Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Topic 6
DC Motors

As seen earlier, emf gets induced on the armature conductors when they are made to cut the magnetic flux
available in the air gap, by way of utilising the mechanical input provided by the prime mover in the case of a
dc generator (Generator action). This causes the armature conductors to supply current and in turn power to
the electrical load connected across the terminals of the generator.

As a result of this, current carrying armature conductors present in the magnetic field experience certain
force and in turn develop a torque which opposes the torque applied by the prime mover (Motor action).
Consequently, the prime mover provides additional mechanical input to overcome this opposition in
proportion to the power drawn by the electrical load and thus the conversion of mechanical energy to
electrical energy takes place in a dc generator as demanded by the electrical load, due to generator action
followed by motor action.

On replacing the electrical load and the prime mover with a specified source of emf and a suitable
mechanical load respectively, a dc machine operating as a generator changes its mode of operation and
runs as a motor. The rated voltage source connected across the terminals of the motor causes the armature
conductors to carry current and the current carrying armature conductors present in the magnetic field
experience certain force and in turn develop a torque (Motor action). This causes the motor to run at its
rated speed and in turn supply power to the mechanical load carried by its shaft.

As a result of this, emf gets induced on the armature conductors which cut the magnetic flux available in the
air gap and in turn develop a voltage known as back emf, Eb = (N ∅ Z/ 60) (P/ A) in the armature circuit,
which opposes the voltage applied across the terminals of the motor (Generator action). Consequently, the
voltage source connected across the terminals of the motor provides additional electrical input to overcome
this opposition in proportion to the power drawn by the mechanical load and thus the conversion of electrical
energy to mechanical energy takes place in a dc motor as demanded by the mechanical load, due to motor
action followed by generator action.

Power flow diagram

Power flow diagram of a dc motor is as shown in Fig.1. As shown therein, the electrical power input to the
machine, Pi = V Il, the electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed, Pd = Eb Ia and the mechanical
power output is Po.

P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut

1
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Fig.1
Considering the general form of the voltage equation of a dc motor as Eb = V - Ia Ra and multiplying both
sides of it with I = (Ia ≈ Il), the electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed (Pd) is obtained as Pd =
Eb Ia = V Il - Ia2 Ra, where Ia2 Ra represents the copper losses. Here also, the copper losses comprise of the
I2 R losses due to the armature winding, series field winding, shunt field winding, interpole winding,
compensating winding and the brushes as the case may be. Here again, the iron and mechanical losses
together are known as rotational loss, where the iron or core losses comprise of hysteresis and eddy current
losses and the mechanical losses comprise of friction and windage losses.

As the speed of the motor (N) is almost constant at all operating points irrespective of loading, the rotational
loss comprising of iron and mechanical losses will also be constant and hence it is known as constant loss
(W c), where the copper loss is known as variable loss. Then the system equation can be written as
Motor output (Po) = Motor input (Pi) - losses = V I - I2 Ra - W c.
Hence, the efficiency, ɳ = Po/ Pi = (V I - I2 Ra - W c)/ V I.
Again, the condition for maximum efficiency is obtained as I2 Ra = W c or I = √(W c/ Ra).

Specifications
The main specifications of a dc motor are the rated power output, rated voltage, rated speed and rated field
current in respective units, along with its method of excitation and the number of poles.

Torque equation
Let Td be the developed torque in Nm. Then,
Electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed, Pd = Eb Ia = 2 π N Td/ 60 Watts
As the back emf, Eb = (N ∅ Z/ 60) (P/ A),
Td = (60/ 2 π N) Eb Ia = (60/ 2 π N) (N ∅ Z/ 60) (P/ A) Ia = (1/ 2 π) (PZ/A) ∅ Ia Nm.
Hence, Td ⍺ ∅ Ia
T2/ T1 = ∅2 Ia2 / ∅1 Ia1 for the operating points 1 and 2.
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
2
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Series motor:
As ∅ ⍺ Ia prior to saturation, Td ⍺ Ia2
T2/ T1 = (Ia2/ Ia1)2 for the operating points 1 and 2.
Shunt motor:
As ∅ is constant, Td ⍺ Ia
T2/ T1 = Ia2/ Ia1 for the operating points 1 and 2.

If Tsh is the shaft torque in Nm,

Power output, Po = 2 π N Tsh/ 60 Watts and
Wc = 2 π N (Td - Tsh)/ 60 Watts, where (Td - Tsh) is known as loss torque.

Speed equation
As Eb = (N ∅ Z/ 60) (P/ A),
N = (Eb/ ∅) (60A/ ZP) rpm.
Hence, N ⍺ Eb/ ∅
N2/ N1 = (Eb2/ Eb1) (∅1/ ∅2) for the operating points 1 and 2.

Series motor:
As ∅ ⍺ Ia prior to saturation, N ⍺ Eb/ Ia
N2/ N1 = (Eb2/ Eb1) (Ia1/ Ia2) for the operating points 1 and 2.
Shunt motor:
As ∅ is constant, N ⍺ Eb
N2/ N1 = Eb2/ Eb1 for the operating points 1 and 2.

With reference to the torque and speed equations of a dc motor, it is to be noted that it is the speed which
depends on torque and not otherwise. A decrease in flux (∅) causes a decrease in back emf (Eb) and in turn
an increase in armature current (Ia), where the rate of increase in Ia is greater than the rate of decrease in ∅.
Hence a decrease in ∅ corresponds to an increase in torque (T) and in turn an increase in motor speed (N).

Characteristics
The important characteristics of a dc motor are
(i) Torque vs Armature current characteristic known as electrical characteristic.
(ii) Speed vs Armature current characteristic.
(iii) Speed vs Torque characteristic known as mechanical characteristic.

P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut

3
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Characteristics of a shunt motor are as shown in Fig.2.

Fig.2

Characteristics of a series motor are as shown in Fig.3.

Fig.3

Characteristics of compound motors are as shown in Fig.4.

Fig.4
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
4
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Starting methods
As the armature current Ia = (V-Eb)/ Ra, Ra is relatively very small and Eb = 0 at standstill, the motor draws
very high current when switched on directly at the rated voltage. Hence it is required to insert a resistance in
the armature circuit of a dc motor at the time of starting to limit this excessive current to a safe value, as
shown in Fig.5 for a shunt motor. This starting resistance known as starter of a dc motor is to be gradually
withdrawn in a few seconds as the motor picks up speed and in turn develops the back emf.

Fig.5
Constructional details of such a dc motor starter are as shown in Fig.6. The graded resistances r1, r2, r3, ... rn
connected across the studs 1, 2, 3, .. n+1 are known as the elements of the starter and they form the
starting resistance as shown therein.

Fig.6
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
5
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

The overload release shown here prevents the overloading of the motor and the function of the no volt
release is to avoid the switching on of the motor without the starting resistance. Further, the no volt release
switches off the motor when the field current gets weakened beyond safe limit and thus prevents its running
at very high speed beyond the rated speed.

Design of starters
Design of a dc motor starter means the determination of the graded values of its starting resistance. The
design procedure is comparatively simple for a shunt motor starter, it being a constant flux motor while it is
slightly complex for a series or compound motor starter. Let r 1, r2, r3, ... rn be the elements of the starter
where they are connected across the studs (1-2), (2-3), (3-4), ... (n-n+1) respectively, as shown in Fig.7.
Then the total armature circuit resistance becomes
R1 = r1 + r2 + r3 + ... + rn + Ra
R2 = r2 + r3 + ... + rn + Ra
R3 = r3 + ... + rn + Ra
…
…
Rn = rn + Ra and
Rn+1 = Ra, when the starter handle, which is fitted with a suitable spring, is moved from the off position to the
positions of the studs 1, 2, 3, … and n+1 respectively, as shown therein.

Fig.7
This starting resistance inserted in the armature circuit is expected to be gradually withdrawn when the
starter handle is moved from stud 1 position to stud n+1 position such that the fluctuation in the armature
current is limited between a maximum value, I1 and a minimum value, I2 as shown in Fig.8, when the
notching up takes place from qth stud to (q+1)th stud.

P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut

6
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Fig.8
Shunt motor starter design
As the motor speed stands unaltered for a brief instant, the back emf Eb also stands unaltered when
notching up takes place from qth stud to (q+1)th stud, in the case of a shunt motor starter. Hence,
I2 = (V-Eb)/ Rq and I1 = (V-Eb)/ Rq+1
I1/ I2 = Rq/ Rq+1
I1/ I2 = R1/ R2 = R2/ R3 = … = Rn-1/ Rn = Rn/ Rn+1
Taking, k = I1/ I2
kn = (R1/ R2) x (R2/ R3) x … x (Rn-1/ Rn) x (Rn/ Rn+1) = R1/ Rn+1 = R1/ Ra
k = (R1/ Ra)1/n, where R1 = V/ I1.
Hence, k stands computed along with R1, for known values of V, I1, Ra and n.
Since R1, R2, R3, … Rn, Rn+1 form a GP with a common ratio, k,
R2 = R1/ k → r1 = R1 - R2
R3 = R2/ k → r2 = R2 - R3
…
Rn = Rn-1/ k → rn-1 = Rn-1 - Rn
Rn+1 = Rn/ k = Ra → rn = Rn - Ra
Graded values of the starting resistance for an n element (n+1 stud) starter get computed.

Now, k = R1/ R2 = R2/ R3

(R1/ R2)-1 = (R2/ R3)-1 → (R1-R2)/ R2 = (R2-R3)/ R3 → r1/ r2 = R2/ R3 = k
Similarly, r1/ r2 = r2/ r3 = … = rn-1/ rn = k. Then,
r1, r2, r3, … rn also form a GP with a common ratio, k.

P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut

7
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Now, r1 = R1 - R2 = R1 - R1/ k = R1(k-1)/k. Then,

r2 = r1/ k
r3 = r2/ k
…
…
rn = rn-1/ k.
Thus the graded values of the starting resistance for an n element (n+1 stud) starter get computed
alternately, where it is not necessary to compute the values of R2, R3, … Rn for the design.

Graphical method for shunt motor starter design

A graphical method as illustrated in Fig.9 can be used for the design of the graded values of the starting
resistance for a shunt motor, if the maximum and minimum currents I1 and I2 are given.

Fig.9
Here, BE represents the total armature circuit resistance (R1) to scale, corresponding to stud 1. BO is then
drawn in quadrature to BE in a suitable scale to represent the maximum current (I 1) and OC is marked to
represent the minimum current (I2) as shown. The rectangle BOAE is completed and its diagonal AB is
drawn to meet CD at H. The line HJ is drawn parallel to BO to meet BE at J. As HD/ BE = I2/ I1 = R2/ R1, HD
= JE represents R2 and hence, r1 = BJ. Similarly, drawing AJ to meet CD at N and drawing NS parallel to
BO to meet BE at S, ND = SE represents R3 and hence, r2 = JS. The construction is performed in the same
manner until all the graded values of the starting resistance are obtained as shown therein.

P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut

8
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Series or compound motor starter design

As the flux varies with armature current in a series or compound motor as shown in Fig 10, the back emf Eb
stands altered when notching up takes place from q th stud to (q+1)th stud, even though the motor speed
stands unaltered here.
Let the flux be ∅1 and ∅2 while the back emf be Eb1 and Eb2 corresponding to I1 and I2 respectively. Hence,
Eb2 = V - I2 Rq
Eb1 = (∅1/ ∅2) Eb2 = a Eb2, where a = ∅1/ ∅2. Then,
Rq+1 = (V - Eb1)/ I1 = (V - a Eb2)/ I1 = [V - a (V - I2 Rq)]/ I1
= R1 (1-a) + (a/ k) Rq
As this relation holds for all values of q,
Rq = R1 (1-a) + (a/ k) Rq-1. Hence,
rq = Rq - Rq+1 = (a/ k) (Rq-1 - Rq) = (a/ k) rq-1
Thus, the graded values of the starting resistance for an n element (n+1 stud) starter,
r1, r2, r3, … rn form a GP here also with a common ratio, b = (a/ k) = (∅1/ ∅2) x (I2/ I1).
Then the total armature circuit resistance at starting becomes
R1 = r1 + r2 + r3 + ... + rn + Ra
= r1 (1+b+b2+…+bn-1) + Ra
= r1 x (1-bn)/ (1-b) + Ra
Now, r1 = R1 - R2 = R1 - [R1 (1-a) + (a/ k) R1] = a R1 (k-1)/k = b (k-1) R1. Then,
R1 = b (k-1) R1 x (1-bn)/ (1-b) + Ra
1- Ra/ R1 = b (k-1) (1-bn)/ (1-b)
Once V, I1 and Ra are known, R1 and hence the LHS = 1- Ra/ R1 stands computed. Then, X = RHS, given by
b (k-1) (1-bn)/ (1-b) is computed for different values of I2 less than I1 and plotted vs I2 as shown in Fig.11.

Fig.10 Fig.11
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
9
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Then, I2 for which X = LHS is obtained from this graph and a, k and b corresponding to that I2 is determined.
Hence,
r1 = b (k-1) R1
r2 = b r 1
r3 = b r 2
…
rn = b rn-1.
Graded values of the starting resistance for an n element (n+1 stud) starter get computed.

Graphical method for series or compound motor starter design

A graphical method as illustrated in Fig.12 can be used for the design of the graded values of the starting
resistance for a series or compound motor, if the maximum and minimum currents I1 and I2 are given.

Fig.12
Here, the relevant magnetisation curve is drawn with O as origin and points D and E are located on it
corresponding to the minimum current (I2) and the maximum current (I1), represented by OC and OB
respectively as seen therein. Then, BE represents the total armature circuit resistance (R1) to scale,
corresponding to stud 1. The lines DE and OB are extended to meet at K as shown. The rectangle BOAE is
completed and its diagonal AB is drawn to meet CD at H. The line KH is drawn to meet BE at J, such that
JE represents R2 and hence, r1 = BJ. Similarly, line AJ is drawn to meet CD at N and line KN is drawn to
meet BE at S, such that SE represents R3 and hence, r2 = JS. The construction is performed in the same
manner until all the graded values of the starting resistance are obtained as shown therein.

P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut

10
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Methods of speed control

As the speed of a dc motor is given as N = (Eb/ ∅) (60A/ ZP) = (60A/ ZP) (V-Ia Ra)/ ∅, speed can be
controlled by varying (i) flux, (ii) armature circuit resistance, and (iii) applied voltage. Hence, the methods of
speed control are known as (i) Flux control, (ii) Armature resistance control and (iii) Voltage control here.

Flux control
In the case of shunt motors, flux control is achieved by way of inserting a variable resistance in the field
circuit as shown in Fig.13. Wide range of speed control above the normal speed is possible here.

Fig.13
In the case of series motors, flux control is achieved by way of (i) field divertor, (ii) armature divertor, (iii)
tapped field, (iv) paralleling field coils and (v) series-parallel operation of similar mechanically coupled
motors as shown in Fig.14 to Fig.18, respectively.

Fig.14 Fig.15
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
11
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Decrease in flux and in turn increase in speed above the normal speed occurs with the field divertor shown
in Fig.14. Armature current decreases and hence increase in flux and in turn decrease in speed below the
normal speed occurs with the armature divertor shown in Fig.15, for a given constant load torque.

Fig.16 Fig.17
Increase in speed above the normal speed occurs in steps by reducing the number of turns of the filed
winding with the tapped field provision as shown in Fig.16. Several speeds can be obtained by regrouping
the field coils and paralleling them as shown in Fig.17.

Fig.18
Then, motors are joined in series for low speeds and parallel for high speeds, in series-parallel operation of
similar mechanically coupled motors for speed control as shown in Fig.18.

Armature resistance control

In the case of shunt motors, armature resistance control is achieved by way of inserting a variable
resistance in the armature circuit as shown in Fig.19. Speed control for a limited range below the normal
speed is possible here.

P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut

12
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Fig.19
In the case of series motors, armature resistance control is achieved by way of inserting a variable
resistance in the armature circuit as shown in Fig.20. Again, speed control for a limited range below the
normal speed is possible here.

Fig.20
Voltage control
In voltage control, armature is supplied with different voltages, keeping the field excited by other means and
speed control becomes possible, as the speed is approximately proportional to the voltage. Now, electronic
speed control using controlled rectifiers, thyristor choppers, thyristor inverters, etc. is popular for the speed
control of dc motors.

Permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor

A DC Motor whose poles are made of permanent magnets is known as Permanent Magnet DC Motor. The
magnets are radially magnetized and are mounted on the inner periphery of the cylindrical steel stator. The
stator of the motor serves as a return path for the magnetic flux. The rotor has a DC armature, with
commutator segments and brushes. The cross-sectional view of a 2 pole PMDC motor is shown in Fig.21.

P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut

13
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Fig.21
The Permanent Magnet DC motor generally operates on 6V, 12V or 24V dc supply obtained from the
battery or rectifiers. The interaction between the axial current carrying rotor conductors and the magnetic
flux produced by the permanent magnets results in the generation of the torque. The circuit diagram of a
PMDC motor is as shown Fig.22.

Fig.22
In conventional DC machine, the generated or back EMF and the electromagnetic torque are given by the
equations (1) and (2) respectively as shown below.

P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut

14
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

In Permanent Magnet DC motor, the value of flux ϕ is constant. Therefore, the above equations (1) and (2)
get modified as

With reference to the circuit diagram shown in Fig.22, its voltage equations is given as

On substitution of E from equation (3), equation (5) becomes

Where k1 (= k ϕ) is known as the speed-voltage constant or torque constant. Its value depends upon the
number of field poles and the armature conductors.

The speed of a PMDC motor cannot be controlled by using flux control method as the flux remains constant
here. Both speed and torque can be controlled by armature voltage control, armature rheostat control and
chopper control methods. These motors can be used only for the speed range below the base speed as
they cannot be operated above the base speed.

Types of Permanent Magnet Materials

There are three types of permanent magnet materials used in PMDC motor as detailed below.
Alnicos: Alnicos has a low coercive magnetizing intensity and high residual flux density. Hence, it is used
where low current and high voltage is required.
Ferrites: They are used in cost sensitive applications such as Air conditioners, compressors, and
refrigerators.
Rare earths: Rare earth magnets are made of samarium cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron. They have a
high residual flux and high coercive magnetizing intensity. The rare earth magnets are exempted from
demagnetizing problems due to armature reaction. The Neodymium iron boron is cheaper as compared to
samarium cobalt. But it can withstand higher temperature. Rare earth magnets are used for size-sensitive
applications. They are used in automobiles, servo industrial drives and in large industrial motors.

P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut

15
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

Advantages
 Smaller in size.
 Higher efficiency due to the absence of field circuit losses.
 Lesser manufacturing cost.
Disadvantages
 Lesser torque due to low flux density compared to a shunt motor of the same rating.
 Risk of demagnetization of the poles due to large armature currents, excessive heating and
overloaded for a long period.

Applications
Shunt motor: Being of approximately constant speed, adjustable speed and medium starting torque, a few
applications of shunt motor are Lathes, Centrifugal pumps, machine tools, blowers, fans and reciprocating
pumps. Series motor: Being of variable speed, adjustable variable speed and high starting torque, a few
applications of series motor are traction, electric locomotives, rapid transit systems, trolley, cars, cranes and
hoists and conveyors. Compound motor: Being of variable speed, adjustable variable speed and high
starting torque, a few applications of compound motor are high torque loads, shears and punches,
elevators, conveyors, rolling mills and air compressors. PMDC motor: The PMDC motors are used in
various applications ranging from fractions to several horsepower. They are developed up to about 200 kW
for use in various industries. A few applications of the PMDC motors are
 Automobiles to operate windshield wipers and washers, to raise the lower windows, to drive blowers
for heaters and air conditioners, etc.
 Computer drives.
 Toy industries.
 Electric toothbrushes, Portable vacuum cleaners; Food mixers, etc.
 Portable drilling machines, hedge trimmers, etc.

Examples
1. A series motor of resistance 0.1 between terminals runs at 1000rpm at 220V with a current of 50A.
Find the speed at which it will run when connected in series with a 2 resistance and taking the same
current at the same supply voltage.
2. A 100hp, 500V, 4-pole, shunt motor has a wave connected armature winding with 492 conductors. The
flux is 50mWb per pole and the full load efficiency is 92%. The armature and commutating pole windings
have a total resistance of 0.1. The shunt field resistance is 250. Calculate the speed and useful
torque at full load.
P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut
16
Course: EE2003E ELECTRICAL MACHINES I Semester: Monsoon/ 2024-’25

3. Find the no-load and full-load speeds and the speed regulation expressed as a percentage of the no-
load speed of a 4-pole, 220V, 24hp, shunt motor having the following data. Field current-5A, armature
resistance-0.04, flux-40mWb, armature conductors-160, 2-circuit wave connection, full-load current-
95A and no-load current-9A. Neglect armature reaction.
4. Find the values of the 6 sections of an automatic starter for a 220V, dc shunt motor having an armature
resistance of 0.4, such that the armature current does not exceed 40A.
5. A 220V dc shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.15 and a field resistance of 240. When
driving a load, the armature takes 48A and the speed is 760rpm. If it be desired to raise the speed to
950rpm at an armature current of 78A, what resistance must be inserted in the shunt field circuit,
assuming the magnetization curve to be a straight line?
6. A 220V, 20hp, dc shunt motor which has armature and field resistances of 0.25 and 100 respectively
draws 72.2A while running at 850rpm. What percentage reduction in the flux will make it run at 1600rpm
while drawing a current of 42.2A?
7. A 220V shunt motor with an armature resistance of 0.5 is excited to give constant main field. At full-
load the motor runs at 500rpm and takes an armature current of 30A. If a resistance of 1 is placed in
the armature circuit, find the speed at full load torque and double the full load torque. Also find the
stalling torque.
8. A 4-pole series wound fan motor runs normally at 600rpm on a 250V supply, taking 20A. All the field
coils are connected in series. Estimate the speed and the current taken by the motor, if the coils are
reconnected in two parallel groups of two coils each in series. The load torque increases as the square
of the speed. Assume that the flux is directly proportional to the current and ignore losses.

P Ananthakrishnan, EED, NIT Calicut

17