Life sciences 2011

Teaching Notes: Speciation

 EXAMINATION GUIDELINES

Define the terms: population and a species

Population: A group of organisms of the same species that lives together in a defined area
at a given time and interbreedingcan take place

Species: A group of organisms that have similar characteristics and can interbreed to
produce fertile offspring

 Speciation as a mechanism for producing new species

Speciation refers to the origin of new species.

 Definition of allopatric (through geographic isolation) and sympatric speciation

(through various reproductive isolation mechanism

Allopatric speciation
Formation of new species when a geographical barrier(mountain, river volcano, crack ect.)
separates organisms in a population

Original population Barrier formation Reproductive isolation new

species

- E.g. when a population is geographically isolated from other populations, gene

flow stops.
- Within each of the two groups there is variation
- Each group undergoes natural selection (different selection pressures)
- as a result of varying environmental conditions
- and develops differently
- genotypically and phenotypically
- since the geographical barrier prevents gene flow/reproduction between the two
populations
- The differences that develop between the two populations prevent
them from inter-breeding even if they were to mix (reproductive isolation
mechanisms)
- such that one or both of the groups becomes a new species
 Darwin observed many similar looking species of finches/tortoises. The main difference
was the shape of their beaks/length of neck. He felt that they all evolved from an
ancestral seed-eating species through natural selection as each variation of beak type
allowed them to adapt to feeding on different food sources.

Woodpecker
Large ground Tree finch Warbler finch Cactus finch finch has hard
finch has strong has strong has a small has long touch beak which
beak which can sharp beak pointed beak beak in which hammers
crack nuts. and feed on in which it it can probe wood – a tool
insects like catches flying cactus flowers bird get insect
beetles. insects for nectar larvae out of
wood

Finches from the Galapagos islands Tortoises from the Galapagos islands
1 Species A from 2 3 4
A A A
A mainland
B C C C C

C C
D

Continental drift as mechanism for allopatric speciation

The Earth 300 million year ago Earth today

Darwin used the concept of Biogeography of animals as evidence for allopatric speciation. The
fact that similar organisms are present on different continent indicate that they shar a common
ancestor
 Sympatric speciation
In sympatric speciation, species diverge while inhabiting the same place.

New species may from where there are no barriers. Niche differentiation is a way in which
sympatric speciation can occur . Examples of sympatric speciation are found in insects
which become dependent on different host plants in the same area, polyploidy plants and
the cichlid fishes of lake Malawi

Original population Step to speciation Reproductive isolation

new species E.g. Niche differentiation within the population
Polyploidy

Examples of sympatric speciation:

1. Cichlid fishes in Lake Malawi through Niche

differentiation.

The great lakes of Africa: Lake Malawi, Lake Tanganyika

and Lake Victoria are all swarming with hundreds of
species of endemic Cichlid fish species viz. 700, 250
and 450 respectively,. They all arise from a common
unspecialized ancestral organism which was likely to be
feeding on insects and possibly other types of food each
of which occupies and is adapted to a distinct ecological
niche.
It has been noted that closely related species may differ
in colour. Mates are selected according to colour e.g.
in one population, the females selected red males and in another blue males. The fish may
also be plankton feeds, algae feeders, predators, scavengers, parasite cleaners and egg
stealers. It also seems that basic design of the fish where they have a second pair of jaws (as
shown in the diagram below) allows cichlids to diversify and feed in many different ways .

scales
Eats fish Eats baby Eats Eats Eats insect
and fins fish and molluscs small fish larvae
eggs
 2. Wheat through polyploidy.
- When polyploidy occurs, it is possible to form completely new species.
- This malfunction during meiosis produces sudden reproductive isolation from the new
group.
- Because the sex determination mechanism is disturbed, animals are rarely able to
achieve new species.
- Many plants are able to reproduce vegetatively or carry out self pollination. This ability
enables polyploidy plants to become a breeding population.
- In modern wheat there is doubling of the chromosomes.

How does polyploidy happen?

A diploid cell undergoes failed meiosis, producing
diploid gametes, which self-fertilize to produce
a tetraploid zygote.

Polyploidy events in the evolution of wheat

Einkorn Wild grass

Wild Einkorn
becomes
domesticated
X
slight
changes in
phenotype
AA
2N -14 BB
2N-14
AB Sterile
Goat grass
2N-14 hybrid
Meiotic error
Emmer
wheat and self
fertilization
undergoes
amphiploidy
creates fertile
X
Emmer
wheat Sterile hybrid
ABD Undergoes
amphiploidy DD
AABB and double 2N-14
2N- 28 number of
chromosomes
and self
fertilization

Common wheat

AABBDD
2N- 42
 Reproductive isolation mechanisms
 Examples of reproductive isolation mechanisms
 Breeding at different times of the year
 Species-specific courtship behaviour (animals)
 Adaptation to different pollinators (plants)
 Infertile offspring (e.g. mules)

Type of Example 1 Example 2

barrier
Adaptation to Two species of orchid
different have different length
pollinators nectar tubes and are
pollinated by different
species of moths.
Breeding at Two species of
different times mayflies emerge
of the year during different weeks
in springtime.

Species- Two similar species of

specific birds have different
courtship mating rituals.
behaviour

Infertile Two species of frogs

offspring are mated in the lab
and produce viable,
but sterile, offspring.

Horse x donkey = mule

Worksheet: Speciation
Identify the type of reproductive barrier illustrated by the following examples and indicate
whether they are pre- or post-zygotic barriers.

Example Type of barrier

Two species of orchid have
different length nectar tubes
and are pollinated by
different species of moths.
Two species of mayflies
emerge during different
weeks in springtime.
Two similar species of birds
have different mating rituals.
Two species of frogs are
mated in the lab and produce
viable, but sterile, offspring.
(4)
2

2.1 What type of speciation takes place in cichlid fishes in the different Lakes of Africa? (1)
2.2 Explain this type of speciation mentioned in QUESTION 2. 1. (2)
2.3 What type of speciation occurs in the same lake between the cichlid fishes? (1)
2.4 Explain this type of speciation mentioned in QUESTION 2.3 (2)
2.5 What type of reproductive isolation occurs in the cichlid fishes in Lake Malawi? (2)
2.6 Explain how reproductive isolation occurs in the cichlid fishes. (4)
2.7 How does reproductive isolation lead to changes in allele frequency in the
fish population? (2)
2.8 Briefly explain how changes in frequency of alleles cause speciation. (2)
(16)

3. Write an essay using examples to explain TWO ways by which new

species are formed in a population (20)

[40]
Memorandum : Worksheet speciation
1.
Example Type of barrier
Two species of orchid have Adaptation to different
different length nectar tubes pollinators (plants)
and are pollinated by
different species of moths.
Two species of mayflies Breeding at different
emerge during different times of the year
weeks in springtime.
Two similar species of birds Species-specific
have different mating rituals. courtship behaviour
Two species of frogs are Infertile offspring
mated in the lab and produce
viable, but sterile, offspring.
(4)
2.1 Allopatric speciation (1)

2.2 Lakes separate because water dried up between them- when a population is
geographically isolated from other populations gene flow stops.  (2)

2.3 Sympatric speciation (1)

2.4 Occurs when a new species forms in populations that are not physically or
geographically separated from one another but can be reproductively separated (2)

2.5 Species-specific courtship behaviour  and feeding on different organisms

(niche isolation) (2)

2.6 Female cichlid fishes display mate preferences for males with new colour patterns.
They therefore mate more often with these males than with males displaying other
colour patterns.
Feed in different niches- near rocks, at bottom – mate with fishes in same niche  (4)

2.7 More females mate with males with the new colour patterns,  therefore the alleles
for these colour patterns become more frequent in the population/ more fish (2)
have them.
2.8 New species form when the frequency of certain alleles in a population 
changes over time/The greater the changes in allele frequency , the more
likely a new species will form as the populations will be more and more
genetically different. (2)

(16)
3..Speciation – a mechanism for producing new species
Two types:-
1. Allopatric speciation *– formation of new species when a geographical barrier
separates organisms in a population
e.g. Galapagos finches / or any other suitable answer
Before the geographical barrier the population were able to interbreed/
genes can flow freely in the population
When the population becomes separated by the ocean/geographic barrier
, each group adapts to the new environmental factors
Each group undergoes natural selection independently
Might prevent them from interbreedingwhen they come
into contact again/become reproductively isolated leading to the
formation of a new species (2 defn + 3 example =7) (7)
2. Sympatric speciation*– formation of species in the absence of geographical
barriersthrough various reproductive isolating mechanisms 
There are many examples that can be used. Mark any one suitable
example that illustrates a reproductive barrier
There are four types of reproductive isolation mechanisms
Breeding at different times of the year  e.g. butterfly / any other example of a
nocturnal, diurnal, seasonal animal
- when the time of mating activity of 2 species occurs at different times of the year
- may prevent contact with closely related species and this reduces chances of
mating and producing new offspring

Species-specific courtship behavior (animals)  birds any other suitable example

- many animals have specific behavior patterns that attract the opposite sex like calls,
rituals, dances, body language etc.  that prevents mating with other organisms 
Adaptation to different pollinators (plants)  e.g. any example of a flowering plant
like gladiolus or iris etc
-Flowers of many angiosperms are adapted to promote pollination by only one
speciesor group of species of insects or other pollinators that prevents cross
breeding and hence keeps species separate
Infertile offspring  e.g. cross between a horse and a donkey to produce a mule
If two species mate and produce hybrid offspring, the species are reproductively
isolated if hybrids are sterile. (2defn + 8 mechanism =10) (10)
Content (17)
Synthesis (3)
TOTAL: 20
ASSESSING THE PRESENTATION OF THE ESSAY
Marks Description
3 Both types of speciation fully described with examples for both
2 One type of speciation described with only one example
1 Two types of speciation named, types of speciation not adequately explained with no
examples given
0 Has not attempted/has not written anything other than question number/no correct
information