UNIT II METAL JOINING PROCESSES

SYLLABUS

Fusion welding processes – Oxy fuel welding – Filler and Flux materials-–Arc welding, Electrodes,
Coating and specifications – Gas Tungsten arc welding –Gas metal arc welding - Submerged arc
welding – Electro slag welding– Plasma arc welding –– Resistance welding Processes -Electron
beam
welding –Laser beam Welding Friction welding – Friction stir welding – Diffusion welding –
Thermit Welding, Weld defects –inspection &remedies – Brazing - soldering – Adhesive bonding

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of joining takes place by means of welding, riveting or by fastening nut and bolts.
If a joint can be disassembled then joining method is called temporary joining method. If the same,
cannot be disassembled without breaking it then the joint is called permanent joint. Normally in
welding operation joining of metal pieces is done by raising their temperature to the fusion point so
that they form a sort of pool of molten metal at the ends to the joined, sometimes, the pool is
supplemented with a filler metal (wire or rod) which normally has almost same compositions as
that of the work pieces. This way the pool forms a homogeneous mixture. It is allowed to get solidify
to have a permanent joint. There is wide diversity in welding technology so its conventional
definition can be modified as ―welding is a technique of joining similar and dissimilar metals and
plastics by adopting ways which do not include adhesives and fasteners compatibility aspect as

Selection of type of joints:

a) Type of joint required for an application is temporary or permanent.

b) Whether similar or dissimilar materials are to be joined in order to take care of
the metallurgical incompatibility can be disastrous for performance of the joints
c) Physical, chemical metallurgical properties of materials to be joined.
d) Requirements of the service from the joint under special conditions of
temperature, corrosion, environment, and reliability.
e) Type and nature of loading conditions (static and dynamic loading under tension,
shear, compression, bending etc.)
 f) Economy or cost effectiveness is one most important factors influencing the
selection of joint for manufacturing an engineering component

University QB
Part A
1.Classify the welding process (Apr/May 2016)
2. What is the purpose of Flux in electrode (Apr/May 2009,20)
3. Define weld ability. (Apr/May 2010)

2.2 CLASSIFIATION OF WELDING PROCESSES

Welding process can be classified into different categories depending upon
the following criteria:
(a) Liquid state welding (Fusion welding)
(b) Solid state welding (Pressure welding)
Welding process can be also classified as:

Autogeneous : During welding process, no filler metal is added to the joint

interface.
For example: solid welding process and electric resistance
welding
Homogeneous : During welding process, filler metal is added and is of the same
type as the parent metal.
For Example: Arc welding
Heterogeneous : During welding process, filler metal is added and is of a different
type from the parent metal.
Example: Brazing and soldering

Advantages and Limitation of Welding

Advantages of welding are enlisted below:

1. Permanent joint is produced, which becomes an integral part of work piece.
2. Joints can be stronger than the base metal if good quality filler metal is used.
3. Economical method of joining.
4. It is not restricted to the factory environment.

Disadvantages of welding are enlisted also below:

1. Labour cost is high as only skilled welder can produce sound and quality weld
joint.
2. It produces a permanent joint which in turn creates the problem in dissembling
if of sub-component required.
3. Hazardous fumes and vapours are generated during welding. This demands
proper ventilation of welding area.
4. Weld joint itself is considered as a discontinuity owing to variation in its
structure, composition and mechanical properties; therefore welding is not
commonly recommended for critical application where there is a danger of life.

Applications of welding
The welding is widely used for fabrication of pressure vessels, bridges, building
structures, aircraft and space crafts, railway coaches and general applications besides
shipbuilding, automobile, electrical, electronic and defense industries, laying of pipe
lines and railway tracks and nuclear installations.
Specific components need welding for fabrication includes
(a) Transport tankers for transporting oil, water, milk etc.
(b) Welding of tubes and pipes, chains, LPG cylinders and other items.
(c) Fabrication of Steel furniture, gates, doors and door frames, and body
 (d) Manufacturing white goods such as refrigerators, washing machines,
microwave ovens and many other items of general applications

University QB
Part A
1.List out any four arc welding equipment. (May 2006)
2.Why flux is coated on filler rods? (Dec 2008)
3.Explain the function of flux in welding. (May 2008, 2016, Nov 2013, 2014)
4.What is arc welding?
5. What are the advantages of welding (Apr 2005)
Part B
Explain any four major ways to control the output of are welding transformer[anna
univ.apr’5]

ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Electric arc
welding is one of the
fusion welding
processes in which
coalescence of the
metal is achieved by
the heat from an
electric arc between an
electrode and work
piece. A line diagram
indicating the whole
process is shown in
Figure 2.1.
Electric arc is
generated when electrode is brought into contact with the work and is then quickly
separated by a short distance approximately 2 mm. The circuit operates at low voltage
and high current so arc is established in the gap due to thermo ionic emission from
electrode (Cathode) to work piece (Anode). The arc is sustained due to continuous
presence of a thermally ionized column of gas. This arc produces at temperature of the
order of 5500oC or higher. In this way a pool of molten metal consisting of work piece
metal and filler metal is formed in the welding zone. The electrode is moved along the
joint with perpendicular zig-zag motion. The solidified molten weld pool makes the
strong welded joint. Movement of the electrode relative to work piece is accomplished
by either manually or by mechanical means in case of automatic welding machines.
Better uniformity and good quality weldments are possible in case of automatic welding
process.
 Arc welding equipments are listed below. The equipments are categorized as
facilitator, consumable and protecting equipments. Some of the equipment of arc
welding is same as that are used in gas welding like flux, protecting devices and cleaning
devices, etc.
Facilitator Equipment Welding
a) Power source (welding machine)
b) Electrode holder
c) Work table
d) Cables (for connection)
e) Finishing devices like chipping, hammer, wire brush, etc.
Consumable Equipment
a) Electrode
b) Flux
c) Work piece
d) Filler metal
Protecting Equipment
a) Welding shields
b) Goggles
c) Screens
d) Gloves
e) Apron
Arc welding equipments are described below.
a) Power Source
Both AC (Alternative Current) and DC (Direct Current) can be used for welding.
AC machines are recommended for ferrous metal and DC machines are recommended
for other metals for better result. Main constituent of welding machine is transformer
which converts the supply to low voltage and high current. For AC welding power is
required at 80 to 110 volt and 50 to 80 ampere. For sustaining the established are
power factor is kept low. In case of DC welding power is required at 8 to 25 volts and
50 ampere. Polarity is also are significant factor. Two types of polarities are possible in
case of DC welding.
Straight Polarity
Electrode is made negative pole and work piece is made positive pole. It is also
called as electrode negative.
Reversed Polarity
Electrode is made positive pole and work piece is made negative pole. It is called
electrode positive too. As we know that two third of the total heat is generated at
positive pole and only one third at negative pole. Polarity is decided according to the
requirement of heat at either pole.
b) Welding Electrodes
These are also called welding rods. Two types of welding electrodes are
generally used.
1) Consumable electrodes
2) Non-consumable electrodes.
Consumable electrodes
Consumable electrodes are the source of filler metal in case of arc welding.
Consumable electrodes can further be classified into two categories
a. Coated electrodes
 Light coated electrode
 Heavily coated electrode
b. Bare electrodes.
Light coated electrode
Light coated welding electrodes have a definite composition. A light coating has
been applied on the surface by washing, dipping, brushing, spraying, tumbling, or
wiping. The coatings improve the characteristics of the arc stream. They are listed
under the E45 series in the electrode identification system.
The coating generally serves the functions described below:
 It dissolves or reduces impurities such as oxides, sulfur, and phosphorus.
 It changes the surface tension of the molten metal so that the globules of
metal leaving the end of the electrode are smaller and more frequent.
This helps make flow of molten metal more uniform.
 It increases the arc stability by introducing materials readily ionized (i.e.,
changed into small particles with an electric charge) into the arc stream.
 Some of the light coatings may produce a slag. The slag is quite thin and
does not act in the same manner as the shielded arc electrode type slag.

Heavily coated electrode

Heavy coated welding electrodes have a definite composition on which a coating
has been applied by dipping or extrusion. The electrodes are manufactured in three
general types: those with cellulose coatings; those with mineral coatings; and those
whose coatings are combinations of mineral and cellulose. The cellulose coatings are
composed of soluble cotton or other forms of cellulose with small amounts of
potassium, sodium, or titanium, and in some cases added minerals. The mineral coatings
consist of sodium silicate, metallic oxides clay, and other inorganic substances or
combinations thereof. Cellulose coated electrodes protect the molten metal with a
gaseous zone around the arc as well as the weld zone. The mineral
coated electrode forms a slag deposit. The shielded arc or heavy coated electrodes are
used for welding steels, cast iron, and hard surfacing.
Bare Electrodes
Bare welding electrodes are made of wire compositions required for specific
applications. These electrodes have no coatings other than those required in wire
drawing. These wire drawing coatings have some slight stabilizing effect on the arc but
are otherwise of no consequence. Bare electrodes are used for welding manganese steel
and other purposes where a coated electrode is not required or is undesirable.
Non-consumable Electrodes
They are made of tungsten or carbon. These do not melt in the process of
welding and so called non-consumable electrodes. Their depletion rate is very low.
In case of non-consumable electrodes metal and flux is supplied additionally.
Generally non-consumable electrodes are used in MIG and TIG welding processes.

Electrode Coding
According to ISI coding system an electrode is specified six digits with a prefix
letter ‗M‘ which is indicative of its suitability for metal arc welding. Explanation of six
digits is given below.

E 70 1 8 -X

E : Indicates that this is an electrode

70 : Indicates how strong this electrode is when welded.

Measured in thousands of pounds per square inch.

1 : Indicates in what welding positions it can be used

8 : Indicates the coating, penetration, and current type used.

X Indicates that there are more requirements.

WELDING POSITIONS

1 : Flat, Horizontal, Vertical (up), Overhead

2 : Flat, Horizontal

4 : Flat, Horizontal, Overhead, Vertical (down)

ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Suffix Additional Requirement

1 : Increased toughness (impact strength) for E7018 electrodes.

Also increased ductility in E7024 electrodes.

M : Meets most military requirements - greater toughness, lower

moisture content as received after exposure, diffusible
hydrogen limits for weld metal.

-H4 : Indicates the maximum diffusible hydrogen limit measured in

millimeters per 100 grams (mL/100g).
Example: H4 = 4mL per 100 grams

The important functions Electrode coating are as follows:

1. Improve the electric conductivity in the arc region to improve the arc
ignition and stabilization of the arc.
2. Formation of slag, which;
(a) Influences size of droplet.
(b) Protects the droplet during transfer and molten weld pool from
atmospheric gases.
(c) Protects solidified hot metal from atmospheric gases.
(d) Reduces the cooling rate of weld seam.
3. Formation of shielding gas to protect molten metal.

1. Provide deoxidizers like Si and Mn in form of FeSi and FeMn.

2. Alloying with certain elements such as Cr, Ni, Mo to improve weld metal
properties.
3. Improve deposition rate with addition of iron powder in coating.

Various constituents of electrode coating are cellulose, calcium fluoride, calcium

carbonate, titanium dioxide, clay, talc, iron oxide, asbestos, potassium / sodium silicate,
iron powder, ferro-manganese, powdered alloys, silica etc. Each constituent performs
either one or more than one functions.
 Electrode metallic core wire is the same but the coating constituents give the
different characteristics to the welds. Based on the coating constituents, structural steel
electrodes can be classified in the following classes;
Cellulosic Electrodes
Coating consists of high cellulosic content more than 30% and TiO 2 up to 20%.
These are all position electrodes and produce deep penetration because of extra heat
generated during burning of cellulosic materials. However, high spatter losses are
associated with these electrodes.
Rutile Electrodes
Coating consists of TiO2 up to 45% and SiO2 around 20%. These electrodes are
widely used for general work and are called general purpose electrodes.
Acidic Electrodes
Coating consists of iron oxide more than 20%. Sometimes it may be up to 40%,
other constituents may be TiO2 10% and CaCO3 10%. Such electrodes produce self-
detaching slag and smooth weld finish and are used normally in flat position.
Basic Electrodes
Coating consist of CaCO3 around 40% and CaF2 15-20%. These electrodes
normally require baking at temperature of approximately 250°C for 1-2 hours or as per
manufacturer's instructions. Such electrodes produce high quality weld deposits which
has high resistance to cracking. This is because hydrogen is removed from weld metal
by the action of fluorine i.e. forming HF acid as CaF2 generates fluorine
on dissociation in the heat of arc.

Table 2.1: Coating Constituents and Their Functions

Functions
Coating Constituent
Main Functions Other Functions

Cellulose Gas former Coating Strength and

Reducing agent

Calcium Fluoride (CaF2) Slag basicity and metal Slag former

fluidity, H2 removal

Clay (Aluminum Slag former Coating strength

Silicate)

Talc (Magnesium Slag former Arc stabilizer

Silicate)

Rutile (TiO2 ) Arc stabilizer, Slag Slag removal and bead

former, Fluidity appearance

Iron Oxides Fluidity, Slag former Arc Stabilizer, improved

metal transfer,
Sl.No. Category A.C Transformer D.C.Transformer
Calcium Carbonate Gas former, Arc stabilizer Slag basicity, Slag former
1 Efficiency range 80-85% 30-60%

Asbestos 2 Power Coating strength

Less Slag former
More
consumption
Quartz (SiO2 ) Slag fluidity, Slag former Increase in current carrying
3 Cost Low capacity.
High

4 Terminal Positive and Positive to work

connection Negative are piece and
Sodium Silicate / Binder, Arc stabilizer Slag former
Potassium Silicate

FeMn / FeSi Deoxidizer

Iron Powder Deposition Rate

Powdered Alloys Alloying

COMPARISON OF AC and DC WELDING MACHINES
 changed Negative to
electrode

5 Operation Noiseless Noisy

6 Safely operation No Yes

7 Work piece Only for ferrous Suitable for

material ferrous and non-
ferrous

8 Electrode Only coated coated and bare

electrode can be electrode can be
used used

9 Maintenance High Low

10 Power factor High Low

University QB
Part A
1. What are the Types Of Gas Welding
2. List out the Gas Welding Equipments
3. Explain Flame formation and its different types(Nov 2019)
4. What are the applications of Carburizing Flame (Nov 2009)
5. How are the dimensions of filler rod calculated
6. Mention 2 advantages of DC equipment and AC equipment in arc welding
(apr 10)
PART B
1. Sketch the three types of flames in oxy acetylene welding and state their
characteristics (Apr/may 2006,11)
2. Describe with neat sketch the components of oxy acetylene gas welding (Apr
10, Nov 12)
3. Describe the types of flames materials using in arc welding process(Apr 19)
4. Distinguish between arc welding and gas welding(Apr 18)
5. Last out the different types of welding process. Briefly explain the working
principle of any two welding process.[anna univ.nov’10]
6. Discuss the various filler and flux materials used in welding.[anna
univ.nov’9]

GAS WELDING
It is a fusion welding in which strong gas flame is used to generate heat and raise
temperature of metal pieces localized at the place where joint is to be made. In this
welding metal pieces to be joined are heated. The metal thus melted starts flowing along
the edges where joint is to be made. A filler metal may also be added to the flowing
molten metal to fill up the cavity at the edges. The cavity filed with molten metal is
allowed to solidify to get the strong joint. Different combinations of gases can be used to
obtain a heating flame. The popular gas combinations are oxy- hydrogen mixture,
oxygen-acetylene, etc. different mixing proportion of two gases in a mixture can
generate different types of flames with different characteristics.
Oxy-Acetylene Welding
Oxy-acetylene welding can use for welding of wide range of metals and alloys.
Acetylene mixed with oxygen when burnt under a controlled environment produces
large amount of heat giving higher temperature rise. This burning also produces carbon
dioxide which helps in preventing oxidation of metals being welded. Highest
temperature that can be produced by this welding is 3200oC. The chemical reaction
involved in burning of acetylene is

2C2H2 + 5O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat

On the basis of supply pressure of gases oxy-acetylene welding

is categorized as high pressure welding in this system both gases
oxygen and acetylene supplied to welding zone are high pressure from
their respective high pressure cylinders. The other one is low pressure
welding in which oxygen is supplied from high pressure cylinder but
acetylene is generated by the action of water on calcium carbide and
supplied at low pressure. In this case high pressure supply of oxygen
pulls acetylene at the welding zone.
A comparison can be drawn between low pressure and high
pressure welding. High pressure welding equipment is handy,
supplies pure acetylene at constant pressure, with better control and
low expenses as compared to low pressure welding.
Characteristics of the oxy-acetylene welding process include:

 The use dual oxygen and acetylene gases stored under

pressure in steel cylinders,
 Its ability to switch quickly to a cutting process, by
changing the welding tip to a cutting tip,
 The high temperature the gas mixture attains,
 The use of regulators to control gas flow and reduce
pressure on both the oxygen and acetylene tanks,
 The use of double line rubber hoses to conduct the gas
from the tanks to the torch,
 Melting the materials to be welded together,
 The ability to regulate temperature by adjusting gas flow.
Gas Welding Equipments

The following equipments are necessary for gas welding

1. Gas cylinders
2. Regulators
3. Pressure gauges
4. Rubber hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Safety goggles
7. Gloves
8. Spark lighter
9. Wire brush

1. Gas Cylinders

Oxygen and acetylene gases are stored in separate cylinders and used for
gas welding. The colour of oxygen cylinder is black and the acetylene gas is stored
in maroon cylinders. Oxygen is stored at a pressure of 125Kg/cm 2. Acetylene gas is
stored at a pressure of 16 Kg/cm2 in the cylinder.

2. Regulators

Separate regulators are fitted on both the cylinders. A regulator is used to

control the working pressure of the gases. The working pressure of oxygen is
1Kg/cm2 and acetylene is 0.15Kg/cm2. Working pressure of these gases is altered
according to the thickness of the metal parts of the joint.
1. Pressure Gauges

Two pressure gauges are fitted each on the oxygen cylinder and on the acetylene
cylinder. One of the pressure gauges indicates the pressure of the cylinder and the other
gauge indicates the working pressure of the specific gas.

2. Hoses

Separate hoses are used to connect the two cylinders with the welding torch
through regulators. The colour of the hose from the oxygen cylinder is black and the one
from the acetylene cylinder is red. These hoses carry the gases to the welding torch.

3.Welding Torch

Oxygen and acetylene reach the welding torch through the passages of hoses
from the respective cylinders. These gases are mixed in the mixing chamber of the
welding torch. Flame is produced at the tip of the torch when the gases are ignited.
There are two control valves present in the torch to control the quantity of oxygen and
acetylene. By this control, the grade of the flame can be altered. The size of the flame is
altered to suit the thickness of the metal parts.

6. Welding Gloves

Protective hand gloves are used by the operator to prevent possible damages that
may be caused by high temperatures and metal splashes during welding.

7. Spark Lighter

Spark lighter is used to ignite the oxy-acetylene gas at the tip of the welding
torch.
1. Wire Brush

Wire brushes are useful in cleaning the weld before and after the welding
process.

Filler Rods Used in Gas Welding

Filler rods used in gas welding supply the additional metal in making joints.
These rods are melted by the gas flame and deposited over the parts of the joint.
Generally the filler rods are made of the same metal as that of the parts of the joint.

The diameter of the filler rod depends upon the thickness of the parts to be
welded. The strength of the welding joint is increased by adding Nickel or Chromium in
filler rods. A thin coat of copper is provided on the filler rods to prevent the molten
metal from reacting with atmospheric oxygen. Flux may be applied either in powdered
form or liquid form.

Advantages of Gas Welding

1. Applied for different classes of work

2. Welding temperature is controlled easily
3. The quantity of filler metal added in the joint can easily be controlled
4. The cost of the welding unit is less
5. The cost of maintenance is less
6. Both welding and cutting can be done

Limitations of Gas Welding

1. Intended for welding thin work pieces only

2. The process of welding is slow
3. The time taken by the gas flame to heat the metal is more when
compared with electric arc
4. The strength of the joint is less
5. Great care should be taken in handling and storing gas cylinders

FLAME FORMATION AND ITS DIFFERENT TYPES

Flame is established by burning (controlled) of the two gases mixture at the

outlet of blow pipe or torch. The proportion of gasses in the mixture is controlled by
controlling the flow rate of each of the two gasses. Here, it should be clear that burning
of acetylene generates heat and oxygen only supports acetylene in burning. Insufficient
supply of oxygen leaves acetylene un burnt in atmosphere creating pollution and adding
cost of waste acetylene. A general nomenclature of the flame established in oxy-
acetylene welding is given in Figure 2.5. The flame can be divided in to three zones.

Zone ‗1‘ is very near to the outlet of torch, where oxygen reacts with acetylene
and burning of two gases takes place.

Zone ‗2‘ produces carbon monoxide and hydrogen in ratio 2 : 1 by 45 volume.

This zone gives the highest temperature of the flame. This zone is supposed to Welding
consume the oxygen available here and contribute reducing properly to the flame.

Zone ‗3‘ is the outermost zone of the flame. Temperature of this zone is
comparatively low. This zone converts CO to CO 2 and H2O vapours. On the basis of
supply proportion of acetylene and oxygen, flames can be divided into three
categories, neutral flame, carburizing flame and oxidizing flame. These are
described here.

Neutral Flame

A neutral flame is obtained when amount of O2 equal and C2H2 are mixed and

burnt at the outlet of welding torch. The flame consists of two sharply defined zones
inner white flame cone outer envelope of blue colour as shown in Figure 2.5. In this
flame none of two gasses is supplied in excess. This flame is of white cone and has the
maximum use for successful welding of many metals.

Carburizing Flame

This flame is obtained when excess of acetylene is supplied than which is

theoretically required. This flame is identified by three zones the inner cone which is
not sharply defined, an outer envelope as same in case of neutral flamed and middle
zone surrounds inner one extended to outer envelope. It is white in colour due to excess
acetylene. Larger the excess of acetylene larger will be its length. To get a neutral
flame a systematic procedure is to make carburizing flame first and then increase
oxygen supply gradually till the excess acetylene zone disappears. The resulting flame
wills a carburizing flame. Its temperature generation range is 3100oC to 3300oC. It is
used for the welding of metals where risk of oxidation at elevated temperature is more
like aluminium, its alloys and lead and its alloys. The metals which have tendency to
absorb carbon should not be welded by carburizing flame as they become brittle
localized.

Oxidizing Flame

This flame as an excess of oxygen over that required for a neutral flame. The
ratio O2 : C2H2 = 1.15 to 1.50. To have this flame set carburizing flame first convert it to
neutral flame and then reduce the supply of acetylene to get oxidizing flame. Its inner
cone is relatively shorter and excess oxygen turns the flame to light blue colour. It
burns with a harsh sound. It is used for metals which are not oxidized readily like
brasses and bronzes.
COMPARISON OF ARC WELDING AND GAS WELDING

Sl.No. Arc welding Gas welding

1 Electric arc is the source of Gas is the source of heat.

heat.

2 The arc temperature is about The gas temperature is about

4000 . 3200 .

3 Filler functions as Filler rod is introduced

separately.
rod
electrodes.

4 Risk due to electric shock. Risk due to gas pressure.

5 Arc welded joints have very Gas welded joints have not
high strength. much strength.

6 Brazing and soldering cannot be Brazing and soldering are

done using electric arc. done using gas.

7 Filler metal should be same as or Filler metal need not be same as

an alloy of parent metal. the parent metal.

8 This is a non-pressure fusion This is also a non-pressure

welding method. fusion welding method.

9 The filler rod metal should be The filler rod metal can be
selected as the same metal as different from that of the parts
that of the parts of the joint. of the joint.
University QB

PART A
1. Define arc length and arc crater. (apr 2018)
2. Define SMAW. (nov 2019)
3. Which types of electrodes is used in TIG welding .(nov2017)
4. What is the purpose of using inert gas in TIG welding .(apr 2014)
5. What are the two main differences of consumable electrodes and non-consumables
electrodes.(apr 2021)
6. state any two advantages os TIG welding .
7. How does MIG welding differ from TIG welding.[msu-apr’96]
8. State any two advantages of MIG welding.
9. In MIG welding process,what types of consumables electrodes is used.
10.Distinguish between TIG and MIG.[anna univ.may’6]

PART B
11.Explain the metal are welding process with a neat sketch.[anna univ.nov’12]
12. Explain the gas metal arc processes with neat sketch and its process capabilities.[anna
univ.nov’13]
13. Describe MIG welding with a neat sketch. [anna univ.may’6]
14.Explain TIG and MIG systems of welding. Give the application of each. [anna univ.nov’9]

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) or Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) welding is the arc welding
process in which arc is generated between non consumable tungsten electrode and
work piece. The tungsten electrode and the weld pool are shielded by
an inert gas normally argon and helium. Figures 2.6 show the principle of tungsten inert
gas welding process.

The tungsten arc process is being employed widely for the precision joining of
critical components which require controlled heat input. The small intense heat source
provided by the tungsten arc is ideally suited to the controlled melting of the material.
Since the electrode is not consumed during the process, welding without filler material
can be done without the need for continual compromise between the heat input from
the arc and the melting of the filler metal. As the filler metal, when required, can be
added directly to the weld pool from a separate wire feed system or manually, all
aspects of the process can be precisely and independently controlled
i.e. the degree of melting of the parent metal is determined by the welding current
with respect to the welding speed, whilst the degree of weld bead reinforcement is
determined by the rate at which the filler wire is added to the weld pool.

In TIG torch the electrode is extended beyond the shielding gas nozzle. The

arc is ignited by high voltage, high frequency (HF) pulses, or by touching the electrode
to the work piece and withdrawing to initiate the arc at a preset level of current.

Selection of Electrode

D.C.Welding : 1 or 2 % of thoria
Thoria helps to improve electron emission which facilitates easy
arc ignition

A.C.Welding : Pure tungsten or tungsten-zirconia

 Tungsten electrodes are commonly available from 0.5 mm to 6.4 mm diameter
and 150 - 200 mm length. The current carrying capacity of each size of electrode
depends on whether it is connected to negative or positive terminal of DC power source.
AC is used only in case of welding of aluminum and magnesium and their alloys.

 Argon
 Argon + Hydrogen
 Argon/Helium

Helium is generally added to increase heat input (increase welding speed or weld
penetration). Hydrogen will result in cleaner looking welds and also increase heat
input, however, Hydrogen may promote porosity or hydrogen cracking.

Argon or helium may be used successfully for most applications, with the
possible exception of the welding of extremely thin material for which argon is
essential. Argon generally provides an arc which operates more smoothly and quietly, is
handled more easily and is less penetrating than the arc obtained by the use of helium.
For these reasons argon is usually preferred for most applications, except where the
higher heat and penetration characteristic of helium is required for

The capacity to limit the current to the set value is equally crucial when the
electrode is short circuited to the work piece, otherwise excessively high current shall
flow, damaging the electrode. Open circuit voltage of power source ranges from 60 to
80 V. Shielding Gases welding metals of high heat conductivity in larger thicknesses.
Aluminum and copper are metals of high heat conductivity and are examples of the type
of material for which helium is advantageous in welding relatively thick sections.

Pure argon can be used for welding of structural steels, low alloyed steels,
stainless steels, aluminum, copper, titanium and magnesium. Argon hydrogen mixture is
used for welding of some grades of stainless steels and nickel alloys. Pure helium may
be used for aluminum and copper. Helium argon mixtures may be used for low alloy
steels, aluminum and copper.
Application

TIG welding can be used in all positions. It is normally used for root pass(es)
during welding of thick pipes but is widely being used for welding of thin walled pipes
and tubes. This process can be easily mechanised i.e. movement of torch and feeding of
filler wire, so it can be used for precision welding in nuclear, aircraft, chemical,
petroleum, automobile and space craft industries. Aircraft frames and its skin, rocket
body and engine casing are few examples where TIG welding is very popular.

Benefits

 Superior quality welds

 Welds can be made with or without filler metal
 Precise control of welding variables (heat)
 Free of spatter
 Low distortion

Limitations

 Requires greater welder dexterity than MIG or stick welding

 Lower deposition rates
 More costly for welding thick sections

GAS METAL ARC WELDING (MIG WELDING)

This process also known as Shielded Inert Gas Metal Arc (SIGMA) welding,

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding or Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) uses a shielded arc
struck between a bare metal electrode and the work piece. The metal electrode is
provided in the form of a wire reel.

This process is based on the principle of developing weld by melting faying

surfaces of the base metal using heat produced by a welding arc established between
base metal and a consumable electrode. Welding arc and weld pool are well protected
by a jet of shielding inactive gas coming out of the nozzle and forming a shroud around
the arc and weld. MIG and TIG welding is primarily attributed to the variation in
effectiveness of shielding gas to protect the weld pool in case of above two processes.
Effectiveness of shielding in two processes is mainly determined by
two characteristics of the welding arc namely stability of the welding arc and length of
arc besides other welding related parameters such as type of shielding gas, flow rate of
shielding gas, distance between nozzle and work-price. Consumption of the electrode
during welding slightly decreases the stability of the arc.

Metal inert gas process is similar to TIG welding except that it uses the
automatically fed consumable electrode therefore it offers high deposition rate and so it
suits for good quality weld joints required for industrial fabrication (Fig. 17.1).
Consumable electrode is fed automatically while torch is controlled either manual or
automatically. Therefore, this process is found more suitable for welding of
comparatively thicker plates of reactive metals (Al, Mg, Stainless steel). The quality of
weld joints of these metals otherwise is adversely affected by atmospheric gases at high
temperature.

Characteristics of the MIG welding process

 Uses a consumable wire electrode during the welding process that is fed
from a spool,
 Provides a uniform weld bead,
 Produces a slag-free weld bead,
  Uses a shielding gas, usually – argon, argon - 1 to 5% oxygen, argon - 3 to
25% CO2 and a combination argon/helium gas,
 Is considered a semi-automatic welding process,
 Allows welding in all positions,
 Requires less operator skill than TIG welding,
 Allows long welds to be made without starts or stops,
 Needs little cleanup.

Shielding Gas

The shielding gas, forms the arc plasma, stabilizes the arc on the metal being
welded, shields the arc and molten weld pool, and allows smooth transfer of metal
from the weld wire to the molten weld pool.

The primary shielding gasses used are:

 Argon
 Argon - 1 to 5% Oxygen
 Argon - 3 to 25% CO2
 Argon/Helium

CO2 is also used in its pure form in some MIG welding processes. However,
in some applications the presence of CO 2 in the shielding gas may adversely affect
the mechanical properties of the weld.

Benefits

 All position capability

 Higher deposition rates than SMAW

 Less operator skill required
 Long welds can be made without starts and stops
 Minimal post weld cleaning is required
 MIG weld is not considered as clean as TIG weld
 The MIG arc is relatively longer and less stable than TIG arc

MIG Welding Problems

 Heavily oxidized weld deposit

 Irregular wire feed
  Burn back
 Porosity
 Unstable arc
 Difficult arc starting

Comparison on TIG welding and MIG welding

Sl.No. TIG Welding MIG Welding

1 Suitable to weld any metal. Suitable to weld on Non-ferrous
metal
2 Argon gas is used as primary Argon gas is used as primary
shielding gas, Helium is shielding gas, Argon mixture with
Occasionally use. CO2 is frequently used for
dissimilar metal
3 Due to usage of non-consumable Filler metal is act as electrode
electrode, filler material is
separately added
4 Difficult in operation Simple and easy of operation
5 Suitable to operate on A.C. and It is operate on D.C. supply only
D.C. supply

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an arc welding process that uses a continuous,
consumable bare wire electrode. The arc shielding is provided by a cover of granular
flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride and other compounds.
The flux is fed into the weld zone from a hopper by gravity
flow through a nozzle. The thick layer of flux completely covers the molten metal. The
electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil into the arc. The flux is introduced into
the joint slightly ahead of the weld arc by gravity from a hopper, as shown in the figure.

The blanket of granular flux completely submerges the arc welding operation,
preventing sparks, spatter and radiation that are so hazardous in other arc welding
processes. The portion of the flux closest to the arc is melted, mixing with the molten
weld metal to remove impurities and then solidifying on top of the weld joint to form a
glasslike slag. The slag and infused flux granules on top provide good protection
from the atmosphere and good thermal insulation for the weld area. This result in
relatively slow cooling and a high-quality weld joint. The infused flux remaining after
welding can be recovered and reused. The solid slag covering the weld must be chipped
away usually by manual means. This process is widely used for automated welding of
structural shapes, longitudinal and circumferential seams for large- diameter pipes,
tanks, and pressure vessels. Because of the gravity feed of the granular flux, the parts
must always be in a horizontal orientation.

The consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire 1.5 to 10 mm in diameter,

consumable electrode is fed automatically through a tube. Electric currents typically
range from 300 to 2000A. The power supplies usually are connected to standard single-
phase or three-phase power lines with a primary rating up to 440V.

Characteristics of submerged-arc welding

 The flux is fed into the weld zone from a hopper by gravity through a
nozzle
 Prevents spatter and sparks;
 Suppresses the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes characteristics of
the SMAW.
 It acts as a thermal insulator by promoting deep penetration of heat into
the work piece.
 The unused flux can be recovered, treated and reused.

Applications:
 The weld made by Submerged-arc welding have high strength and ductility with
low Hydrogen and Nitrogen content. It is suitable for welding low alloy steel, high
tensile steel, LC and MC steels, high resisting steel, corrosion resistant steel, high
strength steel and many of non-ferrous alloys.

Advantages:

 Smooth welds of high strength and ductility with low H2 and N2

 Elimination of fumes and spatter.
 Absence of visible arc and ease of penetration.

Limitations:

 During welding process arc is not visible, judging the welding progress is
difficult and so tools like jigs, fixtures and guides are required.
 Pre-placing of flux may not always possible.
 This welding process is limited to flat position.
 Flux is subjected to contamination that may cause weld porosity.
 Chlorine, Aluminium, Magnesium, Lead, Zinc cannot be welded.

ELECTROSLAG WELDING
Electro slag Welding is a welding process, in which the heat is generated by

content. Because of high current, high metal deposition, high welding

speeds and good penetration are achieved.Due to high speeds less distortion
will occur. an electric current passing between the consumable electrode
(filler metal) and the work piece through a molten slag covering the weld
surface. Prior to welding the gap between the two work pieces is filled with a
welding flux. Electroslag Welding is initiated by an arc between the electrode
and the work piece (or starting plate). Heat, generated by the arc, melts the
fluxing powder and forms molten slag. The slag, having low electric
conductivity, is maintained in liquid state due to heat produced by the
electric current. The slag reaches a temperature of about 3500°F (1930°C).
This temperature is sufficient for melting the consumable electrode and
work piece edges. Metal
droplets fall to the weld pool and join the work pieces. The weld pool is contained
within this space and—due to contact with the copper blocks—it cools, solidifies, and is
shaped. Electro-Slag welds are started and finished on run-off plates. This is known as
starting or finishing tabs—they improve the quality of the weld metal.

Circumferential seams can be welded by the electro-slag process, using special

devices to overcome the difficulty of joining the start and finish of a weld. The bead on
the reverse side can be moulded by a water-cooled copper chill-ring, a permanent steel-
ring, or a travelling shoe. Pieces of variable cross-sections can be electro-slag welded
using consumable electrode guides.

An A.C. or D.C.
www.EasyEngineering.net
power source in the
range 300-800 amps is
suitable, as used for
automatic and MMA
processes.

Electroslag
welding is capable of
welding plates
with thicknesses
ranging from
50 mm to more than
900 mm
and welding is done in

required is about 600 A

at 40 to 50 Volts
although higher
currents are used for
thick plates. The travel
speed of the weld is in
the range from 12 to 36 mm/min. Weld quality is high. This process is used for large
structural-steel sections, such as heavy machinery, bridges, ships and nuclear- reactor
vessels.
 dvantages:

 High deposition rate - up to 20 kg/h

 Low slag consumption (about 5% of the deposited metal weight);
 Low distortion;
 Unlimited thickness of work piece.

Disadvantages

 Coarse grain structure of the weld;

 Low toughness of the weld;
 Only vertical position is possible.

University QB
Part A
1. What is the principle of resistance welding.[anna univ.apr’5,may’6and nov’9]
2. write down the heat generated equation in resistance welding process.
3. What is the minimum distance maintained between two successive spot weld made
by resistance welding.[anna univ.apr’13]
4. State the supply power ranges in resistance welding process.
5. Mention the various types of resistance welding.
Part B
1. Sketch the overall set up of submerged welding process explain the working principle.
Mention its applications .[anna univ.may’6,nov’10 and apr’13]
2. What is the principle of thermit welding? Explain with a sea sketch of the welding
arrangement. [anna univ.apr’12]
3. Explain the resistance welding process giving the equipmen parameters controlled
and the application.[anna univ.nov’9]
4. Explain the spot welding process. [anna univ.may’6]
5. Explain the percussion welding process.[anna univ.apr’5]
6. Describe with a neat sketch the principle of percussion welding State its advantages
and limitations. [anna univ.apr’10]
7. What is friction welding? Give their advantages and limitations 24. Describe with neat
sketches various steps in friction welding.[anna univ.apr’10]
8. Explain the three variables involved in continuous drive friction welding. [anna
univ.apr’13]
9. Explain the following welding process with neat sketch (i) Resistance seam welding
(ii) Friction Stir welding. [anna univ.nov’13]
RESISTANCE WELDING

Resistance Welding is a welding process in which work pieces are welded due
to a combination of a pressure applied to them and a localized heat generated
by a high electric current flowing through the contact area of the weld.

Different metals and alloys such as low carbon steels, aluminium alloys, alloy
steels, medium carbon and high carbon steels can be welded by resistance
welding. However, for high carbon contained steels, the weld bed can be
harder (less brittle).

Resistance Welding (RW) is used for joining vehicle body parts, fuel tanks, and
domestic radiators, pipes of gas oil and water pipelines, wire ends, turbine
blades, railway tracks. Required heat is generated at the junction due to
flowing current through it and resistance offered. The amount of heat
generated isPrinciple of resistance welding can be explained with the help of
diagram shown in Figure. It consists of work piece to be welded, two opposing
electrodes a mechanism to apply pressure to squeeze the work pieces, AC
power supply to maintain the current, and a circuit breaker with times to stop
the flowing current after a preset time.

Heat produced by the current is sufficient for local melting of the work piece at the
contact point and formation of small weld pool (‖nugget‖). The molten metal is then
solidifies under a pressure and joins the pieces.

Advantage
 High welding rates;
 Low fumes;
 Cost effectiveness;
  Easy automation;
 No filler materials are required;
 Low distortions.

Disadvantages:

 High equipment cost;

 Low strength of discontinuous welds;
 Thickness of welded sheets is limited - up to 6 mm

TYPES OF RESISTANCE WELDING

 Butt welding
 Spot welding
 Seam welding
 Projection welding
 Percussion
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BUTT WELDING

Resistance butt welding is the simplest form of a group of resistance welding processes that
involve the joining of two or more metal parts together in a localised area by the application of heat
and pressure. The heat is generated within the material being joined by resistance to the passage of
a high current through the metal parts, which are held under a pre-set pressure.

The process is used predominantly to make butt joints in wires and rods up to about 16mm
diameter, including small diameter chain. The faces of the pieces to be joined may be flat and
parallel or profiled in the case of larger sections. This reduces the initial contact area and further
concentrates the heating at the interface. The components are clamped in opposing copper dies,
with a small amount of stick-out, and abutted under pressure. Current is passed between the dies
causing resistance heating of the weld area. The heat generated during welding depends on the
current, the duration of the current, and the resistance. As the resistance is highest at the joint
interface, heating is most intense in this area. When the material softens, it deforms under the
applied load, giving a solid phase forge weld. No melting occurs. The current is terminated once a
pre-set upset length has occurred, or the duration of the current is pre-set. The joint is then allowed
to cool slightly under pressure, before the clamps are opened to release the welded component. The
weld upset may be left in place or removed, by shearing while still hot or by grinding, depending on
the requirements.
Benefits

 Resistance butt welding is a high speed,

 It is clean process
 It is preferred to flash welding for many small components.

Drawbacks

There are some limitations on component size and geometry:

 Very thin or large sections are unsuitable.

 The risk of crushing fingers or hands
 Burns or eye damage from splash metal.

SPOT WELDING

Spot welding is one of the oldest welding processes. It can be used on very thin
foils or thick sections but is rarely used above about 6mm thickness. It is used in a wide
range of industries but notably for the assembly of sheet steel vehicle bodies. High
quality welds can also be made in stainless steels, nickel alloys, aluminium alloys and
titanium for aerospace application.
 Spot welding is one of a group of resistance welding processes that involve
the joining of two or more metal parts together in a localised area by the application of
heat and pressure. The heat is generated within the material being joined by the
resistance to the passage of a high current through the metal parts, which are held under a
pre-set pressure.

The process is used for joining sheet materials and uses shaped copper alloy
electrodes to apply pressure and convey the electrical current through the work pieces.
Heat is developed mainly at the interface between two sheets, eventually causing the
material being welded to melt, forming a molten pool, the weld nugget. The molten pool
is contained by the pressure applied by the electrode tip and the surrounding solid
metal.

Benefits

Spot welding offers a number of advantages over other techniques, including

high speed, ease of automation and energy efficiency.

Drawbacks:

There are some limitations on material weldability but attention to correct

setting up and good process control can solve most production problems. The main
hazards are (i) the risk of crushing fingers or hands and (ii) burns or eye damage from
splash metal. Little fume is produced but may need attention when welding coated
steels or when oils or organic materials are present.

SEAM WELDING
 In Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW), the electrodes are two rotating wheels
as shown in the figure:

In the process of welding, a series of overlapping spot welds is made along

the lap joint. The process is capable of producing airtight joints, and its industrial
applications include the production of gasoline tanks, automobile mufflers, and various
others fabricated sheet-metal containers.

The spacing between the weld nuggets in resistance seam welding depends on
the motion of the electrode wheels relative to the application of the weld current. In the
usual method of operation, called continuous motion welding, the wheel is rotated
continuously at a constant velocity, and current is turned on at timing intervals
consistent with the desired spacing between spot welds along the seam so that
overlapping weld spots are produced. But if the frequency of current switching is
reduced sufficiently, there will be spacing between the weld spots, and this method is

termed roll spot welding. In another variation, the welding current remains on at a
constant level so that a truly continuous welding seam is produced. These variations are
depicted in the figure: Since the operation is usually carried out continuously, rather
than discretely, the seams should be along a straight or uniformly curved line. Sharp
comers and similar discontinuities should be avoided.

Advantages

 Gas tight as well as liquid tight joints can be made.

 The Overlap is less than spot or projection welding.
 The production of single seam weld and parallel seams can be got
simultaneously. www.EasyEngineering.net
Disadvantages

 The welding process is restricted to a straight line or uniformly curved line.

 The metals sheets having thickness more than 3mm can cause problems
while welding.
 The design of the electrodes may be needed to change to weld metal
sheets having obstructions. shapes.
 Most of the metals can be welded (Except copper and some high
percentage copper alloys)
 Butt welding can be done.

PROJECTION WELDING

In resistance projection welding (RPW), small projections are formed on one or

both pieces of the base metal to obtain contact at a point which localize the
current flow and concentrate the heat. Under pressure, the heated and softened
projections collapse and a weld is formed. Projection on the upper component is
pressed against the lower component by electrode force. The projection collapses and a
fused weld nugget are formed with the application of current. This technique is of
special value in mounting attachments to surfaces of which the back side is inaccessible
to a welding operator.
 projection welding:

1) Embossed Projections
2) Stud-to-Plate Projections
3) Annular Projections

Advantages

 Simultaneous operation can be done i.e. more than one welds can be
made.

Types of Projection Designs

 There are typically three types of projection designs which are used for
 Projection welding has this advantage that it can weld metals of
thickness which is not suitable for spot welding.
 Projection welding electrodes have a longer life when compared to spot
welding electrodes.
 Resistance projection welding is not limited to sheet to sheet joints.
 Projection welding can be done in specific points which are desired to be
welded.
 In difficult welding work projection welding gives a better heat balance.
 Projection welding saves electricity because it needs less current to
produce heat. So it reduces the shrinkage and distortion defects.

Disadvantages
 All types of metals cannot be welded using projection method. Metal thickness and
composition is a big question.
 All the metals are not strong enough to support the projections. Some brasses and
coppers cannot be welded satisfactorily using projection welding.
 There is an extra operation which is called forming of projection.
 Projections need to have same heights for a appropriate welding.
Applications

 Resistance Projection welding is used in Automobile sector.

 Projection welding is used in refrigeration works ( mass production of
condensers, gratings, racks etc.)
 PERCUSSION WELDING

Percussion welding is a variation or version of resistance welding, which is

characterized by extremely short welding times and high welding currents. During this
procedure, a joint is produced by a rapidly ignited arc and by the force which is
generated by an electromagnet. Since only one 50 Hz half wave is used for the actual
welding process, the welding time is always in the range of about 10 milliseconds. The
weld current can reach values of about 100 kA.

The short welding time and the high welding current allow the combination of
materials with high electrical and thermal conductivity. Also, large cross-section and
thickness differences in the work pieces to be welded are no problem.

Process steps in Percussion Welding

1) The two materials to be welded are positioned with a preset air gap
between them
2) A burst of RF energy ionizes the air gap.
3) Capacitor banks discharge, creating an arc that heats the two materials to
a weldable temperature.
 4) When the materials reach the proper welding state, electromagnetic
actuators accelerate them together. The molten masses combine, metal to
metal, and are forged together. As the weld cools, a complete alloy bond is
formed.

In addition to the materials that can be processed on conventional resistance

welding machines, the method is particularly suitable for the following combinations of
materials and applications:

 Copper, tungsten, silver, molybdenum, nickel and their alloys

 Work pieces produced by powder metallurgy
 High-melting materials for high-voltage switchgear and control gear as
well as power and heavy-duty switching devices

The components frequently used in power and high power switching devices in
the field of electrical engineering can be made without the use of solder, flux or other
welding and soldering consumables.

The main features of the method are

 The short welding time results in a very narrow heat affected zone
 A joint is created which is free from weld upset and nearly free fromspatter
 Since the parts do not distort during the welding process and since there is
nearly no material loss, minimum post weld machining or dressing is
required, only.
STUD WELDING

Stud welding is an economical, rapid fixing method of metals used both in engineering and
construction work in heavy sections. Stud means a protecting know- pin or a large-headed nails
which can apply the fixing or fastening method of a variety of shapes and diameters to the parent
plate.

 The studs may be of circular or rectangular cross-section, plain or

threaded
(internally or externally) and vary from heavy support pins to clips or
attachments used in component assembly.
Types of Stud welding:

(1) Drawn arc; and

(2) Capacitor discharge.

The Drawn arc method is generally used for heavier studs and plates. The
Capacitor discharge method is for light gauge sheets. The operation depends upon the
size, shape, and material of the stud and the composition and thickness of the metal
parts.

Drawn arc process is used in both engineering and heavy construction work. The
equipment consists of a D.C. power source controller and a hand-operated gun or
holder. The hand-operated gun has an operating solenoid and return-spring within the
gun-body which carries the operating adjustment switch. Studs are fluxed on the
contact end, which is slightly pointed, and are supplied with ferrules. To operate the
equipment, the welding current and time for the diameter of the stud are selected,

the stud is loaded into the proper chuck, the legs adjusted for length and the stud
positioned on the plate. When the gun switch is pressed a low current flows between
the pointed stud end and the work-piece and immediately the stud is raised, drawing
an arc and ionizing the gap.

Studs from 3.3-20 mm and above in diameter can be used on the plate thicker
than 1.6 mm and above. The rate of welding varies with the type of work, jigging,
location, etc. In circular and rectangular cross-section for engineering and construction
industries the weld can be made in mild steel, austenitic stainless steel, aluminium, and
its alloys, etc.

In the capacitor process, a small projection on the end of the stud makes contact
with the work-piece and the energy from a bank of charged capacitors is discharged
across the contact. This melts the stud projection and produces a molten end of the
 stud and a shallow molten pool in the base metal. This completes the work-piece
under controlled spring pressure.

Advantages:

 Fast attachment.
 No reverse marking.
 The welded joint is stronger than the parent material or the stud.
 Access is only required from one side.
 No holes hence no leaking or weakening of the sheet.
 Tamper proof.
 Pre-coated or painted material can be welded
Disadvantages

 It lacks the near-instant speed that the CD stud welding process offers. This factor could
serve as a drawback for arc stud welding, resulting in a slight effect on productivity in certain
fast-paced projects.
 Arc stud welds aren‘t ideal for use on thin metals,
 The amount of heat and current could leave behind discoloration on thinner work pieces.
 It is not suitable for smaller length of fasteners

University QB
Part A
1. What is principle of thermit welding.[anna univ.nov’12 and nov’13]
2. What is the composition of thermit weld.
3. Give the reaction of thermit weld.
4. What are the two types of thermit weld.
5. For what commercial applications EBW process can be economical.
6. Which method of resistance welding is used to join dissimilar aerospac metals.
7. How is electron beam focused.
8. What is the maximum temperature that can be produced by tungsten filament.
9. What is the maximum depth of penetration that can be achieved in electron beam
welding.
10. What is the power density in EBW.
11. What is power rating in EBW.
12. What are the basic components of the laser welding.
13. What are the most commonly used lasing materials.
14. What are the two types of lasers.
15. What are the advantages of friction welding.
16. Is it possible to use a center lathe for friction welding.
17. What is the pressure range adopted in friction welding.
18. What is the time required to join the metals in friction welding.
19. What is the rotational speed in friction welding.
20. Mention the application of friction welding. [anna univ.nov’10]

Part B
1. Differentiate electro gas welding and electro slag welding with its principles and applications.
[anna univ.nov’13]
2. Explain the method of laser beam welding and give their applications.
3.Explain the method of electron beam welding and given their applications.
4.Describe plasma Arc welding and give their applications .[anna univ.may’6,nov’11 and 12]

PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW)

It is a fusion welding process wherein the coalescence is produced by heating the work with
a constricted arc established between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and work piece or
between a non-consumable electrode and constricted nozzle. The shielding of the weld pool is
obtained by the hot ionized gas produced by passing inert gas through the arc and constricted
nozzle. Filler material may or may not be applied.

Principles of Operation:

In the PAW process, the work piece is cleaned and edges are prepared. An arc is
established between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and work piece or between a
non-consumable electrode and constricted nozzle. An inert gas is passed through the
inner orifice surrounding the tungsten electrode and subsequently the gas is ionized
and conducts electricity. This state of ionized gas is known as plasma. The plasma arc is
allowed to pass through the constricted nozzle causing high energy and current density.
Subsequently high concentrate heat and very high temperatures are reached. The low
flow rate (0.25 to 5 l/min) of the orifice gas is maintained as excessive flow rate may
cause turbulence in the weld pool. However the orifice gas at this flow rate is
insufficient to shield the weld pool effectively. Therefore inert gas at higher flow rate
(10- 30 l/min) is required to pass through outer gas nozzle surrounding the inner gas
nozzle to protect the weld pool. A typical manual torch used in PAW is as shown in Fig.
4.5.2.

Plasma arc welding is of two types:

1) Non-transferred plasma arc welding process and

2) Transferred arc welding process.

In the former, the arc is established between the electrode and the nozzle and in
the latter process the arc is established between the electrode and the work piece. The
differences between these two processes are presented in the Table 2.1.

Operation:
 In this process, arc cannot be initiated by touching the work piece as electrode is
recessed in the inner constricted nozzle. Therefore, a low current pilot arc established in
the constricted inner nozzle ad electrode. The pilot arc is generally initiated by the use of
high frequency. AC or high voltage DC pulse superimposed on the main welding current.
It cause the ionization of the orifice gas and high temperature which contributes
to easy initiation of the main arc between the electrode and the work piece. After
the initiation of the main arc, the pilot arc may be extinguished. This is followed by adding
the filler material as in TIC welding process. Next, the welding torch is moved manually or
automatically in the direction of welding. There are two techniques

1) Key hole technique

2) Non key hole techniques

In the key hole technique, due to constricted arc, high temperature and high gas
flow, small weld pool with high penetration (up to 100%) width is obtained, resulting in
complete melting of the base material beneath the arc. As the arc move forward, the
material is melted and fills the hole produced due to arc force. The power supply
and gas flow rate are turned off once the key hole is filled appropriately in the end of
welding. The work piece is suitably cleaned after cooling

Table 2.1: Difference between the transferred and non-transferred arc welding
processes

Sl.No. Transferred plasma arc welding Non-transferred plasma arc

welding

1 Arc is established between Arc is established between

electrode and Work piece electrode and nozzle.

2 The work piece is part of the The work piece is not part of the
electrical circuit and heat is electrical circuit and heat is
obtained from the anode spot and obtained from the plasma jet.
the plasma jet. Therefore, higher Therefore, less energy is
amount of energy is transferred to transferred to work. This is useful
work. This is useful for welding. in cutting.

3 Higher penetration is obtained, so Less penetration is obtained, so

thicker sheets can be welded. thin sheets can be welded.

4 Higher process efficiency Less process efficiency.

Equipment and Consumables:

Power source: A conventional DC current power supply with drooping V-I

characteristics is required. Both rectifier or generator type power source may be used;
however, rectifier type power source is preferred. The general range of the open-circuit
voltage and current is 60-80V and 50-300A respectively.

Plasma torch: It consists of non consumable tungsten electrode, inner nozzle

(constricting nozzle) and outer gas nozzle. The torch is water cooled to avoid heating of
the nozzle. It is of two types: transferred arc and non transferred arc welding torch.
 Filler material and shielding gases: Filler material used in this process is the
same as those used in the TIG and MIG welding processes. The selection of the gases
depends upon the martial to be welded. The orifice gas must be an inert gas to avoid
contamination of the electrode material. Active gas can be used for shielding provided it
does not affect the weld quality. In general, the orifice gas is the same as
the shielding gas.

Applications of PAW:

This process is comparatively new and hence the potential of the process is yet
to be understood/ accepted. This process can be used to join all the materials those can
be welded by welding TIG process. Present applications of the process
include:

 Piping and tubing of stainless and titanium,

 Submarine, aeronautical industry and jet engine manufacturing,
 Electronic components.

Advantages of PAW:

 Welding speed is higher.

 Penetration is more.
 Higher arc stability.
 The distance between torch and work piece does not affect heat
concentration on the work up to some extent.
  Addition of filler material is easier than that of TIG welding process.
 Thicker job can be welded.
 Higher depth to width ratio is obtained resulting in less distortion.

Disadvantages of PAW:

 Higher radiations.
 Noise during welding.
 Process is complicated and requires skilled manpower.
 Gas consumption is high.
 Higher equipment and running cost.

ELECTRON-BEAM WELDING

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is a fusion welding in which coalescence is produced by

heating the work piece due to impingement of the concentrated electron beam of high
kinetic energy on the work piece. As the electron beam impinges the work piece,
kinetic energy of the electron beams converts into thermal energy resulting in melting
and even evaporation of the work material.

Principles:

In general, electron beam welding process is carried out in vacuum. In this

process, electrons are emitted from the heated filament called electrode. These
 Higher open circuit voltage requiring higher safety measures to electrons
are accelerated by applying high potential difference (30 kV to 175 kV) between
cathode and anode. The higher the potential difference, the higher would be the
acceleration of the electrons. The electrons get the speed in the range of 50,000
to 200,000 km/s. The electron beam is focused by means of electromagnetic
lenses. When this high kinetic energy electron beam strikes on the work piece,
high heat is generated on the work piece resulting in melting of the work
material. Molten metal fills into the gap between parts to be joined and
subsequently it gets solidified and forms the weld joint.
Equipment:

An Electron Beam Welding set up consists of the following major equipment:

 1) Electron gun,
2) Power supply,
3) Vacuum Chamber, and
4) Work piece handling device

Electron Gun: An electron gun generates, accelerates and aligns the electron beam in
required direction and spots on the work piece. The gun is of two types:

(1) Self-accelerated
(2) Work accelerated.

The work accelerated gun accelerates the electron by providing potential

difference between the work piece and cathode. In the self-accelerate gun, electrons are
accelerated by applying potential difference between the cathode and the anode. The
anode and cathode are enclosed within the gun itself. The control of electron density is
better in this type of electron gun. A schematic diagram of an Electron Beam Welding is
shown in figure. The major parts of a gun are briefly introduced in the following section.
Emitter / Filament:

It generates the electron on direct or indirect heating.

Anode:

It is a positively charged element near cathode, across which the high voltage is
applied to accelerate the electrons. The potential difference for high voltage equipment
ranges from 70-150 kV and for low voltage equipment from 15-30kV.

Grid cup:

Grid cup is a part of triode type electron gun. A negative voltage with respect
to cathode is applied to the grid. The grid controls the beam.

Focusing unit:

It has two parts: Electron focusing lens and deflection coil. Electron focusing lens
focuses the beam into work area. The focusing of the electrons can be carried out by
deflection of beams. The electromagnetic lens contains a coil encased in iron. As the
electrons enter into the magnetic field, the electron beam path is rotated and refracted
into a convergent beam. The extent of spread of the beam can be controlled by
controlling the amount of DC voltage applied across the deflection
plates.

Electron gun power supply:

It consists of mainly the high voltage DC power supply source, emitter power
supply source, electromagnetic lens and deflection coil source. In the high voltage DC
power supply source the required load varies within 3-100 kW. It provides power
supply for acceleration of the electrons. The current level ranges from 50-1000 mA.

In emitter power supply, AC or DC current is required to heat the filament for

emission of electrons. However DC current is preferred as it affects the direction of the
beam. The amount of current depends upon the diameter and type of the filament. The
current and voltage varies from 25-70 A and 5-30 V respectively. The
 power to the electromagnetic lens and deflection coil is supplied through a solid state
device.

Vacuum Chamber:

In the vacuum chamber pressure is reduced by the vacuum pump. It consists of a

roughing mechanical pump and a diffusion pump. The pressure ranges from 100 kPa for
open atmosphere to 0.13-13 Pa for partial vacuum and 0.13-133 mPa for hard vacuum.
As the extent of vacuum increases, the scattering of the electrons in the beam increases.
It causes the increase in penetration.

Advantages of EBW:

 High penetration to width can be obtained, which is difficult with other welding
processes.
 High welding speed is obtained.
 Material of high melting temperature can be welded.

 Superior weld quality due to welding in vacuum.

 High precision of the welding is obtained.
 Distortion is less due to less heat affected zone.
 Dissimilar materials can be welded.
 Low operating cost.
 Cleaning cost is negligible.
 Reactive materials like beryllium, titanium etc. can be welded.
 Materials of high melting point like columbium, tungsten etc. can be
welded.

 Inaccessible joints can be made.

 Very wide range of sheet thickness can be joined (0.025 mm to 100

mm)

Disadvantages of EBW:
  Very high equipment cost.
 High vacuum is required.
 High safety measures are required.
 Large jobs are difficult to weld.
 Skilled man power is required

Applications of EBW:

a. Electron beam welding process is mostly used in joining of refractive

materials like columbium, tungsten, ceramic etc. which are used in
missiles.
b. In space shuttle applications wherein reactive materials like beryllium,
zirconium, titanium etc. are used.
c. In high precession welding for electronic components, nuclear fuel
elements, special alloy jet engine components and pressure vessels for
rocket plants.
d. Dissimilar material can be welded like invar with stainless steel.

THERMIT WELDING

The energy in the form of heat is liberated by a chemical reaction the reaction is
called ―Exothermic‖ — which is the chemical reaction of Thermit welding.

Thermit is a chemical process welding which was previously termed ―Alumino

-Thermit‖ because the chemical mixture was of iron oxide and powdered aluminium.
Aluminium is a strong reducing agent—it combines with the oxygen from the iron
oxide, reducing it to iron.

The Thermit consists of about five parts of aluminium to eight parts of iron oxide.
If this mixture is placed in a fireclay crucible and ignited by means of a special
powder, the action starts and continues throughout the mass of the mixture, giving out
great heat.

The intense heat that results due to the chemical action not only melts the iron
but raises the temperature to about 3,000°C. The high temperature of the iron results in
excellent fusion of the parts to be welded. Good steel scrap, or a small percentage of
manganese or other alloying elements may be added, thereby producing a good quality
Thermit steel.

Fe2O3 + 2 Al 2 Fe + Al2O3

3Cu2O + 2 Al 6 Cu + Al2O3

Preparation of the Weld:

1. The edges of the work piece are cut flat and cleaned to remove dirt, grease and
other impurities to obtain a sound weld. A gap of about 1.5-6mm is left between
the edges of the two work pieces.
 2. A wax heated to its plastic state is poured in the gap between the work pieces to
be joined and allowed to solidify. Excess wax solidified around the joint is
removed.
3. A mould box is placed around the joint and packed with sand providing
necessary gates and risers. A hole or heating gate is made in the mould
connecting to the joint.
4. The wax material is melted out by means of flame directed into the heating gate,
so that it leaves a cavity at the joint which will later be occupied by the molten
metal. The heating gate is then closed with a sand core or iron plug.
5. Exothermic reaction occurs to form molten iron and slag which floats at the top.
The temperature resulting from this reaction is approximately 3000°C.
The plug at the bottom of the crucible is opened and the molten metal is poured
into the cavity. The molten metal acts as a filler metal, melts the edges of the joint
and fuses to form a weld.
6. After the weld joint cools and solidifies, the mould is broken, risers are cut and
the joint is finished by machining and grinding.

Fig. 2.11 illustrates the weld process.

Types of Thermit welding

1. Wabbler Thermit
2. Plain Thermit
3. Cast iron Thermit
4. Forging Thermit

Wabbler Thermit

Wabbler thermit which is particularly alloyed to make a solid, wear resistant,

Machinable Steel use for produce rolls and pinions within rolling mills.

Plain Thermit

Plain Thermit is a combination of Aluminium with Iron Oxide and is the base for
every other Thermits
Cast Iron Thermit:

Beside by Ferro-Silicon, Plain Thermit with Mild Steel are add as a combination
and is use for welding iron works

Forging Thermit

Beside by Nickel, Manganese, Plain Thermit with mild steel are other as a
mixture and is use for welding iron works.

Advantages:

 Intended for finish welding of strengthens bars to be use in concrete

construction.
 For welding new necks to rolling mill rolls with pinions.
 Used for welding large broken crankshafts
 Used for building up damaged wobblers
 For welding busted frames of machines
 For restore broken teeth on big gears

Disadvantages:

 Low deposition rate with operating factor

 Its cannot weld low melting point

 It has slag inclusion

 It is high skill factor
 Extremely high level of fumes

Application:

The process is especially useful in welding together large-sections such as locomotive

frames, stem posts of ship and rudders, railway lines, and tramlines.
 FRICTION WELDING

Friction Welding (FRW) is a solid state welding process which produces welds due to the
compressive force contact of work pieces which are either rotating or moving relative to
one another. Heat is produced due to the friction which displaces material plastically from
the faying surfaces. The basic steps explaining the friction welding process are shown in
Fig.4.4.1. In friction welding the heat required to produce the joint is generated by friction
heating at the interface. The components to be joined are first prepared to have smooth,
square cut surfaces. One piece is held stationary while the other is mounted in a motor
driven chuck or collet and rotatedagainst it at high speed. A low contact pressure may be
applied initially to permit cleaning of the surfaces by a burnishing action. This pressure is
then increased and contacting friction quickly generates enough heat to raise the abutting
surfaces to the welding temperature.

As soon as this temperature is reached, rotation is stopped and the pressure is

maintained or increased to complete the weld. The softened material is squeezed out to
form a flash. A forged structure is formed in the joint. If desired, the flash can be
removed by subsequent machining action. Friction welding has been used to join steel
bars upto 100 mms in diameter and tubes with outer diameter up to 100 mm. Inertia
welding is a modified form of friction welding, where the moving piece is attached to a
rotating flywheel. The flywheel is brought to a specified rotational speed and is then
separated from the driving motor. The rotating assembly is then pressed against the
stationary member and the kinetic energy of the flywheel is
converted in to frictional heat. The weld is formed, when the flywheel stop its motion
and the pieces remain pressed together. Since the conditions of the inertia welding are
easily duplicated, welds of consistent quality can be produce and the process can be
easily automated. The heat affected zones are usually narrow, since the time period is
very short for heating and cooling. The radial and orbital FRW are shown in figure.

Advantages

1. No filler metal, flux or shielded gases are needed

2. It is an environment-friendly process with generation of smoke, fumes or
gases.
3. No material is melted so the process is in solid state with narrow HAZ
4. Oxides can be removed after the welding process.
5. The process is very efficient and comparatively very rapid welds are made.
6. The weld is strength is stronger than the weaker of the two materials being
joined

Disadvantages

1. The process is restricted to joining round bars or tubes of same diameter

2. Dry bearing and non-forgeable materials cannot be welded. (i.e. one of the
material must be ductile)
3. Preparation and alignment of the work piece may be critical for developing
uniform rubbing and heating
4. Equipment and tooling cost are high
5. Free machining alloys are difficult to weld.

Application

 Tongs hold to critical aircraft engine components

 Automotive parts like engine valve and shock absorber
 Hydraulic piston rod and track roller in agricultural equipment.
 Friction welded assemblies are often used to replace expensive casting and
forgings

FRICTION STIR WELDING

Friction-stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process (the metal is not

melted) that uses a third body tool to join two facing surfaces. Heat is generated
between the tool and material which leads to a very soft region near the FSW tool. It
then mechanically intermixes the two pieces of metal at the place of the joint, then the
softened metal (due to the elevated temperature) can be joined using mechanical
pressure (which is applied by the tool), much like joining clay, or dough. It is primarily
used on aluminium, and most often on extruded aluminium (non-heat treatable alloys),
and on structures which need superior weld strength without a post weld heat
treatment.

A constantly rotated non-consumable cylindrical-shouldered tool with a profiled

probe is transversely fed at a constant rate into a butt joint between two clamped pieces
of butted material. The probe is slightly shorter than the weld depth required, with the
tool shoulder riding atop the work surface.

Frictional heat is generated between the wear-resistant welding components and

the work pieces. This heat, along with that generated by the mechanical mixing process
and the adiabatic heat within the material, cause the stirred materials to soften without
melting. As the pin is moved forward, a special profile on its leading face forces
plasticized material to the rear where clamping force assists in a forged consolidation of
the weld.

This process of the tool traversing along the weld line in a plasticized tubular
shaft of metal results in severe solid state deformation involving dynamic
recrystallization of the base material.
Advantages:

 Good mechanical properties in the as-welded condition

 Improved safety due to the absence of toxic fumes or the spatter of molten
material.
 No consumables — no filler or gas shield is required for aluminium.
 Easily automated on simple milling machines — lower setup costs and less
training.
 Can operate in all positions (horizontal, vertical, etc.), as there is no weld pool.
 Generally good weld appearance and minimal thickness under/over-matching,
thus reducing the need for expensive machining after welding.
 Can use thinner materials with same joint strength.
 Low environmental impact.
 General performance and cost benefits from switching from fusion to friction.

Disadvantage

 Exit hole left when tool is withdrawn.

 Large down forces required with heavy-duty clamping necessary to hold the
plates together.
 Less flexible than manual and arc processes (difficulties with thickness
variations and non-linear welds).
 Often slower traverse rate than some fusion welding techniques, although this
may be offset if fewer welding passes are required.

BRAZING

The filler material cools down and solidifies forming a strong metallurgical joint,
which is usually stronger than the parent (work piece) materials. The parent materials
are not fused in the process.

Brazing is similar to Soldering. The difference is in the melting point of the filler
alloy: brazing filler materials melt at temperatures above 840°F (450°C); soldering filler
materials (solders) melt at temperatures below this point.

The difference between brazing and welding processes is more sufficient: in the
welding processes edges of the work pieces are either fused (with or without a filler
metal) or pressed to each other without any filler material; brazing joins two parts
without melting them but through a fused filler metal.
Surface Cleaning and Brazing Fluxes

 Capillary effect is achieved by both: a proper Surface preparation and use of

a flux for wetting and cleaning the surfaces to be bonded.
 Contaminants to be removed from the part surface are: mineral oils,
miscellaneous organic soils, polishing and buffing compounds,
miscellaneous solid particles, oxides, scale, smut, rust.
 The work pieces are cleaned by means of mechanical methods, soaking
cleaning and chemical cleaning (acid etching).
 A brazing flux has a melting point below the melting point of the filler metal, it
melts during the heating stage and spreads over the joint area, wetting it and
protecting the surface from oxidation.
 It also cleans the surface, dissolving the metal oxides.
 It is important that the surface tension of the flux is: 1. Low enough for
wetting the work piece surface; 2. Higher than the surface tension of the
molten filler metal in order to provide displacement of the flux by the
fused brazing filler. The latter eliminates the flux entrapment in the joint.
 The flux is applied onto the metal surface by brushing, dipping or
spraying.
 The more common types of filler metals used are

 Aluminum-silicon
 Copper
 Copper-silver
 Copper-zinc (brass)
 Copper-tin (bronze)
 Gold-silver
 Nickel alloy
 Silver
 Amorphous brazing foil using nickel, iron, copper, silicon, boron,Phospher

University QB
Part A
1.What is 'brazing'.[anna univ.nov’7]
2.What are the functions of flux in welding electrode.[anna univ.apr’11]
3.Define soldering.
4.Give some filler metals used in brazing.
5.Why is flux used in soldering and brazing.[anna univ.apr’10] 107. Give some fluxes
used in Brazing.
6. What are the types of brazing.
7.Give applications of braze welding.

Part B
1. Distinguish between soldering and brazing. [anna univ.may’6]
2. Describe filler and flux materials used in brazing and soldering process.
3. What is meant by welding defect? Explain any five welding defects. [anna
univ.nov’10]
4. Sketch the different types of weld defects and mention how they occur. [anna
univ.nov’10 and nov’12](Apr 2020)
5. What are the non destructive tests used in welding inspection? Explain any one
method.[anna univ.apr’13]

Brazing methods

Torch brazing utilizes a heat of the flame from a torch. The torch mixes a fuel gas with Oxygen or
air in the proper ratio and flow rate, providing combustion process at a required temperature.

The torch flame is directed to the work pieces with a flux applied on their surfaces. When the work
pieces are heated to a required temperature, filler alloy is fed into the flame. The filler material
melts and flows to the gap between the joined parts.
Torch brazing is the most popular brazing method.

Torch brazing equipment:

 Fuel gas cylinder with pressure regulator;

 Oxygen cylinder with pressure regulator;
 Welding torch;
 Blue oxygen hose;
 Red fuel gas hose;
 Trolley for transportation of the gas cylinders.

Furnace brazing
: It uses a furnace for heating the work pieces.

Vacuum brazing :
It is a type of furnace brazing, in which heating
is performed in vacuum.

Induction brazing :
Induction brazing utilizes alternating electro-
magnetic field of high frequency for heating the
work pieces together with the flux and the filler
metal placed in the joint region.

Resistance brazing :
Resistance brazing uses a heat generated by an electric
current flowing through the work pieces
.

Dip brazing :
Dip brazing is a brazing method, in which the
work pieces together with the filler metal are
immersed into a bath with a molten salt. The
filler material melts and flows into the joint.

Infrared brazing :
Infrared brazing utilizes a heat of a high power
infrared lamp.
Advantages of brazing

1. Low thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint parts;

2. Microstructure is not affected by heat;
3. Easily automated process;
4. Dissimilar materials and thin wall parts may be joined;
5. High variety of materials may be joined;
6. Moderate skill of the operator is required.

Disadvantages of brazing

1. Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to prevent

corrosion;
2. No gas shielding may cause porosity of the joint;
3. Large sections cannot be joined;
4. Fluxes and filler materials may contain toxic components;
5. Relatively expensive filler materials.

SOLDERING

Soldering is a method of joining two metal work pieces by means of a third metal
(solder) at a relatively low temperature, which is above the melting point of the solder
but below the melting point of either of the materials being joined. Flow of the
molten solder into the gap between the work pieces is driven by the capillary force. The
solder cools down and solidifies forming a joint. The parent materials are not fused in
the process.

Soldering is similar to Brazing. The difference is in the melting point of the filler
alloy: solders melt at temperatures below 840°F (450°C); brazing filler materials melt at
temperatures above this point.

The difference between soldering and welding processes is more sufficient: in

the welding processes edges of the work pieces are either fused (with or without a filler
metal) or pressed to each other without any filler material; soldering joins two parts
without melting them but through a soft low melting point solder.

Fluxes:

The function of fluxes is to remove the non-metallic oxide film from the metal
surface during the heating and soldering operations, so that clean metals may make
mutual metallic contact.

The flux does not constitute a part of the soldered joint. Commonly used fluxes
in soldering joining process are Zinc chloride (Zncl2), ammonium chloride (NH4cl and
hydrochloric acid (Hcl).

Soldering Methods

Hand soldering

Iron soldering utilizes a heat generated by a soldering iron.

Torch soldering utilizes a heat of the flame from a torch. The torch mixes a fuel
gas with oxygen or air in the proper ratio and flow rate, providing combustion process
at a required temperature.

The torch flame is directed to the work pieces with a flux applied on their
surfaces. When the work pieces are heated to a required temperature, solder is fed into
the joint region. The solder melts and flows to the gap between the joined parts.
Hand soldering is used in repair works and for low volume production.

Wave soldering

The method uses a tank full with a molten solder. The solder is pumped, and its
flow forms a wave of a predetermined height. The printed circuit boards pass over the
wave touching it with their lower sides. The method is used for soldering through- hole
components on printed circuit boards.
 Reflow soldering

In this method a solder paste (a mix of solder and flux particles) is applied onto
the surface of the parts to be joined and then are heated to a temperature above the
melting point of the solder. The process is conducted in a continuous furnace, having
different zones: preheating, soaking, reflow and cooling. The joint forms when the
solder cools down and solidifies in the cooling zone of the furnace.

Advantages of soldering

1. Low power is required;

2. Low process temperature;
3. No thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint parts;
4. Microstructure is not affected by heat;
5. Easily automated process;
6. Dissimilar materials may be joined;
7. High variety of materials may be joined;
8. Thin wall parts may be joined;
9. Moderate skill of the operator is required.

Disadvantages of soldering

1. Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to prevent corrosion;

2. Large sections cannot be joined;
3. Fluxes may contain toxic components;
4. Soldering joints cannot be used in high temperature applications;
5. Low strength of joints.

Sl.No. Welding Soldering Brazing

1 Welding joints are Soldering joints are
Brazing joints are
strongest joints used to weakest joints out of
weaker than welding
bear the load. Strength three. Not meant to
joints but stronger
of the welded portion bear the load. Use to
than soldering joints.
of joint is usually more make electrical
This can be used to
than the contacts generally.
bear the load up to
strength of base metal.
some extent.
2 Temperature
Temperature required Temperature may go
requirement is up to
is 3800°C in welding to 600°C in brazing
450°C in soldering
joints. joints.
joints.
3 To join work pieces Heating of the work Work pieces are
need to be heated till pieces is not heated but below
their melting point. required. their melting point.
 4 Mechanical properties May change in
No change in
of base metal may mechanical
mechanical
change at the joint properties of joint
properties after
due to heating and but
joining.
cooling. it is almost
negligible.
5 Heat cost is involved Cost involved and Cost involved and sill
and high skill level is skill requirements required are in
required. are very low. between other two.
6 Heat treatment is
No heat treatment is
generally required to No heat treatment is
required after
eliminate undesirable required.
brazing.
effects of welding.
7 Preheating is
No preheating of Preheating of
desirable to make
workpiece is required workpieces before
strong joint as
before welding as it is soldering is good for
brazing is carried out
carried out at high making good quality
at relatively low
temperature. joint.
temperature.

Sl.No Defects Causes Remedies

1 Porosity  Porosity is the  Drying consumables

entrapment of small  Cleaning, degreasing
volumes of gas in material being
solidifying weld welded
metal  Electrode or filler
 It may arise from metals with higher
level of deoxidants
damp consumables
 Sealing air leaks,
or metal or, from dirt,
reducing excess
particularly oil or
shielding gas flow
grease, on the metal
3 Lack of Fusion  Lack of fusion is  Procedure for
caused by incorrect complete fusion
welding conditions should be verified by
testing
 Increased energy
input
 Correct electrode
angle and work
position

4 Overlap  Overlap is an  Adjust electrode

imperfection at the manipulation to
weld toe or root ensure fusion of base
caused by metal metal
flowing onto the  Limit size of fillet to
surface of the base 9-mm leg length
metal without fusing
to it

5 Undercut Undercut is an irregular  Weld in flat position

groove at the weld toe  Change shielding gas
in the parent metal or to one which
previous pass caused by produces better
 excessive weaving wetting
 Terminate welds so
 melting of top edge
they don‘t finish at a
of fillet weld with
free edge
high current

 Control of
6 Excessive penetration Excessive penetration is
preparation
caused by
 backing bars
 Incorrect assembly
or preparation Edge
preparation too thin
to support weld
under bead
Excessive root gap
 Energy input too
high
 Lack of operator
skill