Construction Management

CE-4108
Project Scheduling – Critical Path Method
In the name of Allah, the most Gracious, the most merciful

‫ٱلر ِح ِيم‬ ‫ه‬

َّ ِْ ‫ٱلر ْح َم‬
َّ ‫ٱَّلل‬‫ه‬
ِ َّ ‫ِب ْس ِم‬
‫ب ِز ْد ِني ِع ْلما‬
ِ ِّ ‫ر‬
“My Lord, increase me in knowledge.”
‫ع َمال ُمتَقَبَّال‬ َ ‫ َو ِر ْزَا‬, ‫اَللَّ ُُ َّم ِإ ِنِّي أَ ْسأَلُ َك ِع ْلما نَافِعا‬
َ ‫ َو‬, ‫طيَّبا‬
“O Allah! I ask You for knowledge that is of benefit, a good
provision and deeds that will be accepted.”

‫سانِي يَ ْْقَ ُُوا ََ ْو ِلي‬ ْ ‫س ْر ِلي أَ ْم ِري َو‬

ُ ‫احلُ ْل‬
َ ‫ع ْق َدة ِم ْْ ِل‬ َ ‫ب ا ْش َر ْح ِلي‬
ِّ ِ َ‫ص ْد ِري َوي‬ ِ ِّ ‫َر‬
“My Lord, expand for me my breast [with assurance] and ease for
me my task and untie the knot from my tongue that they may
understand my speech.”
 In the name of Allah, the most Gracious, the most
merciful

4. Patience and Self-sufficiency

The Prophet ) ‫ )صلی ہللا عليہ وسلم‬said,
“If I had anything, I would not keep it away from you. (Remember,)
whoever abstains from asking others, Allah will make him contented,
and whoever tries to make himself self-sufficient, Allah will make
him self-sufficient. And whoever remains patient, Allah will make
him patient. Nobody can be given a blessing better and greater than
patience”
[Sahih Al-Bukhari – Book 24 Hadith 548]
Project Characteristics
• A Project…
• Has specific objectives
• Has a start and end date
• Has a budget
• Has an ‘owner’/’sponsor’
• Produces specific deliverables
• Can vary vastly in size, complexity and duration
• May be a phase within a larger project or a phase
within a program
 Project Objectives
Successful Project can be
defined as having achieved the Project
Objectives:

● Within Time

● Within Cost

● At the desired performance/Technology level

● While utilizing the assigned resources effectively

and efficiently

● Accepted by the customer

………. and many more
5
Constraints of a Project

Every Project has to be undertaken under certain

constraints
Objectives
 Triangle of Constraints

➢ Traditionally, these constraints have been listed as "scope,"

"time," and "cost".
➢ These are also referred to as the "project management triangle",
where each side represents a constraint.
➢ A further refinement of the constraints is product "quality" or
"performance“.

Triangle of Constraints
…..Continued
…and PM has to live with them and
manage them all
 Triangle of Constraints …..Continued

• The time constraint refers to the amount of time

available to complete a project.
• The cost constraint refers to the budgeted amount
available for the project.
• The scope constraint refers to what must be done
to produce the project's end result.
• These three constraints are often competing
constraints: increased scope typically means
increased time and increased cost, a tight time
constraint could mean increased costs and reduced
scope, and a tight budget could mean increased
time and reduced scope.

There could be many more constraints…

There can be a no. of such constraints specific
to a particular project

………and still more

What about this Constraint…..
 Planning and Scheduling

Planning and scheduling are two terms that are often

thought of as synonymous

❑ They are not!

❑ Scheduling is just one part of the planning effort.

❑ Project planning serves as a foundation for several related
functions such as cost estimating, scheduling, and project
control.

❑ Project scheduling is the determination of the timing and

sequence of operations in the project and their assembly to
give the overall completion time
Planning is the process of determining how a project will
be undertaken. It answers the questions:

1. “What” is going to be done,

2. “how”,
3. “where”,
4. By “whom”, and
5. “when” (in general terms: start and finish).

Scheduling deals with “when” on a detailed level… See

Figure 1 .
 How
What
much

By
when
whom
The Plan

How where

Why

Figure 1 . Planning and Scheduling

 The Plan
PMI defines project management plan as a ‘‘formal,
approved document that defines how the project is
executed, monitored and controlled”.

The plan can include elements that has to do with scope,

design and alternate designs, cost, time, finance, land,
procurement, operations, etc.
 Why We Need a Plan

➢ To establish time frame and organize construction activities

➢ To provide a communication tool between all parties
involved (contractors, consultants, owner etc)
➢ Used as a document for future projects
➢ Can refer to for modifications
➢ To show the impact of productivity-related problems on
project completion.
 PLANNING RESOURCES
➢Materials
➢Need to determine
➢Quantities takeoff
➢Availability and probable delivery time
➢Type of materials
➢ Equipment
➢Selection of the type of equipment
➢Availability and delivery time
➢Decision for purchase or renting
 PLANNING RESOURCES (cont.)

➢Manpower
➢Crew size and composition
➢Availability
➢Time required to perform each activity
➢Money
➢Account receivable, account payable
➢Time
➢Beginning
➢End date
➢Milestones
 Work Breakdown Structure
The WBS divides the whole
project into work elements that
Project Goal represent singular work units,
assigned either to the
organization or to an outside
agency, such as, a contractor or
Work Element Work Element Work Element Level 1
project partner
The underlying philosophy of
Level 2
the WBS is to divide the project
Work Element Work Element Work Element into assignable “work packages”
for which accountability can be
expected Projects are planned,
Level N
organized and controlled around
Work Element
the lowest level of the WBS, i.e.,
the work packages
Work Packages
 So Far In This Course, We Know
That:
• Planning is about making decisions with the following objectives:
• Statement of Work - Define what will be performed
• Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) - Determine how the work will
be structured and tracked
• Organizational Breakdown Structure (OBS) - Assign Responsibility
for elements of work
• Schedule – Sequence the authorized work with time and task
interdependencies
• Finally we budget it to merge scope, time and cost to form a
Performance Measurement Baseline (PMB).
Project Scheduling
 WHY SCHEDULE PROJECTS ?

1- To calculate the project completion.

2- To calculate the start or end of a specific activity.

3-To expose and adjust conflict between subcontractor.

4- To predict and calculate the cash flow.

5-To evaluate the effect of change orders.

……Continued
 WHY SCHEDULE PROJECTS ?

6- To improve work efficiency.

7- To resolve delay claims , this is important in critical

path method ‘CPM’ discussed later..

8- To serve as an effective project control tool .

Why Schedule Projects
Owner Contractor

• Get an idea on project’s expected • Ensure ability to meet owner’s

finish date requirements
• Ensure contractor’s proper planning • Have an efficient work plan /
for timely finish Coordinate with subcontractors
• Use for cash flow prediction • Use for cash flow prediction
• Use for project control and • Use for preparation of progress
verification of progress payment payment requests / project control
requests • Use to assess change orders’
• Use for change orders’ impact impact
(and what-if scenarios) • Use to prove a delay claim
• Use to verify contractor’s delay • Plan material procurement (order,
claims deliver)
What if…
 The Tripod of Good Scheduling System

1. The Human Factor : A proficient scheduler or scheduling

team.

2. The Technology : A good scheduling computer system

(software and hardware)

3. The Management : A dynamic, responsive, and supportive

management.
➢ If anyone of the above three ‘‘legs’’ is missing, the system most likely
will fail.
Scheduling Techniques
• Bar Charts
• Critical Path Method (CPM)
• Activity on Arrow Networks (AOA)
• Activity on NODE Networks (AON)
• Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM)
• Program Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT)
• Linear Scheduling Method (LSM)
• Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique
(GERT)
 Before We Move To Bar-Charts,
Let us First Discuss “What an Activity is?”
➢ An activity is a single work step that has a recognizable
beginning and end
➢ The elements into which a construction project can be
sub-divided
➢ Activities are time consuming tasks
➢ Activities are resource consuming……
➢ Activities are defined within a hierarchical system which
sub-divides larger elements of the project. This system
is commonly referred as “work breakdown structure”
➢ Activity may be coded
TYPES OF ACTIVITIES
1. Construction Activities
Those that can be taken directly from plans and
specifications

2. Procurement Activities
Procurement of material and equipment

3. Management Decision Activities

Activities that can be created by management to avoid
certain situations
Delay concrete
Hiring of staff

30
Events and Milestones
➢ An event: a point in time that is usually the start
or finish of a certain activity(s)
Duration = 0

➢ Important events are called milestones

milestones such as NTP and
finish milestones such as Substantial Completion

➢ An activity has a start date and a finish date

➢ An event / milestone has a start date or a finish

date
April 5, 2024 31
 Bar (Gantt) Charts

April 5, 2024 32
DEFINITION AND INTRODUCTION
➢ A bar chart is ‘‘a graphic representation of project activities,
shown in a time-scaled bar line with no links shown between
activities’’
➢ The bar chart was originally developed by Henry L. Gantt in
1917 and is alternatively called a Gantt chart
➢ The bar may not indicate continuous work from the start of the
activity until its end.
or
➢ Non continuous (dashed) bars are sometimes used to
distinguish between real work (solid line) and inactive periods
(gaps between solid lines)

April 5, 2024 33
• Before a bar chart can be constructed for a project, the
project must be broken into smaller, usually
homogeneous components, each of which is called an
activity, or a task.
Item Activity
M 10 Mobilization

Bars ( Month or Year )

April 5, 2024 34
ADVANTAGES OF BAR CHARTS

1- Time-scaled

2- Simple to prepare

3- Can be more effective and efficient if CPM based

- Still the most popular method

4- Bars can be dashed to indicate work stoppage

5- Can be loaded with other information (budget, man

hours, resources, etc.)

April 5, 2024 35
Bar Charts Loaded with More Info.
Such as : budget, man hours and resources .

500$

220$

400$

850$

140$

500$

900$

April 5, 2024 10 12 7 11 10 9 15 39
DISADVANTAGES OF BAR CHARTS

1- Difficult to show logic (detailed…. floats, lags, relations)

2- Not practical for projects with too many activities

- As a remedy, we can use bar charts to show:

1. A small group of the activities (subset)

2. Summary schedules

April 5, 2024 40
 Basic Networks

41
April 5, 2024
 DEFINITION AND INTRODUCTION

• A network is a logical and chronological graphic

representation of the activities (and events)
composing a project.

• Network diagrams are the preferred technique for

showing activity sequencing.

Two main formats are the arrow and precedence

diagramming methods.

Arrow networks and node networks.

April 5, 2024 42
Arrow Diagramming Method (ADM)
1. Also called activity-on-arrow (AOA) network diagram or (I-
J) method (because activities are defined by the form node, I,
and the node, J)

2. Activities are represented by arrows.

3. Nodes or circles are the starting and ending points of

activities.

4. Can only show finish-to-start dependencies.

April 5, 2024 43
Basic Logic Patterns for Arrow Diagrams
an event is a point in time when an activity starts or ends. In computer
software, events with significance can be created as milestones, and they are
either start milestones, such as Notice to Proceed, or finish milestones, such as
Substantial Completion.
Node (Event) i Node (Event) j

Activity Name
i j
j>i
Each activity should have a unique i – j value

(a) Basic Activity

April 5, 2024 44
 A B
2 4 10 12

(b) Independent Activities

A B
3 6 9

(c) Dependent Activities

April 5, 2024
 4 A
C
B 6 8
2
Activity C depends upon the completion of both Activities A & B
(d) A Merge

B 6
A
2 4
C
8
Activities B and C both depend upon the completion of Activity A

April 5, 2024
(e) A Burst 49
 12 A C 18

B 16 D
14 20

Activities C and D both depend upon the completion of Activities A and B

(f) A Cross

April 5, 2024 50
Example
Draw the arrow network for the project given next.

Activity *IPA
A -
B A
C A
D B
E C,D

*immediately preceding activity

April 5, 2024 51
Solution :

B 30 D

10 A E 50
20 40
C

April 5, 2024 52
Dummy activity (fictitious)

* Used to maintain unique numbering of activities.

* Used to complete logic, duration of “0”

* Used to depict correct dependencies.

April 5, 2024 53
 A

Divide node to correct

4 11
B
(a) Incorrect Representation

A
4 11
Dummy B
10
(b) Correct Representation
April 5, 2024 54
Example
Draw the arrow network for the project given next.

Activity IPA
A -
B A
C A
D B,C

April 5, 2024 55
Solution :

A
10 20 30 D 40
C
Improper solution
B 30
Dummy

10 A 20 40 D 50
C
56
April 5, 2024 proper solution
Example
Draw the arrow network for the project given next.

Activity IPA
A -
B A
C A
D B
E B,C
F C

April 5, 2024 57
Solution :

B 30 D
Dummy 1

10 A 20 50 E 60
Dummy 2

C 40 F

April 5, 2024 58
Removal of Redundant Dummies
Original Diagram Diagram after removal of
redundant dummies

(a) A B A B

(b) A B A B

C C

April 5, 2024 59
 Original Diagram Diagram after removal of
redundant dummies

(c) A C A C

B E B E

(d) A C A C

B E B E

April 5, 2024 60
 Activity Depends Upon Immediately Preceding
Activity (IPA)
A ----- -----
B A A
C A, B B

A B C

Redundant

Relationship

April 5, 2024 61
Removing Redundant Relationships:

Activity Description Depends Upon

A Site Clearing -----
B Removal of Trees -----
C Excavation for Foundations A
D Site Grading A, B, C
E Excavation for Utility Trenches A, B, C
F Placing formwork & Reinforcement B, C, J, M
G Installing sewer lines B, C, D, E, K
H Pouring concrete D, E, F, G, L
J Obtain formwork & reinforcing steel -----
K Obtain sewer lines -----
L Obtain concrete -----
M Steelworker availability -----

April 5, 2024 62
 AOA Representation

J
25
F
M H
15 40 45
G
B E
5 20 35
D
A C
10 30
K

April 5, 2024 63
Example

P
r
o
b
l
e
m
NODE NETWORKS METHOD (AON)

Link A B
2 4
Activity name

a) Independent Activities

A Link B
2 4 B depends on A

b) Dependent Activities

April 5, 2024 65
 A
C depends on A & B
C D
D depends on C
B

c) A Merge Relationship

C
B depends on A
A B C depends on B
D depends on B
D

d) A Burst Relationship

April 5, 2024 66
 A D
A D
B Start Finish
Dummy B Dummy

C E C E

e) Start & Finish Dummy Activities

April 5, 2024 67
Example
Draw the node network for the project given next.

Activity IPA
A -
B A
C A
D B
E C,D

April 5, 2024 68
Solution :

B D
A E

April 5, 2024 69
Example
Draw the node network for the project given next.

Activity IPA
A -
B A
C A
D B,C

April 5, 2024 70
Solution :

A D

April 5, 2024 71
Example
Draw the node network for the project given next.

Activity IPA
A -
B A
C A
D B
E B,C
F C

April 5, 2024 72
 Solution :

B D

A PF
E

C F

April 5, 2024 73
 Lags and Leads
In some situations, an activity cannot start until a certain time
after the end of its Predecessor.

Lag is defined as a minimum waiting period between the finish

(or start) of an activity and the start (or finish) of its successor.

Arrow networks cannot accommodate lags. The only solution in

such networks is to treat it as a real activity with a real
duration, no resources, and a $0 budget.

April 5, 2024 74
 Examples

Place Concrete 3 Strips Forms

3 2
A lag in a node network

Place Concrete Cure Concrete Strips Forms

A lag in an arrow network

April 5, 2024 75
The term lead simply means a negative lag. It is seldom used in
construction. In simple language: A positive time gap (lag)
means ‘‘after’’ and a negative time gap (lead) means ‘‘before.’’

April 5, 2024 76
Recommendations for Proper Node Diagram Drawing

Incorrect Correct
April 5, 2024 77
 B A B

A
A

B
Improper proper
April 5, 2024 78
 Improper Proper
April 5, 2024 79
 Improper Proper

April 5, 2024 80
 A A

B PS B

C C

Improper Proper

(a) Do not start a network with more than one node 81

April 5, 2024
 A A

B B PF

C C

Improper Proper

(a) Do not end a network with more than one node 82

April 5, 2024
The Critical Path Method (CPM)
with Calculations

April 5, 2024 83
Introduction
Suppose you decide with your friend to go on a hunting trip.

You must do specific activity so that the trip will be in the right
way. The following activities must be done.

April 5, 2024 84
From chart you can see that the 3rd activity (preparing the jeep) have
the longest period of time any delay with this activity leads to delay in
the trip; so this activity is a “critical activity”
Critical activity : An activity on the critical path, any delay on the start
or finish of a critical activity will result in a delay in the entire project

Critical path : The longest path in a network from start to finish

April 5, 2024 85
Steps Required To Schedule a Project with CPM
The preparation of CPM includes the following Major steps:
1- Determine the work activities:
The project must be divided into smaller activities or
tasks .
The activity shouldn’t be more than 14-20 days
(long durations should be avoided)
Use WBS in scheduling by using an order of letters
and numbers

April 5, 2024 86
2- Determine activity duration:

Duration = Total Quantity / Crew Productivity

The productivity has many sources :

1. The company
2. The market
3. Special books

Note:
The scheduler must be aware about
….the Time driven and Resource driven activities
….the non-working days , such as holydays or rain days, etc……
April 5, 2024 87
 Determine Activity Duration – Few Points

Time Interval
▪ Time Interval is selected according to the nature of the
activity (hours- seconds - minutes)

▪ It is common practice in construction industry to use

calendar day.

▪ Use one and only one time unit for any schedule.

Sources
1. From company’s record

2. From standard estimating guide

3. Interviewing field personnel.

April 5, 2024 88
Determine Activity Duration – Few Points
Weather and Contingency Allowance

➢ Few approaches for assignment of weather allowance:

1. Add the Weather Allowance at the end of the project as a separate activity.

2. Add Weather Allowance to those affected by the weather.

3. Add weather allowance at the end of each construction segment (site

preparation, foundation, etc.)

Contingency items
Other activities can be added to allow for contingency such as strikes,
material non-availability, etc.
Time Zero
The close of the work period immediately preceding the start of the project.

April 5, 2024 89
3- Determine the logical relationships :
This step is a technical matter and obtained from
the project manager and technical team

4- Draw the logic network and perform the CPM

calculations

April 5, 2024 90
5-Reiew and analyze the schedule:

1. Review the logic - logic loops, dangling activities etc.

2. Make sure the activity has the correct predecessor

3. Make sure there is no redundant activity

6-Resourse Allocation and Leveling - detailed adjustment

April 5, 2024 91
7- Implement the schedule:

Definition: Take the schedule from paper to the execution.

8-Monitor and control the schedule:

Definition: Comparing what we planed with what is actually

done.

9-Revise the database and record feedback.

April 5, 2024 92
 The WBS
(Work Breakdown Structure)
➢ It is used to break down the project from one main and
relatively big entity into smaller, defined, manageable and
controllable units, usually called work groups or tasks, or, at
the finest level of detail (which is undesirable) activities

April 5, 2024 93
Take care!!!

➢ The deeper you go into the lower levels of the WBS,

the more detailed knowledge you’ll need to know.

➢ A good rule of thumb is the rule of 1-5-5-5, which

entails that each level be broken down into a
maximum of five lower levels.

April 5, 2024 94
 House
Level 1 1.0

Level 2 Structural fine Electrical

Work works Works
1.1 1.2 1.3

Sub- Super- Doors & Light

Level 3 Finishing Windows Conduiting
Structure Structure 1.21 frames 1.3.1
Fittings
1.1.1 1.1.2 1.2.2 1.3.2

Earthwork Foundation Columns Roof slabs Plaster Floor tile Level 4

1.1.1.1 1.1.1.2 1.1.2.1 1.1.2.2 1.2.1.1 1.2.1.2

Excavation Backfilling
1.1.1.1.1 1.1.1.1.2 Level 5
April 5, 2024 95
 Let us discuss
CPM Calculations

April 5, 2024 96
Example
Draw the node network for the project given next.

Activity IPA Duration

A - 5
B A 4
C A 3
D B,C 2

April 5, 2024 97
Solution :

Forward Pass

5,9
B
0,5 9,11
4
A D
5 2
5,8
C
3

April 5, 2024 98
Solution :

Backward Pass

5,9
B
0,5 9,11
4
A 5,9 D
5 2
5,8
0,5 9,11
C
3
6,9

April 5, 2024 99
Solution :

Critical Path

5,9
B
0,5 9,1
4
A 5,9 1D
5 2
5,8
0,5 9,11
C
3
6,9

April 5, 2024 100

Example
Draw the node network for the project given next.

Activity IPA Duration

A - 5
B A 4
C A 10
D B 5
E C,D 2

April 5, 2024 101

Solution :

Forward Pass

5,9 9,14
0,5 B D 15,17
A 4 5 E
5 2
5,15
C
10

April 5, 2024 102

Solution :

Backward Pass

5,9 9,14
0,5 B D 15,17
A 4 5 E
5 6,10 10,15 2
5,15
0,5 15,17
C
10
5,15

April 5, 2024 103

Solution :

Critical Path

5,9 9,14
0,5 B D 15,17
A 4 5 E
5 6,10 10,15 2
5,15
0,5 15,17
C
10
5,15

April 5, 2024 104

Example
Draw the logic network and perform the CPM calculations for the schedule shown
next.

Activity IPA Duration

A - 5
B A 8
C A 6
D B 9
E B,C 6
F C 3
G D,E,F 1

April 5, 2024 105

❑Forward pass calculations

In mathematical terms, the ES for activity j is as follows :

ESj =max( EFi )

where (EFi) represents the EF for all preceding activities.

Likewise, the EF time for activity j is as follows :

EF j= ESj + Dur j

where Dur j is the duration of activity j

Forward pass: The process of navigating through a network from start to

end and calculating the completion date for the project and the early dates
for each activity

April 5, 2024 106

Solution :

5,13 13,22
B D
8 9
0,5
13,19 22,23
A G
E
5 1
6
5,11 11,14
C F
6 3

April 5, 2024 107

❑Backward pass calculations
In mathematical terms, the late finish LF for activity j is as follows :

LFj =min(LSk(

where (LSk) represents the late start date for all succeeding activities.

Likewise, the LS time for activity j (LS j) is as follows :

LS j= LFj - Dur j

where Dur j is the duration of activity

Backward pass: The process of navigating through a network from end to start and
calculating the late dates for each activity. The late dates (along with the early dates)
determine the critical activities, the critical path, and the amount of float each activity
has.
April 5, 2024 108
Solution :

5,13 13,22
B D
8 9
0,5 5,13 13,19 13,22 22,23
A G
E
5 1
6
0,5
16,22 22,23
5,11 11,14
C F
6 3
10,16 19,22

CP ( ES = LS , EF = LF , TF = FF = 0)
April 5, 2024 109
 Some Observations on Critical Path
• In every network, there must exist at least one critical
path.

• More than one critical path may exist. Multiple paths may
share some activities.

• Any critical path must be continuous from the start of the

project till its end.

• When a constraint is imposed (which is discussed later), a

path may become critical—as a result of the constraint

….. Continued
April 5, 2024 110
 Some Observations on Critical Path
• If all paths in a network must go through one
particular activity, this activity must be critical.
• Some people like to define the critical path as the
path with zero float. This definition is correct only if
no imposed finish date is used in the backward-pass
calculations (again, this point is discussed later).
• However, our definition—the longest path in a
network, from start to finish—is more appropriate
because it is always true.
• We can also say that the critical path is the path with
least float.

April 5, 2024 111

Four Types Of Floats
There are several types of float. The simplest and most
important type of float is Total Float (TF)

➢ Total float (TF): The maximum amount of time an activity

can be delayed from its early start without delaying the
entire project.

TF = LS – ES
or
TF = LF - EF
or
TF = LF - Dur - ES

April 5, 2024 112

 Free Float

Activity D has 13 days of total float. If we delay it by 1 or 2 days, this delay does not
affect the early start of activity, G.
When delay of activity D exceeds 6 days, e.g. 7 days, it finishes on day 13.
Activity G, then, cannot start until day 13 and should finish on day 16, which will not
delay activity I and the entire project.
This 7-day delay in activity D delayed the early start of its successor (activity G), yet did
not delay the entire project.
We can increase this delay to 13 days (which is the total float for activity D) without
affecting the completion date of the entire project but affecting the succeeding
activity, G.
April 5, 2024 113
 What is Free
Float then ?

We can divide activity D’s 13-day total float into two portions:
The first 6 days will not delay its successor. This is called free float (FF).
The other 7 days will cause a delay to its successor even though they will not
delay the entire project. This is called interfering float (Int. F).
Activities D and G share the 7-day interfering float. If the first activity in line
uses it, it will be taken away from the next activity. Similarly, we can
determine that activity B has no free float (total float is all interfering float).
The free float of activity G equals its total float (no interfering float).
➢ Free Float: may be defined as the maximum amount of time an
activity can be delayed without delaying the early start of the
succeeding activities
FFi = min(ESi+1) - EFi

where min (ESi+1) means the least (i.e., earliest) of the early start dates of
succeeding activities

April 5, 2024 115

In this example we can find the free float and
total float for each activity as following :

Activity C’s free float, FF = 11 - 11 = 0 days

And
Activity C’s total float, TF =16 - 11= 5 days …… and so on.

Activity Duration ES EF LS LF TF FF
A 5
B 8
C 6
D 9
E 6
F 3
G 1

▪ Critical activity
▪ Note : We must always realize that FF ≤ TF
April 5, 2024 116
In this example we can find the free float
and total float for each activity as following
:

Activity C’s free float, FF = 11 - 11 = 0 days

And
Activity C’s total float, TF =16 - 11= 5 days …… and so on.

Activity Duration ES EF LS LF TF FF
A 5 0 5 0 5 0 0
B 8 5 13 5 13 0 0
C 6 5 11 10 16 5 0
D 9 13 22 13 22 0 0
E 6 13 19 16 22 3 3
F 3 11 14 19 22 8 8
G 1 22 23 22 23 0 0

▪ Critical activity
▪ Note : We must always realize that FF ≤ TF
April 5, 2024 117
➢ Interfering float: may be defined as the maximum amount of
time an activity can be delayed without delaying the entire
project but causing delay to the succeeding activities.
TF = FF + Int. or Int. F = TF - FF

April 5, 2024 118

 Independent Float
➢ Free float is calculated so as to not affect the succeeding activities, but it may
be affected by the preceding activities.
➢ For example, if activity B is delayed (within its total float), this amount will be
taken away from the total float and the free float of activity E.
➢ Let B start on day 8 and finish on day 15 (using its entire total float). Activity E
will then start on day 15 and finish on day 21.
➢ This leaves activity E with only 6 days of total float, one of which is
independent float.

119
 Independent Float
➢ Independent float (Ind. F) of an activity is not shared or affected by any
other activity. Independent float is calculated as follows:

➢ This equation may result in negative numbers, which should be

interpreted as zero independent float.
➢ Independent float is part of free float, so make sure that Ind. F ≤ FF.
➢ Independent float is the only float that can be considered truly an
activity float, that is, not shared with any other activity, predecessor or
successor.
➢ Interfering float and independent float are not used in construction
scheduling or even calculated by commercially available software-
scheduling programs. They are sometimes used, although rarely, in
delay-claims resolution.

120
➢ Independent float (Ind. F): we may define it as the maximum
amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying
the early start of the succeeding activities and without being
affected by the allowable delay of the preceding activities.

Ind. Fi = min(ESi+1) – max(LFi-1) – Duri

April 5, 2024 121
Node Format

ES Activity ID EF

Activity Name

LS Duration LF

TF FF

April 5, 2024 122

Example

Activity Duration IPA

A 5 -
B 8 A
C 6 A
D 9 B
E 6 B,C
F 3 C
G 1 D,E,F

April 5, 2024 123

Graphic Solution

5, 13 13, 22

B D
8 9

0, 5 5, 13 3 13, 19 13, 22 22, 23

A E G
5 6 1

0, 5 16, 22 22, 23

5 5, 11 8 11, 14
C F
6 3

10, 16 19, 22

All dates above represent the end of the day

April 5, 2024 124

Tabular Solution

Activity Duration ES EF LS LF TF

A 5 0 5 0 5 0

B 8 5 13 5 13 0

C 6 5 11 10 16 5

D 9 13 22 13 22 0

E 6 13 19 16 22 3

F 3 11 14 19 22 8

G 1 22 23 22 23 0

April 5, 2024 125

Definitions
Activity, or task: A basic unit of work as part of the total project that is
easily measured and controlled. It is time- and resource consuming.

Backward pass: The process of navigating through a network from end to

start and calculating the late dates for each activity. The late dates (along
with the early dates) determine the critical activities, the critical path, and
the amount of float each activity has.

Critical activity: An activity on the critical path. Any delay in the start or
finish of a critical activity will result in a delay in the entire project.

Critical path: The longest path in a network, from start to finish, including
lags and constraints.
.
April 5, 2024 126
 Early dates: The early start date and early finish date of an activity.

Early finish (EF): The earliest date on which an activity can finish within project constraints.

Early start (ES): The earliest date on which an activity can start within project constraints.

Event: A point in time marking a start or an end of an activity. In contrast to an activity, an

event does not consume time or resources.

Forward pass: The process of navigating through a network from start to end and calculating
the completion date for the project and the early dates for each activity.

Late dates: The late start date and late finish date of an activity.

Late finish (LF): The latest date on which an activity can finish without extending the project
duration.

Late start (LS): The latest date on which an activity can start without extending the project
duration.

April 5, 2024 127

End-of-Day Convention

➢ The dates on the activities represent the “end of day”. That’s

why we always start with day 0: end of day 0 = start of day 1

➢ This concept is not applied in computer programs. In

computer programs start dates (ES, LS) represent the
beginning of the day while finish dates (EF, LF) represent the
end of the day

April 5, 2024 128

Float Discussion
➢ Total float –in general- belongs to a path rather than
the activity itself

▪ If an activity uses “its” float, successors may lose some or

all of “their” float

➢ Total float is broken down into free float, independent

float, and interfering float.

▪ Researchers have come up with even more types

➢ The question is: “who owns the float”?

▪ Review the contract – what if it is not mentioned?

April 5, 2024 129
The Four Types of Relationships

Activities represented by nodes and links that allow the

use of four relationships:

1) Finish to Start – FS

2) Start to Finish – SF

3) Finish to Finish – FF

4) Start to Start – SS

April 5, 2024 130

Finish to Start (FS) Relationship
. The traditional relationship between activities.
. Implies that the preceding activity must finish
before the succeeding activities can start.

Example:
The plaster must be finished before the tile can
Start.
The concrete cannot be placed (poured) until the formwork has been
built.
The doors cannot be hung until door frames have been installed.

Plaster Tile

April 5, 2024 131

 Finish-to-Start Relationship
➢ May have zero lag, positive lag, or negative lag.

A B

132
Start to Finish (SF) Relationship

. Preceding activity must start before succeeding finishes

. Appear illogical or irrational.

. Typically used with delay time OR LAG.

. The following examples prove that its logical.

Erect Steel Pour

reinforcement
formwork concrete

SF 5

Order
concrete

April 5, 2024 133

 Start to Finish (SF) Relationship

• This method is uncommon and non exist in project

construction .
If columns are filled in succession i.e. first column's form work is
removed and placed on second column. So before pouring of first
column is finished, rebar/ formwork of second column should have been
started.
Pour
concrete of first
column

SF 5

Rebar/Form work
of second column
Finish to Finish (FF) Relationship
• Both activities finish at the same time or preceding
activity must finish before succeeding can finish.

• Can be used where activities can overlap to a certain

limit.
Erect Remove
scaffolding Old paint

FF/1

sanding

FF/2

Dismantle
painting inspect scaffolding
April 5, 2024 135
Finish to Finish (FF) Relationship

➢ Landscaping cannot finish until the driveway is finished.

➢ Backfilling a trench cannot finish until the pipe in the trench
has been laid

April 5, 2024 136

Start to Start (SS) Relationship

• This method is common and useful in project construction .

Clean surface Spread grout

SS

Set tile Clean floor area

April 5, 2024 137

Start to Start (SS) Relationship
➢ Excavation for the foundation cannot start until clearing and
grubbing begins (usually with a certain lag; i.e., a certain
percentage is finished).
➢ Laying felt on the roof cannot start until sheathing has started
(also usually with a lag).

April 5, 2024 138

Lags in Node Networks
➢ A lag is a minimum compulsory waiting period
between the start/finish of an activity and the
start/finish of the successor

▪ Actual waiting period may be greater, but never less than

the lag

▪ Lags are very common with SS and FF relationships

▪ A lead is a negative lag

➢ The lag is added in the CPM’s forward pass

calculations and subtracted in the backward pass
April 5, 2024 139
Examples:
▪ Concrete curing (before formwork stripping)

▪ Asphalt curing (before striping)

▪ Waiting for a permit to be issued

▪ Waiting for the delivery of a custom material or

equipment

April 5, 2024 140

Example
Activity Duration IPA Lag

A 5 -

B 3 -

C 6 -

D 7 A

E 7 A

B 4

F 4 A,B,C

G 5 E

F 3

H 6 D

G 2

I 3 D,G
April 5, 2024 141
Graphic Solution

A D H
5 7 6
2

PS B 4 E G I PF
3 7 5 3

C F
6 4

April 5, 2024 142

Graphic Solution

0, 5 5, 12 21, 27
A D H
5 7 6
2, 7 14, 21 2 21, 27
0 0, 3 7, 14 14, 19 19, 22 27

PS B 4 E G I PF
3 7 5 3
0 0, 3 7, 14 14, 19 24, 27 27
3
0, 6 6, 10
C F
6 4
1, 7 7, 11

April 5, 2024 143

Tabular Solution

Activity ES EF LS LF TF FF
A 0 5 2 7 2 0
B 0 3 0 3 0 0
C 0 6 1 7 1 0
D 5 12 14 21 9 7
E 7 14 7 14 0 0
F 6 10 7 11 1 1
G 14 19 14 19 0 0
H 21 27 21 27 0 0
I 19 22 24 27 5 5

April 5, 2024 144

Constraints and the CPM
➢ A Constraint is an externally imposed restriction
affecting when an activity can start and/or finished

April 5, 2024 145

Effect of Imposed Finish Date
➢ Imposed Finish Date is the project’s completion date,
as specified in the contract or stipulated by the owner
➢ When compared to the calculated finish date:

▪ Calculated finish date < imposed finish date

• You are in good shape

• What happens if you enter the imposed date?

▪ Calculated finish date > imposed finish date

• Negative float appears when you enter the imposed date

• You need to accelerate / crash the schedule

April 5, 2024 146
Examples with Imposed Finish Dates
➢ Repeat Fol Example with imposed finish
date of 28 days

➢ Repeat Fol Example with imposed finish

date of 22 days
B E I
6 3 8

L
2
A C F J
5 5 4 2 PF

D G H K
April 5, 2024 3 4 7 3 147
Original Solution

5, 11 1 11, 14 15, 23
B E I
6 3 8
23, 25
5, 11 12, 15 15, 23
L
1 5, 10 5 15, 17 2
0, 5 11, 15 25
23, 25
A C F J
5 5 4 2 PF
0, 5 6, 11 11, 15 20, 22
25

3 5, 8 3 8, 12 3 3
12, 19 19, 22
D G H K
3 4 7 3
8, 11 11, 15 15, 22 22, 25

April 5, 2024 148

Imposed Finish Date > Calculated Finish Date

3 4 3
5, 11 11, 14 15, 23
B E I
6 3 8 3
23, 25
8, 14 15, 18 18, 26
L
3 4 3 8 2
0, 5 5, 10 11, 15 15, 17 25
26, 28
A C F J
5 5 4 2 PF
3, 8 9, 14 14, 18 23, 25
28
6 6 6 6
5, 8 8, 12 12, 19 19, 22
D G H K
3 4 7 3
11, 14 14, 18 18, 25 25, 28

April 5, 2024 149

 Imposed Finish Date < Calculated Finish Date

-3 -2 -3
5, 11 11, 14 15, 23
B E I
6 3 8 -3
23, 25
2, 8 9, 12 12, 20
L
-3
0, 5
-2 5, 10 -3
11, 15
2
15, 17
2 25
20, 22
A C F J
5 5 4 2 PF
-3, 2 3, 8 8, 12 17, 19
22
0 0 0 12, 19 0
5, 8 8, 12 19, 22
D G H K
3 4 7 3
5, 8 8, 12 12, 19 19, 22

April 5, 2024 150

Negative Float

➢ Negative float is a situation that occurs when

performing an activity even on its early dates, fails to
meet the project’s imposed finish date or other
constraint

➢ It may occur in one of two cases:

Before construction starts

During construction (after normal start)

April 5, 2024 151

Calendars

➢ Each activity has to be assigned a calendar

➢ Different crews working for different activities work on

different calendars.

▪ The crew working for the same activity may work 5 days/week at
normal times then switch to 6 or 7 days/week

➢ User has to be aware of the impact of such matter on the

duration of activities and consequently the project

April 5, 2024 152

➢ Computer scheduling programs can handle calendars:
Global, default, and other calendars

▪ Recurring holidays

▪ Work hours per day

▪ Resource calendars

April 5, 2024 153

Non-Work Days
➢ Schedulers must take in account non-work days. This
includes:

▪ Scheduled non-work days such as:.

• Holidays,

• Shut-downs.

▪ Unscheduled non-work days such as:

• Rain days (or severe weather),

• Other unforeseen interruptions

April 5, 2024 154

 Recommended Books

Book : “Construction Project Scheduling and Control” 2/E by Saleh Mubarak,

Publisher: John Wiley & Sons.

Book : “Construction Planning and Scheduling” 4/E by Jimmie W. Hinze.

Publisher: Prentice Hall , Pearson.

Book : “Construction Project Scheduling” by Callahan, T. Michael;

Quackenbush, G. Daniel and Rowings, E. James. (1992).
Publisher: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Book: Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK). 5th Edition.

Publisher: PMI, USA
 For More Information
Read Chapter 1-4 of Book:
 End Note

“Data is like garbage. You’d

better know what you are
going to do with it before
you collect it.” Mark Twain
Thank you