.2 Limit states for steel design The limit states for which steelwork is to be designed are set out in Section 6 of SABS 0162-1:1993. These are as follows: 1.2.1 Ultimate limit states 1) Strength; 2) Stability against overturning and sway; 3) Fracture due to fatigue; 4) Brittle fracture. When the ultimate limit states are reached, the whole structure or part of it collapses. 1.2.2. Serviceability limit states 1) Deflection; 2) Vibration (for example, wind-induced oscillation); 3) Repairable damage due to fatigue 4) Corrosion and durability The serviceability limit states, when reached, make the structure or part of it unfit for normal use but do not indicate that collapse has occurred. All relevant limit states should be considered, but usually it will be appropriate to design on the basis of strength and stability at ultimate loading and then check that deflection is not excessive under serviceability loading. 1.3 Characteristic and Design loads 1.3.1 Characteristic loads The characteristic loads (also known as the specified, working or nominal loads) are the actual loads the structure is designed to carry. These are normally thought of as the maximum loads, which will not be exceeded during the life of the structure. In Statistical terms, characteristic loads have a 95 per cent probability of not being exceeded, The main loads on buildings may be classified as:1) Dead loads - These are due to the weights of floor slabs, roofs, walls, ceilings, Partitions, finishes, services and self weight of steel. When sizes are known, dead loads can be calculated from weights of materials or from the manufacturer's literature, However, at the start of a design, sizes are not known accurately and dead loads must often be estimated from experience. The values used should be checked when the final design is complete. Where the unit masses of materials are not known or where approximations are sufficient for preliminary design, use may be made of the data given in Appendix B of SABS 0160. by people, furniture 2) Imposed loads -These takes account of the d by people, furniture, equipment, stock, etc. on the floors of buildings and snow on roofs. The values of the floor loads used depend on the use of the building. Imposed loads are given in Section 5.4 and Table 4 of SABS 0160 for various types of buildings 3) Wind loads - These loads depend on the location and building size. Wind loads are given in Section 5.5:SABS 0160. 4) Dynamic loads - These are caused mainly by cranes. An allowance is made for impact by increasing the static vertical loads and the inertia effects are taken into account by applying a proportion of the vertical loads as horizontal loads, 1.3.2. Design loads for the ultimate limit states In accordance with Sections 4 and 5 of SABS 0160, factored loads are used in design calculations for strength and stability. Design load Fy = characteristic load Fx relevant overall. load factor y ‘The overall load factor takes account of: 1) The unfavourable deviation of loads from their nominal values. 2) The reduced probability that various loads will all be at their nominal value simultaneously. 3) The uncertainties in the behaviour of materials and of the structure as opposed to those assumed in design, The 7s factors are given in Section 4.4.2 and Table 2 of SABS 0160. Some of the factors are given in Table 1.Table 1 Overall load factors y; for the Ultimate Limit State Loading Factors Maximum dead load acting in isolation 15 Maximum dead load acting in combination with other loads 12 Minimum dead load 09 Imposed load 16 Wind load 13 Crane load 16 The factored loads should be applied in the most unfavourable manner and members and connections should not fail under these load conditions. Brief comments are given on some of the load combinations: 1) The main load for the design of most members and structures is dead plus imposed load. Thus Fy= 1.2 Dy + 1.6 Ly 2) In light roof structures uplift and load reversal ocours and tall structures must be checked for overtuming. The load combination of dead plus wind load is used in this case with a load factor of 0.9 for dead and 1.3 for wind load, i.e Fu=0.9D, + 1.3Wy. 3) It is improbable that wind and imposed loads will simultaneously reach their maximum values and load factors are reduced accordingly, therefore Fy = 1.2D, +0.5Lq + 1.4W,, 4) It is also unlikely that the impact and surge load from cranes will reach maximum values together and so the load factors are reduced, Again, when wind is considered with crane loads the factors are further reduced, 1.4 Design strength of materials The characteristic strength is normally defined as the value below which not more than 5% of the test results fall. Design strength Rq = characteristic strength Ri/pa ifety factor yy Design strength > Design load‘The design strengths for members and connections are given in Section 13 of SABS 0162, The code states that the following values ‘or the elastic properties are to be used: 1.4 Stability Limit States To ensure stability, Clause 3.1.5 of SABS 0160 states structures must be checked using factored loads for the following two conditions: 1) Overtuming - The structure must not overturn or lift off its seat resulting from the application of the ultimate loads acting in the most critical combination. 2) Sway - To ensure adequate resistance two design checks are required. a) Design the structure to resist the applied horizontal loads (wind load) above that level, b) 1% of the total nominal self-weight load above that level. Sway resistance may be provided by bracing rigic onstruction shear walls, stair wells or lifts shafts. The designer should clearly indicate the system he is using. Stability against sway will be ensured by bracing ciid rigid portal action. 1.5 Structural Integrity The provisions of Section 3.1.6 of SABS 0160 ensure that the structure complies with the Building Regulations and has the ability t--s'st widespread progressive collapse following local accidental damage. The 1 parts of the clause are as follows: 1) All structures must be effectively tied at all floc - «nd roofs. Columns must be anchored in two directions approximately at «\ ht angles. The ties may be steel beams or reinforcement in slabs. Ties are nt required in light roofs. 2) Additional requirements are set out for certair vey buildings where the extent of accidental damage must be limite’ 1: general, tied buildings will be satisfactory if the following five conditions «1» met:a) Sway resistance is distributed throughout the building; b) Extra tying is to be provided as specified; c) Column splices are designed to resist a specified tensile force; 4) Any beam carrying a column is checked as set out in (3) below; and €) Precast floor units are tied and anchored 3) Where required in (2) the above damage must be localized by checking to see if at any storey any single column or beam carrying a column may be removed without causing more than a limited amount of damage. If the removal of a member causes more than the permissible limi esign element. These critical members are designed for accidental loads set out in the Building Regulations. ed as a key 1.6 Serviceability Limit States Deflection is the main serviceability limit state that must be considered in design. SABS 0160 states in Clause 4.3 that deflection under serviceability loads of a building or part should not impair the strength or efficiency «." the structure or its components or cause damage to the finishings. The following combinations can be used at the serviceability limit state: 1) LD, + 1.0Q, 2) 1.1D, + 0.3Qn + 0.6Wy, with the exception that the load factor 0.3 must be replaced by 0.6 for garages, filing areas and storage areas and 0.0 for roof loads. Deflection limits (refer to SANS 10162 Table D1: Annex D) It should be noted that calculated deflections are seldo: 1 ‘:sed in the finished structure. The deflection is based on the beam or fran section only and composite action with slabs or sheeting is ignored.1.8 Design Methods for Buildings ‘The design methods are: 1) Simple design - In this method the connections between members are assumed not to develop moments adversely affecting either the members or structure as a whole. The structure is assumed to be pin jointed for analysis, Bracing or shear walls are necessary to provide resistance to horizontal loading. 2) Rigid design - The connections are assumed to be capable of developing the strength and/or stiffness required by an analysis assuming full contimuity. 3) Semi-rigid design - Practical joints are capable of transmitting some moment and the method takes this partial fixity into account. In practice, structures are designed to either the simple or rigid methods of design. Semi-rigid design has never found general favour with designers.2. TENSION MEMBERS 2.1 Uses and Types ‘A tension member is a member that is subjected to a direct pull between two points in a structural frame. Tension members are found in buildings frames and suspension bridges as: 1) Tension chords and internal ties in trusses and lattice girders 2) Tension bracing members in buildings 3) Hangers from which equipment or pipes are supported. 4) Cables in suspension bridges Figure 2.1 shows some examples of some of these members. The main sections used for tension members are: 1) Open sections such as angles, channels, tees, joists, universal sections (I- sections) and column (H-sections) 2) Closed sections such as circular, eae and rectangular hollow sections. (b) Lattice Girder main cables suspenders (c) Suspension Bridge Figure 2.1 Tension members in buildings and bridges 2-12.2 @Desigal Considerations Tension members are theoretically the most cost-efficient structural element to transfer load. The full strength of the material can be used to the maximum, since premature limit states such as buckling do not exist. This generally makes a tension member very slender. SANS 10162 limits the slenderness ratio (L/r) to 300 beter The efficiency of a tension may be seriously affected by the fl 1) The conditions at the end of the member, for example, bolt holes reduce the member section. 2) The member may be subject to reversal of load, in which case it is liable to buckle because a tension member is more slender than a compression member. 3) Many tension members must resist moment as well as axial load. The moment is due to eccentricity in the end connections or to lateral load on the member. 2.3. End Connections: Some common end conditions for tension members are shown in Figure 2.2. When a single angle is connected through one leg the outstanding leg is not fully effective, and if bolts are used the connected leg is also weakened by the bolt hole. : Lob + Figure 2.2 Angle connections 2-22.4 Design of Tension Members Two ultimate limit states must be considered in the design of tension members; one based on the yield strength and the other one based on the fracture strength of the member. Fracture is a primarily concern at any point where the cross- sectional area of the member is reduced, for example, in a connection. A tension member may fail in one of the following modes: Yield of the gross section. Fracture of the net area. Fracture through staggered holes A combination of fracture and shear of the net area The factored tensile resistance T,, developed by a member is given in Clause 13.2 of SANS 10162: 2003 as th 22.1) (2.2) (23) T= #4,f, 85H Sy T, =0.8544',, f, where, resistance factor = 0.9 gross cross-sectional area effective net cross-sectional area effective net cross-sectional area allowing for shear lag Sy = yield stress Ju = ultimate tensile strength The modes of failure on which each of the three equations is based are described in detail below. 2.4.1 Yield of the gross section Equation 2.1 is based on yielding of the whole gross-section Ay, hence the use of the yield stress f, in the equation. Normally when the yield limit state is exceeded there is significant plastic deformation (ductile), implying that the load can be redistributed to other members. A typical section showing gross cross-sectional area is shown in Figure 2.3. 2:3Gross area Net erea Figure 2.3 Gross and net cross-sectional area 2.4.2 Fracture of the met area ‘The introduction of a hole reduces the gross sectional of the bar. It also weakens the material in the immediate vicinity of the hole. It is therefore necessary to define the reduced area as the effective or net area across the hole. Net failure may occur through the plate across bolt-holes (see Figure 2.3). When a hole is introduced in a tension member stresses will follow around the hole causing the stress across the hole to be larger than the stress at any point along the member owe 2), Stesees around holes are cho diNSIAREE GREET ther areas resulting in a concentration of stress around holes. causes a fracture type of failure to occur. An additional factor of safety of 0.85 is introduced in equations 2.2 and 2.3 in order to prevent this type of failure. Note that because the limit state is now fracture type of behaviour, the critical stress level is set to the steel’s ultimate tensile strength fi. i 4 “4 te T = eee f — “— Pi Fie cs sacton coe ston fae (oa) atthe hole (-b) (ee ees) ; @ Plastic stress Sess flow distbulon toon be Figure 2.4 Tension member with a hole 24‘The target reliability for fracture is higher than thet for yield. This is understood from the fact that a hole produces a less reliable load path and the consequences of fracture failure are much greater than a yield failure, The effective net area (Aye or A’) for a segment normal to the force is calculated as the sum of the net areas obtained using the following equation. eo @ “| ole — Ane = 2.4.3 Failure through staggered holes A typical failure path through staggered holes is illustrated in Figure 2.5. The inclined segment is in both tension and shear. This is accounted for by introducing (s?/4g) in the net area calculation. ee a r tracing or © © O+—D/ cows _, @-~ @ @ 14 @ stagger or pitch, s Figure 2.5 Member with staggered holes 252.4.4 ffect of Shear lag ‘When the load path is not uniform and concentric, for example, in the case of an angle-gusset plate connection, where only one leg of an angle is connected, the effective area of the angle is logically reduced. The tensile load must travel from the point of application of the load to the outstanding leg of the angle. This path is not uniform. The strength at the connection must be reduced to account for shear leg and this is accomplished through the application of a reduction coefficient, U. U'is quantified through equation 2.4. son(24) where x =to the distance between the centroids of area of the elements being connected L=to the length over which the load transfer occurs Shear lag is a function of the distribution of material and the length (L) of load transfer. Shear lag is independent of the type of load transfer and applies to both bolted and welded connections. However shear lag will impact bolted connections more than welded connections because the effective area is also reduced by a bolt-hole. 2.4.41 Bevetcemet area nsptescenanee tions (CIANPSZS) The effective net area must be reduced for the following cases: 1) When the fasteners transmit load to each of the cross-sectional elements of a member in tension in proportion to their respective areas, the effective area 4',, is equal to the net area dj, (Clause 12.3.3.1). 2) When bolts transmit load to some but not all of the cross-sectional elements and only when the critical net area includes the net area of unconnected elements 4, shall be taken as follows (Clause 12.3.3.2):os thirds the only the flanges| 2.4.4.2 Effective net area in welded connection ) When a tension load is transmitted by welds, the effective area shall be computed as: (2.5) Ayer + Anes + Anas S Are where Aneip Ayers and Ayes are the effective areas of the connected plate elements subject to one the following methods of load transfer:I Figure 2.6 Cross-section of an angle e‘The outstanding leg of an angle is considered connected by @ single line of weld along the heel. 2.4.8 Tension and shear block failure Failure of a tension member can also be caused by a combination of tension and shear. When a bar is connected to a gusset plate by a bolt, two possibilities can ‘occur. Either a pure tension fracture or a tension fracture/shear failure will occur (cee Figure 2.7). The shear/tension fracture capacity of a member is the lesser of the combination of the tensile fracture capacity and the shear yield capacity or the tensile fracture capacity and the shear fracture capacity. Potential shear planes Tension plane Shear =p Tension re plane (0) Tension fracture faiiure (c) Shear/Tension failure Figure 2.7 Failure paths at the end connection ‘The factored resistance of a connected part whose failure mode involves both tensile fracture and either shear yielding or shear fracture is: 1) fox(GUSSEEPINES, for afBles and single"plate connections, as well as the ends of tension members, the lesser of T+ Vg = Py Sy + 0-6064 me fy ven(2.6) sessed 2D) 292) for notched beams the lesser of @ +, = 0.5064, f, +0.6044,,f, T,4V,, = 0.5004, f, + 0.604, fy where, ‘Ang = het area in tension for block failure Agy = gross area in shear for block failure Ayy = net area in shear for block failure 2.5 Serviceability Considerations Serviceability considerations are normal not a problem in tension members and are therefore left to the discretion of the designer. Serviceability may be broadly defined as a state in which the function of a building, its appearance, maintainability, durability and comfort of its occupants are preserved under normal usage. 2-10Determine the net width of a 250 X 12 mm plate with (ZO bolts punched in 3 lines as shown in Figure E3.1. eho bo ° 0 Peer | 7s 75] 75 | 75 (All dimensions io mm) Figure £3.1 Solution ‘The hole diameter is always taken as 2 mm larger than the bolt diameter. For punched holes, the hole diameter is increased by another 2 mm to take into account the deformation around ff the hole during punching. hole diameter = 20+242% 24 mm d, =24 mm (i) Path (A-B-D~E) Net length (A~B~D~-E) = length (A~E)—2x hole diamerer 250-224 02 man (ii) Path (A—B-C—D—E) For a staggered path, the net width is given as z 5 —md,)+E2L womd,) + iiExample £3.1: Continued where 5 = pitch (or spacing of holes parallel to the loading) g = gauge distance transverse to the loading m= number of holes along the staggered path For this path m=3 weg (w= 3d) (SH gO (asec 48c0 Spc = Sep = 75m Se = 8ep = 50mm w,, =(250-3x 24) +2 wi, = 234.25 nun min (202; 234) mn = 202 min bsDetermine the minimum net area for a 250 X 12 mm plate, with M20 bolts placed in three lines as shown in Figure E3.2. ‘Assume the holes are punched, and the steel is Grade 300W! 1 |s0)50) 75. (A dimensions in mm) Figure £3.2 Solution Hole is punched 2. hole diameter =20+2+2 Qaim () Path (A~B-D—F) Net length of (A~B-D~F) length of (A~F)-2xhole diameter 250-224 202 mm (i) Path (A-B-C—D-F) Path(A-B-C-D-F) eAgINIOf (ASI) - 3x d, + 28C 4. SCo_ 48sc 48cpExample €3.2: Continued =(250-3x24)+ el 4x50 4x50 =178+12.5 412.5 = 203 mm (iii) Path (A-B-C-E-G) Path (A-B-C-E-G) = length of (A F)-3xd, + 286 4eae so. 75 4x50 4x50 178 +12.5+ 28.125 219 mom = (250-324) + (iv) Path (H-J-C-E-G) Path (H -J-C-E-G) = length of (H —G)-3xd, + =178+— 7 4x50 4x50 =178-+28.125+28.125 = 234mm (vy) Path (H-J-C-D-F) Path (H -J-C-D-F) = length of (H —G)-3xd, + S24 202 481 48co =178+28.125+12.5 =219 mmExample E3.2: Continued *. Path (A-B~D-F) governs Net area = 202 x |2 leg width (w) = 100 mm For elements connected by longitudinal welds along two parallel edges, and 2w>L2w. An, OBORRODSD 4, (0.50 x100%10+0.25 x 165% 10) x2 we Aggy = 1825 mmExample E3.5: Continued {b) Consider the outstand leg The outstand legis connected by «(Single NOngieLainal Wal. ¥ = distance benween centroid of outstanding leg and the weld = thickness of weld b-r 6-6 35 aoe 47 mm 2 2 L=110 mm > w= 100 mm Net effective area of cutstand leg is we L SSZI)ZE | ( = 265x104 Bee = F45mm he Aves Total net effective area (4/,) is B86 271), = Aga + Ayes = 1825+ P45 = 2548 mm? Tensile resistance of the section is therefore T, = 0.856 Ay. J, 2h = 0.85 x0.9x 2670x450 x 10> ‘AN 733 [Tensile resistance T, = $85 kN Note: If an additional transverse weld was provided, then the net effective area for the long leg would be calculated as follows: 2-20Example 3.5: Continued Ange = wt = (100% 10) x 2 = 2.000 ma het The total effective net area for the cross-section would ff be ath 2seb , Aug = Aggy + Ayes = 2.000 + P45 = 2745 mm? and 7, =0.856 4%, f, 2aee : 0.85 x 0.9x 2445 x 450 x 10° a cs Increase in rensile strength = —— x100 = 68% 35 433UNIVERSITY _OF ToMINEsauese TsS31-1 Tutorial 1 - Structural Steel Design 1) The steel plate shown in Fig 1 is connected to a gusset plate by four M20 bolts. Check if the plate is capable of carrying an axial load of 400 KN. Use Grade 350W steel. Plate thickness t = 12 mm, f, = 350 MPa and f = 480 MPa. Aligned bolt arrangement Fig | Gusset plate connection 2) A tension member consists of a channel section 76 x 38 x 7 kg/m, Grade 350W steel and connected by a pair of longitudinal welds of equal length as shown in Figure 2. If the ultimate tensile force in the member is 220 KN, check the adequacy of the section, Fig 2 Welded channel section3 COMPRESSION MEMBERS 3.1 Types and uses Compression members are one of the basic structural elements, and are described by the terms ‘columns’, 'stanchions' or 'struts', all of which primarily resist axial load. Columns are vertical members supporting floors, roofs and cranes in buildings. Though internal columns in buildings are essentially axially loaded and are designed as such, most columns are subjected to axial load and moment. The term 'strut' is often used to describe other compression members such as those in trusses, lattice girders or bracing. Some types of compression members are shown in Figure 3.1. fee Strut i wind f— Building Columns. a) Multi- storey Building Struts in Gane Column Figure 3.1 Types of compression members3.2 Axially loaded compression members 3.2.1 Compression in Frames 7M = MM, +612 (V, -Vy) Figure 3.2 If moment, M = 0 in the column shown in Figure 3.2, then M, = M; and V; = V3. The member is concentrically loaded. If M 70, then the member becomes a beam- column, Area = A,, even if bolted 3.2.2 Elastic behaviour When a slender column is subjected to an axial load P as shown in Figure 3.3, it will deform laterally. This lateral deformation will be recoverable for axial loads below what is reffered to as a critical load. Once the critical load is exceeded the column will no longer be able to carry the imposed load. The deformation increases significantly as the column is now unstable. This phenomenon is called buckling. The critical load is derived as shown below.Figure 3.3 M, = Py amt? M, =-BIS =Py : a1Zh +Py=0 y=dsin Poe [P Hl VEL Boundary conditions y=Oatx=0 .B=0 ysOate=L Non-trivial solutionsin nea =0 5 = nz, for lowest load n=1 EL 2H P The limitation of the Euler equation is that it is based on elastic material response 3.3 Parameters affecting Compressive Resistance The axial load carrying capacity for a compression member depends on the following parameters: (a) Material Properties - Elastic Modulus, E and Yield strength, f,. (b)Manufacturing method - Hot-rolled shape or Welded built-up shape (c) Shape of cross-section — Area, Geometry and Bending axis (d) Slenderness (e) Initial out-of-straightness (f) End support conditions - Pinned or restrained and with or without sway3.3.1 Out-of-straightness Column behaviour is affected by an initial out-of-straightness (or an eccentric load). The amount of crookedness is limited by standards. The maximum initial out-of-straightness is about L/1000, with modifications for longer lengths and certain geometries. It can be shown that the lateral deflection at any load is G This does not appear directly in the column design equations but does for beam- columns 3.3.2 Residual Stresses Hot-rolled shapes are rolled from ingots at a temperature of 900°C or higher. Once the rolling process has been completed the heat dissipates, but not uniformly. The tips of an F-section, for example, cool more rapidly than the junction of webs and flanges. Thus residual stresses develop as shown in Figure 3.4. em residual strains applied strains i | & wa total strains Figure 3.4 Residual stresses <The fibres that cool first have residual compression; those that cool last have residual tension. The residual stresses have significant effect on the bahaviour of compression members. 3.3.3 Effective length The effective length Ly is defined as the length between points of effective restraint of a member multiplied by a factor to take account of the end conditions and loading. The effective length of a column is the equivalent pin ended column or points of contraflexure in a deflected column and is given by: 1, = KL a +(3.3) where L = actual length and K = effective length ratio. Values of the effective length factor for different end restraints are shown in Figure 3.5. The recommended design values are larger than the theoretical values to account for the difficulties of providing sufficient restraint. | { Buckled shape of column is shown by dashed line Theoretical Kvalue | 20 |, Recommended design | - | vyelus when idea! 065 | 080] 1.0 12 | 20 | 20 “SB | Rotation fixed Translation fixed "} | Rotation free Translation fixed fx) Rotation fixed Translation free | > | Rotation free Translation free End-condition code Figure 3.5 Effective length factors 363.3.3.1 Effective length in Frames The lateral displacement (sidesway) of the top of the column with respect to the base is often misunderstood. Clearly, all columns will, when a structure is subjected to a lateral load (e.g. wind load), experience a displacement at the top with respect to the bottom. The differentiation between sidesway and no sidesway or translation free and translation prevented depends on whether the column participates in providing lateral stability as in Figure 3.6, or whether a wall, frame or other bracing system provides this stability. sii He (a) Unbraced frame (b) Braced Frame Figure 3.6 Note that the effective length for a sway case is not less than the geometrical length of the compression member, whilst the effective length will not exceed the geometrical length for a non-sway case. A typical model of column in a braced continuous frame is shown in Figure 3.7. The effective column lengths for a continuous frame that is axial loaded depends on the following assumptions. 1) All members are prismatic and behave in an elastic manner 2) Axial forces in girders (g) are negligible 3) All columns in a storey buckle simultaneosly 4) The restraining moment provided by girders at a joint is distributed among the columns in proportion to their stiffness 5) The rotations at the near and far ends of the girders are equal and opposite after buckling.= clu 9 gir C- compressive ‘cal force Figure 3.7 Model of Column in braced continuous frame The effective length equation derived from the model in Figure 3.7is SuGe(= eae + +(ms2e) a1 4\K 2 alk Subscripts U (upper) and L (lower) refer to the joints at the two ends of the column being considered. EI x7) _ Leaf column stiffness meeting at joint U ™ x a) DoF girder stiffness meeting at joint U E G, 1 54+9G, 5+9G, 10+G,G, deh 38Alternatively equation 3.5 can be represented as a nomograph in Figure 3.8 Figure 3.8 Nomograph of effective length of columns Note the following: 1) G= 10 for pinned support (not infinity as the equation suggest) 2) G= | for rigid support (not 0 as the equation suggest) 3) The girder stiffness should be multiplied by 1.5 and 2, if the far end of the girder is pinned and fixed respectively. 3.4 Failure Modes (a) Local buckling - width-to-thickness ratios (b) Yielding of cross - section (c) Overall Flexural buckling — elastic or inelastic (©) Torsional or torsional - flexural buckling 3.4.1 Classification of cross-sections Flanges and Webs of a compression member will buckle under axial stress. To prevent local buckling occurring, limiting width/thickness ratios for flanges and depth/thickness ratios for webs are given in Section 11 of SANS 10162-1. The _ 38proportions for the various sections are given in Table 3.1. Column cross-sections are Classified as follows in accordance with their behaviour in compression: Class I - Plastic cross section This can develop a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation capacity to permit redistribution of moments in the structure. Only class 1 sections can be used for plastic design. © Class 2 - Compact sections This can develop the plastic moment capacity but local buckling prevents rotation at constant moment. ¢ Class 3 - Semi-compact cross-section The stress in the extreme fibres should be limited to the yield stress because local buckling prevents development of the plastic moment capacity. © Class 4 - Slender cross-section Premature buckling occurs before yield is reached. Table 3.1 Maximum width-to-thickness ratios: Compression elements z 2 Description of element ‘Maximum width-to-thickness ratio Elements supported along one edge Flanges of sections, T-sections, and channels. bee | t Legs of angles Plate-cirder stitfeners ‘Stems of T-sections >. 0 Ue Flanges of rectangular Polow seaions Ftangos of box ection, Flange cover plates, and diaphragm plates between lines of fasteners or welds Webs supported on both edges Perforated cover plates = Circular hollow sections3.4.2 Yielding of cross-section Compression members may be classified by length. A short column, post or pedestal fails by crushing or squashing, as shown Figure 3.9. The squash load C, in terms of the design strength is: Cy= GA (3-6) where, f, = yield strength A = area of the cross-section The behaviour of a short length of column is shown below. The reason for the early yielding is the residual stresses 1.0 local buckling “ unloading \P general + yielding ola, x ele Figure 3.9 3.4.3 Overall Flexural buckling A long or slender column fails by buckling, as in Figure 3.10(a), The failure load is less than the squash load and depends on the degree of slenderness (see Figure 3.11). The slenderess ratio is a function of the member length, cross-sectional shape and the support conditions provided. The slendemess ratio of a member in compression shall not exceed 200. Most practical column fail by buckling. For example, a universal column (H-section) under axial load fails in flexural buckling about the weaker YY axis (see Figure 3.10(b)). 3-11‘The strength of a column depends on its resistance to buckling. Thus the column of tubular section shown in Fig 3.10(c) will carry a much higher load than the bar of, the same cross-sectional area. This is easily demonstrated with a sheet of A4 paper. Open or flat, the paper cannot stand on edge to carry its own weight; but rolled into a tube it will carry a considerable load. The tubular section is the optimum column section having equal resistance to buckling in all directions { t Fula | buckling | |__ Buckling | | x 4 +4 @ (a) Slender Column —_(b) H-section (c) Bar and Tube of Same Area Figure 3.10 342material yields \ — inelastic action J elastic action Slender A Figure 3.11 3.4.4 Torsional and Torsional-flexural buckling Compression members may buckle due to either pure twisting about their longitudinal axis or a combination of bending and twisting. Torsional buckling is only possible for centrally-loaded doubly-symmetrical cross-sections for which the centroid and shear center coincide e.g. a cruciform or thin walled I-section. Torsional-flexural buckling will occur in centrally loaded sections that have one axis of symmetry such as channel and angle sections for which the centroid and shear centre do not coincide. In practice pure torsional buckling of hot-rolled structural sections is highly unlikely, unless if torsional and warping stiffness are low. Flexural buckling is generally more critical. Torsicnal-flexural buckling has’ a greater practical significance in the design of cold-formed sections. This arises from two reasons: 1) the use of thin material, Torsion constant, J, is small. 2) the forming process leads naturally to singly-symmetrical or unsymmetrical open sections.3.5 Design of Compression Members 3.5.1 Flexural buckling The factored axial compressive resistance, C,, of doubly symmetric sections conforming to the requirements of Clause 11 for Class 1, 2, or 3 sections is given by C, = as (leary --B.7) where, n= 1.34 for hot-rolled, fabricated structural sections, and hollow structural sections. n= 2.24 for doubly symmetric welded three-plate members with flange edges oxy-flame-cut and hollow structural sections. aXL|fy _|h OE where, r= radius of gyration and E = modulus of elasticity (200 000Mpa) 3.5.2 Torsional and torsional-flexural buckling The factored compressive resistance, C,, of asymmetric, singly symmetric, and cruciform or other bisymmetric sections is computed as in Section 3.3.1 with a value of n = 1.34 and the value of the elastic critical buckling stress /; is taken as a) for doubly symmetric (¢.g., cruciform) and axisymmetric (e.g., Zed sections), the least of fix, fy, and fi; and b) for singly symmetric secions, with the y-axis taken as the axis of symmetry, the lesser of fax and foes where, Elastic torsional-flexural buckling stress, fy, 0 Ea the [ “ey alee [es | G9) ©) for asymmetric sections the elastic critical buckling stress in axial compression fis the smallest root of¥ : Oe-faMe-foMhe fa LY, ~1f®) “2. ~10{2) seseu(3-10) where, K, =the effective length factor for torsional buckling, conservatively taken as Lo Xo¥o =the principal co-ordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid of the cross-section tye tr try (3.12) WE ) Elastic flexural buckling stress about major axis, f, = Elastic flexural buckling stress about the minor axis, /, (.14) 7 Elastic torsional buckling stress /,, ( fe os sai, ceceeetnees (3.15) 3.5.3 Class 4 members in compression The factored compressive resistance, C,, for Class 4 sections is determined using an effective area calculated based on reduced element widths meeting the maximum width-to-thickness ratio of a Class 3 section. The slenderness ratio is calculated using gross section properties.Example I Determine the effective lengths of columns 1, 2 and 3 shown in Figure €4.1, Beams: 533 X 210 X 82 kg/m I-sections Columns: 305 X 165 X 41 kg/m L-sections Pifned support 3 ® q g \ Fed 3 ® Supper ae : ® | ganas © structure 8 Figure £4.1 Solution Section properties Beam: 533 X 210 X 82 kg/m L-sectfon ty 75 x 108 mne* te _ 475x108 i, 6x10° 9.210% mm? Column: 305 X 165 X 41 kg/m I-section 85.5210 mort 3x 10° mm (i) Effective length of column 1 Z(Le/Le) _ 228.510? = Serer rena SO YE (lg/Lg) 2x79.2x10° Ge 316Oo From the nomograph (Figure 4.5) K = 0.645 Ly = KL =0.645x3.0=1.94 m Alternatively, using Equation 4.12 1 (eed 549G, 549G, 10+G, 1 1 l 5+9x036 549X036 10+0.36%0.36 K =0.659 Ly = KL =0.659x3.0=1.98 m (i) Effective length of column 2 G;, =10 (pinned support) Gy =0.36 (=G, for column 1) K =0.785 (from nomograph) Lg = KL = 0.7853. From Equation 4.12 5+9x0.36 5+9x10 10+0.36x10 K=0.795 Ly = KL=0,795x3.0 9m (iii) Effective length of column 3 a 28.5x10 79.210? +1.5x79.2x10° Gy 0.144 Note that, for the beam that is connected by a pin support,the stiffness is multiplied by 1.5. 2x 28.5x10° Coo SR 79.2108 +2.0x79.2x 10% = 0.240 i, For the beam that is connected by a fixed support at the f end, the stiffness is multiplied by 2.0. K=0.585 KL =0.585%3.0=1.76 m Using Equation 4.12 1 L L K=|-__l__ SEREE eect S+9x0.144 549X024 10+0.144% 0.24 * K=0.602 Lg = KL =0.602x3.0=1.81m ‘Table E4.1; Comparison of the effective lengths 3.18Example 2 Classify the following sections if they are subject to a compressive axial load. (a) 152 X 89 X 16 kg/m I-section (b) Welded plate girder 704 x 200 (BW, 12F) Both sections are steel Grade 300W. Solution (a) 152 X 89 X 16 kg/m L-section 152.4 mm hy = 122 mam Figure E4.2(a) ‘Maximum width-to-thickness ratio (Class 3) is 200 _ 200 SS = lS 58 f, 300 ++ Outstand of compression flange is not Class 4 Web in axial compression 319‘Maximum width-to-thickness ratio (Class 3) is 670 _ 670 = =38.7>26.5 Vir ¥300 con Web is not slender (Class 4) (b) 704 X 200 (@W, 12F) b= 200 mm h=704 mm fay = 680 rom iM 4 in 1, =8 mm t, =12mm Ieee Figure €4.2(b) Qutstand compression flange Outstand of compression flange is not slender (Class 4) Web in axial compression 1» = 680 mm 3.20Example 3 Determine the design compressive resistance of a 356 X 171 X 67 kg/m T-section, Grade 300W steel. Assume the column is pinned at both ends and the total length of the column between the pin supports is 6 000 mm. Section properties Figure 4.3 13.6x10%mm* ¢,, =9.1 mm =364 mm 1, =195% 10% mun? ty =15.7 mm 5=173.2 mm jection classification dutstand compression flange dy _b/2 _173.2/2 ye ty 187 8 imiting width-to-thickness ratio 321Outstand compression flange is not slender (Class 4 Web in axial compression: by hy 3t fe Eh Limiting width-to-thickness ratio 670 _ 670 = =38.7>343 7, 300 Web is not slender (Class 4) Cross-section is nat Class 4 Check slenderness ratio Since (KL), = (KL), = 6 000 mm and Flexural buckling about the y-axis governs SL) 2 10%6 000 «1 59.4.< 200 ' rj, 399 Calculate (/,) 7x 200x108 (uoxsaney’ 151 O he 251 MPa 3.2287.3 MPa 1.0 (conservative) 2 = 6000 min Scag Paar ut é [zsmseiest ct A200 161910" 9 c10°4560%10 (1x6 000)° 1 5x10? x24 393 =315 MPa fo=min{ fogs Lys Fog }= min {1251, 87.3,315} MPa f. =87.3 MPa 3.23Determine compressive resistance — Ze [300 psy f. V873 34 n=l ag, (14a) Waa = 0.98.55 x10" x300%10" (1 41.8542) = 589 kN ssive resistance oO a0Example 4 Determine the compressive design capacity of a PFC 160 X 65 SA parallel flange section, Grade 300W steel. Assume (KL), =(KL), =2.000 mm. Sectional properties Figure £4.5 A= 2.30105 mm 3.4mm hy, = 118 mam Cy = 3.8210? man® 20.3 mm b=65 mm J = 64.4% 103 mmn* 41.3 mm 25x10°mm* — ¢, =10.4 mm 0.5 man ‘7? 1, =0.95x108 mm hs 60 mm Section classification Outstand compression flange: bb 65 tr ty 104 Limiting width-to-thickness ratio 15>6.25 3.25Outstand compression flange is not Class 4 Web in compression: Ls wy 85 Limiting width-to-thickness ratio _ $70 __ 670 “Tg Sane 387? 182 Web is not Class 4 Cross-section is not Class 4 Check slenderness ratio =31.5<200 =98.5< 200 200x109 | s— = 633.5 MPa G1s) SE a NN 088 Pe (KL/r), (98.5) %=0 = 41.3 mim (Figure £4.5) OQ 326= 0441.37 +63.4? +20.3* 1.0 (conservative) 2 4, 7 fog =| S200 43.82 610" 975109 564.4108 (1.0x2 000) : 1 30x 10° x6 137) = 485 MPa Q 413% =0.722 6137 Flexural-torsional buckling stress (,,,)is then obtained from Gi fon = Pt fa 1 h- feta? es (ee Sa) 633.5% 485%, 6335-4485] 2x 0,722 \ Son =357 MPa Fo= min {Soy foe} = min {203.6397} MPa Sf, = 203.6 MPa 3.27Determine design capacity fo _ [300 fe N20 n=134 = o4f, (144 ye =0.9 x2.30%10 x 300x107 Seat 1412144) C, $297 kV Design capacity of section C: OT KN. Bee ee JBxample 5 Determine the design capacity of a’concentrically loaded pinned-end column of 2.0 m length consisting of an equal leg angle 100 X 100 X 12 kg/m, Grade 300W steel. Figure 4.7 Section properties A=227x10 mi “= 38 mm J 118x103 pune 1, =19.4 mm J, = 2.07108 min* h=b=100 nm 1, =2.07%10° mm* 12 mm - 1, =3.28X10° mm* a=45 1, =0.857*10° mm! sy, =, = 4.1mm Section classification Limiting width-to-thickness ratio, ( 3.29Cross-section is not siender (Class 4) Determine (/.) (@) For buckling about the v ~ v axis mx 20010? 85.9 MPa (©) For buckling about the u - u axis 20010" 713.1 Pa Cin} (c) For torsional buckling Cy =0 (elements meet at one point) ¥y = 411 mn O+4L.1? +38? 419.47 =3.510 mm™ 77 x10° x 18x 511404 MP 2.2710? x3 510 As 1 G24y2)/e2 20.519 330fosz < feu t &z 1d re en Fey “on ( fea Pes) u FIBA + LO. 4D ral AX MBO Wox F310 O.S1F Toeona | Gran + nas.ac)? a 512.21 Hla tthe lesser of Fay ane! Lye a. See - J, = Lee DeL3a he aN G. 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The office covers an area of 2500m’ in plan and is 2.8 m high from the top of the floor slab to the underside of the roof. There are 50 columns supporting the roof and assuming each column supports an equal amount of the total floor loading determine the size of the columns. Assume the columns to be simple compression members. The columns are fixed at cach end and the building is braced against any significant translation. The nominal imposed floor loading for the office is 2.0 KNim and the density of the concrete slabs is 2400 kg/m’, 2) A column of length 4 m is subjected to an ultimate compressive load of 500 IN. The trail section chosen is a 254 x 146 x 31 I-section in Grade 300W steel. Assuming that both ends of the column are pinned, check the adequacy of the section to resist the design loading. If the section is not adequate, suggest a way of improving the compressive resistance of the section (Accompany your suggestion with some calculations).4 BEAMS 4.1 Types and uses Beams span between supports to carry lateral loads, which are resisted by bending and shear. Beams may be cantilevered, simply supported, or continuous as shown in Figure 4.1(2). The main uses of beams are to support floors, carry roof sheeting as purlins and side cladding as sheeting rails. Any member may serve as a beam, and common beam sections are shown in Figure 4.1(b). | | Cantilever Simply Supported Fixed Ended Continuous 0) Types of Beams Universal Compound Channel Beam Beam Do | Purlins and Sheeting Rails Crone Beam b) Seam Sections Figure 4.1 Types of beams and beam sectionsComments on different sections: 1) The universal beam (I-section) where the material is concentrated in the flanges is the most efficient section to resist uniaxial bending. 2) The compound beam, consisting of a universal beam and flange plates is used where the depth is limited and the universal beam itself is not strong enough to carry the load. 3) The crane beam consists of a universal beam and channel. It must resist bending in two directions. Beams may be of uniform or non-uniform section. Rolled beams may be strengthened in regions of maximum moment by adding cover plates or haunches, Some examples are shown in Figure 4.2 nt re Cover Plates Simz'y Supported Beam =~ — Bending Moment Diagram Haunched Ends Fixed Ended Beam Figure 4.2 Non-uniform beams 4.2 Beam loads ‘Types of beam loads are: 1) Concentrated loads from secondary beams and columns. 2) Distributed loads from self-weight and floor slabs. 42The loads are further classified into: 1) Dead loads from self-weight, slabs, finishes, etc. 2) Imposed loads from people, fittings, snow on roof’, etc. 3) Wind loads, mainly on purlins and sheeting rails 4.3 Structural Design of Beams The structural design is presented in the following stages: 1) Determine the design loading and the resulting ultimate bending moment and shearing forces. 2) Obtain a basic section size and its classification, 3) Establish the available lateral and torsional restraint for the beam. Design cases: a) Full lateral and torsional restraint b) Partial and torsional restraint c) Unrestrained 4) Checking a trial section for moment and shear capacity 5) Deflection. Stage 1 1) Establish the span L of the beam. The beam should be taken as the distance between the effective points of support (Figure 4.3). Effective point of support Effective point of support. —/—-. _ L= spon: TTT = | & i + | i Reacts (a) Beam connected to column flange (b) Beam connected to column web Figure 4.3 Points of effective restraints 432) Calculate the characteristic loading (e.g. dead and imposed load) the beam is to support. If the beam section is not known at this stage make an allowance of say, 5% of the dead load for beam self-weight. 3) Caloulate the design loading as follows: Designload, ¥F,=y,D,+7,L, =1.2D, +L.6L, 4) Calculate the maximum bending moment due to the design loading (see Figure 4.4 for typical simple beam load cases and maximum bending moment values). The maximum bending is the ‘design moment’, M (kNm). 5) Calculate the maximum shearing force, F (KN). (41) veximm | Teter | banecten ot care Beam ond Load \ | we joo. wie ~~ wie wie = | WIS swe? we | F | we we Wars lie Ie weirs we Isle wa wa wt es ww er De ut ‘ Figure 4.4 Simply supported beams: maximum moments and deflectionsStage 2 - Classification of beam cross-sections The same classification that was set out for compression members to prevent local buckling is used for beams to perform the same purpose. The classification is shown Figure 4.5 M, i M. class 2 class 1 nt class 3 M \M M 7 T Y A Figure 4.5 Stage 3 - Lateral and Torsional restraint Lateral restraint to the compression flange may be provided along its complete length by the supporting floor provided that there is positive connection between the floor and the beam's compression flange. Figure 4.6 shows typical forms of construction and their appropriate level of restraint to the beam's compression flange. Lateral restraint may also be provided at points along the beam’'s length by individual members supported by the beam as long as the connection is positive with the compression flange. The typical end connections shown in Figure 4.7 illustrate the forms of positive connections required to produce torsional restraint. As with lateral restraint, torsional restraint may also occur at positions along the length of the beam by incoming beams. 4sPrecast concrete Structural grade floor units insite cone. fill Hid steel flats welded to compression flange 1 Lo Uist or precast caer eer Compression flange embedded in in-situ floor sian iL [whole UB encased {gin reinforced concrete sts cesignes a5 an 5 encased beam, according to clause ia 4.14, See also Figure 28 Brickwork oF block war Timber joists wv Precast concrete © floor plank, o Figure 4.6 Typical examples of (a) Fully restrained and (b) Unrestrained compression membersFF} Wee stitiener Base plate with bolts at supports. Elevation Elevation tn Continuous beam with restraint against lateral and torsional movement Figure 4.7 Lateral and torsional restrained beams ‘The effective length factor for simply supported beams is given in Table 4.1 Table 4.1 Effective length factor for simply supported beams (K) = Effective-length factor (A’) Restraint against lateral bending at the supports ‘Type of toad Normal Destabilising Beam 1s free to rotate (in plan) 10 V2 Partial restraint (flanges are connected by flange clamps or - 0.85 1.0 end-plates} Fully fixed (no rotation possible an plan 07 0.85 47Stage 4 - Uniaxial bending The ultimate flexural resistance is governed by the material strength only. Essentially, the process of the design of a structural beam is one of checking a basic section for adequacy in the appropriate limit states. The basic section may be obtained using the following method: Compression flange fully restrained laterally 1) In this case the following condition must be met: M, SM, where, M, = design moment, and M, = moment capacity of section If M, =$2,,f,=9M, (for Class I and 2 sections) .. =2,f,=9M, (for Class 3 sections) M, then orZ,= (4.6) Ss where, @ = resistance factor = 0.9 Zp» = plastic modulus of section Z, = elastic modulus of section, From the section tables choose a section whose plastic or elastic modulus about the major axis XX is such that Zi (4.7) This will be the basic section 482) Calculate the shear capacity, V,, for the section. Veh Sw where A, = shear area Aty for rolled sections = hut for plate girders Stage 5 - Deflection of beams Deflection of some common load cases for simply supported beams are given in Figure 4.4, 49Example 4.1 The simply supported beam shown below supports uniformly distributed characteristic dead and imposed loads of SKN/m each, as well as a characteristic imposed load of 30KN at mid-span. Assuming the beam is fully laterally restrained, select a suitable UB or I-section in grade 300 steel. Skd!m deod.lend Skd]m impowd wb COR a Ra 1 Design bending moment and shear force: i ampoted brad Ultimate load = (1.6x30)+(1.2%5+1.6x5)10 =484+14x10 = 188kN 188 ge 2 Design moment, M, = a a 48x10 14x10? — eee 4 8 = 295kNm ou — | _ Les ia = tou. @) BM. dagren GB) S.F Bingen 4102 Section Selection f, =300MPa 7, a 295x10° “7G, 0.9%300 From steel tables, suitable sections are: = 1092.59 10° mm* (a) 356 x 171 x 67 L-section; Zp (b) 406 x 178 x 60 I-section; Zp 1210 x 10°mm®, Z. = 1070 x 10°mm> 1200 x 10°’mm’, Z. = 1060 x 10°mm? Economic and Engineering considerations: If lightness was the primary consideration, section (b) would be selected. If minimizing the depth of the member was the main consideration, then section (a) would be chosen. Choose (b). 3 Classification Flange: b/2 1778/2 145 145 es $6.95 <> = TP 28.37 1 128 a Jf, ¥300 ©. Flange is Class 1 Web: -. Web is Class 1 Section classification is Class 1 4 Moment Capacity Extra moment due to self-weight; 2 M,, = ef Seca 10° 8 .83kNm Total moment, M, =295+8.83 = 303.83kNm 4x 10? x Moment Capacity, M, = 62Z,f, ee =324KNm > 303.83kNm OK 5 Shear Capacity Extra shear force due to self-weight; {2385 500 10° 2 Total shear force, V, =94+3.53=97.53kN Shear Capacity, Vi =, fu = 0.6544, f, 0.66 x 0.9(406.4 x 7.8300 = 564.88KN >>>97.53KN OK 10° 6 Deflection a)unt length i k 7 zn 8 bee sul! 3RAer Swit | WP 384EI 48ET _S{l.1x5+1.0%5)10000"_, _(1.030%10"y10000° 384% 20x10" x215x10° 48x 200%10° x 215x10° 0000 =31.80-+14,53 = 46,33 > 2M _ 10000 _ 53. + > Be 33.33 Not OK Minimum moment of inertia, I, required = 215x108 x 4633 — 298 86.10% mm* 33,33 Section required is a 457 x 191 x 75 I-section (I = 334 x 10°mm') 4124.4 Laterally Unsupported Beams So far we have considered beams where the strength is limited by the capacity of the cross-section, which in tum depends on local buckling, If the beam is laterally unsupported the strength may be limited by lateral-torsional buckling. Consider a beam subjected to uniform bending and supported at its ends only. As the load is increased the cross-section deflects vertically. If the beam is laterally unsupported the beam may, at some load, bend laterally and twist. This phenomenon is called lateral-torsional buckling (see Figure 4.8). “4 DY = Eee eee Figure 4.8 The lateral buckling load depends on the unsupported length and the properties of the cross-section. Laterally unsupported beams may be classed as stocky, intermediate and slender (see Figure 4.9). local buckling Inelastic lateral buckling : aN cieteth tele slastic lateral buckling stocky I< intermediate slenderThere are two major components to the resistance of a beam to lateral-torsional buckling. These are (a) St. Venant resistance (b) Warping resistance For a beam subjected to uniform moment and simply supported boundary conditions, the critical moment is where, G = shear modulus = 77 000Mpa J = St. Venant torsion constant = ire (-F “for an I-shape section (Fig. 4.10). To» Figure 4.10 ‘» = warping torsion constant = LLLLLL LL This equation is valid when the strain in the beam is less than the yield strain, ie., slender beams. For other beams yielding occurs when the moment reaches about 2/3 of M, or My. This because of residual stresses. ‘Thus equation for Ma: is valid only if M,,<0.67M, for Class I and 2 sections or M., $0.67M, for Class 3 sections M,< 9M,For stockier Class 1 and 2 beams, M,, >0.67M, 0.28M,), uM, ) M, = tisae [1 M, 0.67M, KL = the effective length of the unbraced portion of the beam, in millimetres ©, =1.15+1.05x+0.3x? $2.5 for unbraced lengths subject to end moments = 1.0 when the bending moment at any point within the unbraced length is larger than the larger end moment or when there is no effective lateral support for the compression flange at one of the ends of the unsupported length. Cy = 0 for hollow section x= the ratio of the smaller to the larger ultimate moment at opposite ends of the unbraced length, positive for double curvature and negative for single curvature. The coefficient @, accounts for the increased moment of resistance of laterally unsupported beam segment when subject to a moment gradient. Consider the three cases shown in Figure 4.11. The moment of resistance equation for lateral torsional- flexural buckling was developed for the beam shown in (a). The maximum moment and maximum flexural stresses are the same in each case but the maximum in-plane deflection and deflected shape are different in each case. Thus the tendency of the beam to twist in each case is quite different. asExample 4.2 Calculate the moment of resistance of a simply supported 406 x 140 x 39kg/m, I-beam spanning 8 and laterally supported at its end only. Assume a point load is applied at the center of the span and that the ends are free to rotate in plan. From the section tables in the SASCH p 718 x 103 mm 7 4.10 X 105 mm* 108 x 103 mm* g Cy = 155 x 108 mm +4 Section is Class 1 in flexure 718 x 103 x 300 (a) 215.4 kim = Za X fy (b) — 0.67M, = 0.67 X 215.4 = 144.3 kNm In this case the bending moment at mid-span is greater than the end moment, and therefore dy is equal to 1 and K = 1X2 1x 8000 f (ERE To" 00 x 103% 4.1 X 108% 77 x 107% 108 x 10 + y X41 X 10°% 155% 10? V 3 000 cy M,, = 4070kNm Me < 0.67 M, The moment of resistance M, = $ M,, = 0.9 X 40.70 = 3643 kNm 47 :Example 4.3 Calculate the moment of resistance of the beam in Example 4.2 assuming that lateral support is also provided at the center of the span. The beam now consists of two laterally unbraced portions of 4 m each with the maximum moment at one end and zero at the other end. The beam is in single curvature. The effective buckling length is therefore 1.0 X 4 000 = 4 000 mm. oO x-———"___119 ‘maximum moment @)= 1.75 +105 K0+03x07= 175 200 10° 4.1 x 10®X 77 X 107% 108 x 10? + ( HX 200 X10: See) X41 x 10°% 155 x 10% 4000 Mey = 206.3 kN My, > 0.67 M, = 144.3 kNm M, a M, = 1156M, (1 - 028 Me) 215, ) M, = LIS * 09 X 215.4 x (1 — 028 x ———) = 157.8 kNm 206.3 418sLo=@ os0= yysuo] Suueog :omms1y od SL + nye = fv" = "a roouRsisol SuLaq puy S014 NY = SVG = “a roouR|SISOI SULA JOLIO}UT :SUIPJaLA GaAs 07 BdULISISAY ‘o3uelJ OY) SUTOL 31 OIDYM UOT OY} UT goa oy JO wed do} oy} UI sindd0 Jey) sIN]Iey BUIPJOIA pozipeoo] st SuIppo1A qo SUIPIPIA Gon ‘Joquiow oy} Suoye yutod Aue ye pue syioddns ay} ye ‘ajdurexa 105 ‘porjdde are SpeO] poyeUSOUOD dBIL] JOYA S]UIOd ye INd90 URd ZuUTP{ONG pue SUIPTSIA qoA\, Suypyong pure Surpparé qoA,qo JO sapour Surpong [[e19AQ :9INBT.J soduely Jo uoTe}0y (9) soSuely usamjaq Aemg (q) soSuey pourexsoy (B) sapengqam 9138304 — Aes “Surddio Aq 10 Surpyong [Jes9A0 Aq [ley Ued om OY} JOYE ‘SULIOJ OM UT 9q UD ATITIGQeISUT “AIqeysur qom Aq pousJoaos Ayjensn si sqom Jopua|s JO souRysiso1 SuLieaq oy], SUIpPONg Gov“popraoid oq prnoo sayeyd Suliesq Josuoy pue Joyory) ApANeUIOpY ‘poprAcid oq ysnuUI sioUayyS goM uoy) poyoddns 2q 0} UOT}DLOI JO PLO] POJLIJUDOUOD OY} ULY} SSO] SI DOURISISOI OAISSOIGUIOD OY} J] sLo=“@ 0s'0= “6 Burddiszo qoyy :ounS1y as) "7"909'0 = “¢ :90UR)SISA1 SuLIVAg pug, IS) ss 15 "a r20URISISOI Sure IOLO}UT ssuyddrss eM pue gam aq} Jo SUTP{ING [[e19A0 0} ddULISISAY “BuIppong goa Aq [rey SSOUISPUS|S WINIPSU JO ssoy} IS[IYM Sur[ddiio gom Aq s[lej Jopusys AIOA o1e yeUy SoM “pordde st peo] oy} d1oyM JUIOd dy} 0} SSOjd JO ye sIN990 ATTeNsn Surpyonq JO WHOJ sTY, ‘qom oy} Jo pred do} oy Jo Surpyong yeoo, st Surjdduo gowWUT] Ssouopuays oy) AJs}es Jsnw gam oy} UOTIPpe UT O00E8 gem B Jo asuodsal ssouopud|s-peoT :oInBt.] Buyjddu2 | Buljyong | Buipjaid ypP=%X ; I EEE EEE | :peoy & 0} poyoofqns ‘qom v Jo asuodsal ssousopudys-peo] ayoist | vor} os | oe | eee ooze] ooez| zoz ows | or | sey | ez | vee ocaz | oayz| 590 sur oeot | xs} oo» | use | vz zz} o08z| si9 sur cogs | az | sy | ost | azz | ote ouez| onoz| ese our es oseL | zs | ster} ove | zor | oz 0902 | ooB1 | su» sup eax oie Kees ons | ozzt | cer} sxe | eve | gez | ier | oeze| coes| aay 80% 86 oro | sze | sz} coe | siz | oz | os: | ozoz| ocei| uv 80% 06 eze | eo | ez] voc | sot | cet | an | ocar| oii! we 80% ze cea | ves | zy | ez | oc | coi | ce | osa1| oops | vee Bor SL soe | sce. | ziv| cee | est | se | sm | ocre| oces| vez 20% 18% 61 x30 ois | ze | cor] oo | ext | sr | ous we ge x eos | sop | ec] sez | es -| ot | oot eve oe a sor | ze | vec} coz | ses | zi | aor siz oe 03 toc | sez | sxe} act | su | zor | so rye oe Sx ezt x 90% woz | ver | coe] ais | osx | ows | cor | one | exe | cs ese o ssi | on | sez) zoe | ovs | oy | ost | sic | seo | ver 096 68% Ov1 x gor err | 09s | coc) oe oxo $ a cee | vee | wee | oat ee as we | wz | cee} vat 982 is vez | on | Z| op 989 ae SPX LLL x ose vez | sve | vec} sor eve | ese | un 992 +9 sor | ee | oe | om ze | uo | ess 99% oy soi | en | sec] ax | sze | oo | ez | ozo | ess | ose 982 Ly esol x soe wa | yous | aw we aor igor! wu | un | un or ut ob uw ww Youu | wu | uu | w/e | wy x ww x uw at Je bee tesla = mu [oo * c v we eb at stata fw ojeusiseq ‘samedoud pue suoisuewig (eBueys joqjered) suonoes-1 saniedoud pue suoisuowig (eBuey Jojjesed) suonoes-yUNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG Department of Civil Engineering SUS3B21 Tutorial 3 - Structural Steel Design 1) A structural system for a multi-storey building is shown in Fig 1(a). Figure 1(b) shows a beam making up part of the floor system. The beam carries a design load of 24 kN/m (assume the same load for deflection). If a 254 x 146 x 37 I-section is chosen as a trial section, check its adequacy. 8 = wL384E1 @ @) eae Figure 1 2) Figure 2 shows a beam, simply supported between two columns that is required to support a pulley with a ultimate capacity of 5 tons (assume the same load for deflection). Check the adequacy of a 356 x 171 x 51 L-section. Assume that the ends of the beam are partially restrained against lateral bending at the supports. E = 200 000 MPa and G = 77 000 Mpa 8=PL/4sEL Bsoxiziesr T coltron column, abe roe pulley Figure 2i) 5 BEAM COLUMNS 5.1 Introduction Members that are designed for a combination of bending and compression are known as beam columns. The combination of stresses can have a significant influence on the strength of a member. The applied loading may be primarily bending, primarily axial or various combinations of the two. The bending moment may be about one or both axes, which may result from eccentric reactions or the moments produced from the analysis. 5.2 Eccentricity from connections The eccentricities to be used in column design in simple construction for beam and truss reactions are as follows: a) For a beam supported on a cap plate the load should be taken as acting at the face of the column. b) For a roof truss on a cap plate the eccentricity may be neglected provided that simple connections are used. c) In all other cases the load should be taken as acting at a distance from the face of the column equal to 100 mm or at the centre of the stiff bearing, whichever gives the greater eccentricity. The eccentricities for the various connections are shown in Figure 5.1. Column axial load is accumulated down the building, but column moments are only generated by the floor levels under consideration. Many columns are therefore designed for high axial loads but rather low moments. Comer columns suffer bending about both axis, but may as well carry less load; edge columns are subject to bending about at least one axis; and internal columns may, if both the beam framing arrangements and the load are balanced, be designed for axial load only. Portal frames are required to carry high moments in the plane of the frame but relatively low axial loads, unless directly supporting cranes.Oo Reaction ccentrty 2) Beam te Column Comection 1) Truss te Columa Conrection | Reachsn Eccentricity 4) Eecentricities_for_Beam Column = Connections SHEE pearing ©) Beam Supported on Brocker Fig 5.1 Eccentricities of End Connections 5.3 Classification of sections Beam-columns are also classified to safeguard them against local buckling. The limiting width-to-thickness ratio for these elements is reproduced in chapter 4 as Table 4.1.5.4 Second order effects The importance of second order effects may be appreciated with reference to Figure 5.2(@). The member is loaded by compression plus end moments and is assumed to respond simply by deflecting in the plane of the loading. Under the action of the applied moments bending occurs leading to a lateral deflection 5. The effect of an axial force P acting on this deformed member produces additional or secondary moments and deflections. Thus the moment at any point within the length comprises two components: a primary moment due to the applied end moments plus a secondary moment due PS due to the axial load P acting through the deflection 6. When the beam column is permitted to sway by an amount A as shown in Figure 5.2(b), there will be an additional moment given by PA. Clause 13.8.3 of the Code stipulates that the secondary moments resulting from the displacement along the column be determined through the application of an amplification factor. H —- Pa Cora H te (a) Member effects (P- 6) (b) Structure effects (P-A) non-sway sway Figure 5.2 Second-order effects An amplification factor is determined by analyzing an axially loaded column with equal end moments as shown in Figure 5.3. This is the most severe case loading case for a column.W i {a) Loading of the (b) Resultant bending column moment diagram Figure 5.3 First-order and secondary moment M is the first-order moment whilst C,8 is the secondary moment. The maximum moment (M,) at mid-span is M,=M4+0,6 (5.1) The amplification factor (AF) is a measure of how much the first-order moment (M) can be increased by the second-order deflection to give the maximum moment (M,). The amplification factor is given by 1 AF =—— (5.2) C, When the moment along the column is not uniformly distributed, the second-order deflection (moment) is less severe than the one with a uniformly distributed, resulting in a less amplified moment, The moment gradient is taken into account by converting it into an equivalent uniform moment through the use of the moment gradient factor @. S4This factor depends on the loading pattern and is defined in Clause 13.8.4 as: (a) For members subject to end moments only ©, =0.6-0.4«(2 0.4) G3) where x is the ratio of the smaller to the larger moment at opposite endes of the unbraced portion/segment, positive for double curvature and negative for single (——) (b) For members subjected to distributed loads between supports or segments > (©) For members subjected to a concentrated load or moment between supports or segmentsThe total secondary effects are accounted by combining the amplification factor (AF) and the moment gradient factor (a) to give the combined factor +(5.4) where Er C, = Euler buckling strength = (xi The maximum amplified moment (M,) is then M,=U\M (5.5) where Mis the maximum moment on the segment of the column, 5.5. Design for axial compression and bending 1) The member strength and stability equation for members required to resist both bending and axial compression for Class 1 and 2 I-shaped sections is C, 0.85U,.M,, , LUM, Se OE ey C, me - where C, = ultimate axial load M,. = ultimate moment about the major axis Muy = ultimate moment about the minor axis B=06 +044, $0.85 4y = non-dimensional slenderness ratio about the minor axis The effect of residual strength (extra strength) in these sections is taken into account by factors 0.85 and B. 562) — Inaddition Class 1 and 2 I-shaped sections subject to biaxial bending should meet the following criterion. Fete) ee (5.7) 3) The member strength and stability equation for all members required to resist both bending and axial compression except Class 1 and 2 I-shaped sections is 5.6 Modes of failure Three modes of failure are expected and must be checked: (a) Cross-sectional strength (b) Overall member strength (c) Lateral-torsional buckling strength 5.6.1Cross-sectional strength This check is to ensure that there is no point in the member where the ultimate strength of the member is exceeded. Buckling and lateral torsional instability are not considered in this check. C,=¢4f, (Class 1, 2 and 3 sections with 4 = 0) ..(5.9) C, =f, (Class 4 sections) (5.10) The effective area, A.g, is calculated using the reduced element widths to satisfy the maximum width-to-thickness ratio of a Class 3 section. M,~¢2,f,-9M, (Class 1, 2 sections) M,~=92,f, (Class 3 sections) ST