Planck's constant Determination

Using Photo Vacuum Tube

Nvis 6024

Learning Material
Ver 1.1
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Nvis 6024
Table of Contents
1. Introduction 4
2. Features 5
3. Technical Specifications 6
4. Safety Instructions 7
5. Theory 8
6. Experiments 32
Determination of Planck's constant using Photo Vacuum Tube
7. Sample Results 34
8. Glossary 36
9. Frequently Asked Questions 38
10. Warranty 40
11. List of Accessories 40
12. References 40

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Introduction
Nvis 6024 Planck's Constant Determination using Photo vacuum Tube illustrates the
basic concept of the Quantum Mechanics. It helps to understand the phenomena of
photon, its energy, its frequency etc. This trainer is mainly used to determine the
fundamental constant of Quantum Mechanics called “Planck's constant”. It is an
effective and easy way to determine this constant. For the invention of Planck's
constant Max Planck is awarded by Noble Prize in 1918.
The setup consists of Photo vacuum tube, glass filters of different color, Variable DC
supply, digital voltmeter and ammeter. Using this trainer we also calculate the energy
of photon. It is useful to student of graduation level. Planck’s constant relates the
energy of light photons to their frequency. It also shows up in De Broglie’s relation
for the wavelength of matter waves and Schrödinger’s Equation. Thus, the number is
of fundamental importance in 20th century physics.
In 1900, Max Planck was working on the problem of how the radiation an object
emits is related to its temperature. He came up with a formula that agreed very closely
with experimental data, but the formula only made sense if he assumed that the
energy of a vibrating molecule was quantized--that is, it could only take on certain
values. The energy would have to be proportional to the frequency of vibration, and it
seemed to come in little "chunks" of the frequency multiplied by a certain constant.
This constant came to be known as Planck's constant, or h, and it has the value
h = 6.626 X 10-34 J.s

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Features
 Self contained kit
 Photo Electric cell and Light source is provided
 Precise measurement of current and voltage
 Variable Power Supply (0-5Volt)

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Technical Specifications
Mains : 230V ±10%, 50 Hz
Fuse : 0.5A
DC Power Supply : 0-5V
Filters : Blue, Yellow, Green, Red, Orange
Wavelength
Blue : 475nm
Green : 510nm
Yellow : 570nm
Orange : 590 nm
Red : 650nm
DC Voltmeter
Type : DPM
Display : 31/2 digit
Range : 200mV- 200V
DC Ammeter
Type : DPM
Display : 31/2 digit
Range : 2µA- 200mA

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Safety Instructions
Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating the instrument. To
avoid any personal injury or damage to the instrument or any product connected to the
instrument.
Do not operate the instrument if suspect any damage to it.
The instrument should be serviced by qualified personnel only.
For your safety:
Use proper Mains cord : Use only the mains cord designed for this instrument.
Ensure that the mains cord is suitable for your
country.
Ground the Instrument : This instrument is grounded through the protective
earth conductor of the mains cord. To avoid electric
shock, the grounding conductor must be connected to
the earth ground. Before making connections to the
input terminals, ensure that the instrument is properly
grounded.
Use in proper Atmosphere : Please refer to operating conditions given in the
manual.
1. Do not operate in wet / damp conditions.
2. Do not operate in an explosive atmosphere.
3. Keep the product dust free, clean and dry.

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Theory
What is Light?
Light is simply a name for a range of electromagnetic radiation that can be detected
by the human eye. What is electromagnetic radiation, then?

Electromagnetic radiation has a dual nature as both particles and waves. One way to
look at it is as changing electric and magnetic fields which propagate through space,
forming an electromagnetic wave. This wave has amplitude, which is the brightness
of the light, wavelength, which is the color of the light, and an angle at which it is
vibrating, called polarization. This was the classical interpretation, crystallized
in Maxwell's Equations, which held sway until Planck, Einstein and others came
along with quantum theory. In terms of the modern quantum theory, electromagnetic
radiation consists of particles called photons, which are packets ("quanta") of energy
which move at the speed of light.
Wave--Particle Duality
With the development of quantum mechanics in the 20th century came the decision
that it's both! Light can act like a particle and a wave and the same time. We just see
different aspects of its nature at different times.
Light has a dual nature Light has a dual nature
In some cases it behaves as a wave
In other cases it behaves as a particle.
It turns out electromagnetic radiation can have both wave-like and particle-like
properties as demonstrated in experiments such as the dual slit experiment.

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
On to the numbers! Light ranges from wavelengths of 7x10-5 cm (red) to 4x10-5 cm
(violet) and (like all electromagnetic radiation) travels at the speed of light,
299,792,458 meters per second or 186,282 miles per second. (Interesting fact:
the speed of light is actually defined to be 299,792,458 meters per second and
scientists combine this with the definition of a second to create the definition of a
meter!
The frequency (number of wavelengths per second) of a light wave may be calculated
using the equation c= n𝝀 where 𝝀 is the wavelength, n is the frequency and c is the
speed of light. In quantum theory, a photon has energy equal to hv, where h is Plank's
constant and v is the frequency of the light in classical theory.
Light as Electromagnetic Wave
Light is just one portion of the various electromagnetic waves flying through space.
The electromagnetic spectrum covers an extremely broad range, from radio waves
with wavelengths of a meter or more, down to x-rays with wavelengths of less than a
billionth of a meter. Optical radiation lies between radio waves and x-rays on the
spectrum, exhibiting a unique mix of ray, wave, and quantum properties
Since light can be analyzed as a complex mixture of a huge number of individual
electromagnetic waves, the important properties of light and other electromagnetic
waves can therefore be understood in terms of the properties of these simple
elementary waves. At any point on the path of a simple harmonic light wave the
strengths of the electric and
Magnetic fields are continually changing. At each point the two fields always change
in step, so that the maximum value of the electric field occurs at the same time as the
maximum magnetic field.

The electric and magnetic fields point in directions at right angles to each other and
also at right angles to the direction in which the wave travels since a complete
knowledge of the electric field determines the magnetic field, the wave can be
described adequately by specifying the electric field only.

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
In figure below an instantaneous representation of the fields in part of an elementary
electromagnetic wave, Notice that the electric and magnetic fields are in phase, their
maxima occur at the same place at the same time. Since both fields are perpendicular
to the direction of travel of the wave, the wave is said to be transverse. (A wave in
which the direction of the wave property is parallel to the direction of travel is called a
longitudinal wave.)
At x-ray and shorter wavelengths, electromagnetic radiation tends to be quite particle
like in its behavior, whereas toward the long wavelength end of the spectrum the
behavior is mostly wavelike. The visible portion occupies an intermediate position,
exhibiting both wave and particle properties in varying degrees.

Like all electromagnetic waves, light waves can interfere with each other, become
directionally polarized, and bend slightly when passing an edge. These properties
allow light to be filtered by wavelength or amplified coherently as in a laser.
In radiometry, light’s propagating wave front is modeled as a ray traveling in a
straight line. Lenses and mirrors redirect these rays along predictable paths. Wave
effects are insignificant in an incoherent, large scale optical system because the light
waves are randomly distributed and there are plenty of photons.
Quantum Theory
Quantum theory evolved as a new branch of theoretical physics during the first few
decades of the 20th century in an endeavor to understand the fundamental properties
of matter. It began with the study of the interactions of matter and radiation. Certain
radiation effects could neither be explained by classical mechanics, nor by the theory
of electromagnetism. In particular, physicists were puzzled by the nature of light.
Peculiar lines in the spectrum of sunlight had been discovered earlier by Joseph Von
Fraunhofer (1787-1826). These spectral lines were then systematically cataloged for
various substances, yet nobody could explain why the spectral lines are there and why
they would differ for each substance. It took about one hundred years, until a possible
explanation was supplied by quantum theory.

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
In contrast to Einstein's Relativity, which is about the largest things in the universe,
quantum theory deals with the tiniest things we know, the particles that atoms are
made of, which we call "subatomic" particles. In contrast to relativity, quantum theory
was not the work of one individual, but the collaborative effort of some of the most
brilliant physicists of the 20th century, among them Niels Bohr, Erwin Schrödinger,
Wolfgang Pauli, and Max Born. Two names clearly stand out: Max Planck (1858-
1947) and Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976). Planck is recognized as the originator of
the quantum theory, while Heisenberg formulated one of the most eminent laws of
quantum theory, the Uncertainty Principle, which is occasionally also referred to as
the principle of indeterminacy.
Around 1900, Max Planck from the University of Kiel concerned himself with
observations of the radiation of heated materials. He attempted to draw conclusions
from the radiation to the radiating atom. On basis of empirical data, he developed a
new formula which later showed remarkable agreement with accurate measurements
of the spectrum of heat radiation. The result of this formula was so that 'energy is
always emitted or absorbed in discrete units, which he called quanta'. Planck
developed his quantum theory further and derived a universal constant, which came to
be known as Planck's constant. The resulting law states that the energy of each
quantum is equal to the frequency of the radiation multiplied by the universal
constant: E = f x h, where f is frequency of the emitted photons and h is called as
Planck's constant (~6.63 x 10-34 Js). The discovery of quanta revolutionized physics,
because it contradicted conventional ideas about the nature of radiation and energy.

It is a theory in physics based on the principle that matter and energy have the
properties of both particles and waves, created to explain the radiation of energy from
a blackbody, the photoelectric effect, and the Bohr theory, and now used to account
for a wide range of physical phenomena, including the existence of discrete packets of
energy and matter, the uncertainty principle, and the exclusion principle.

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Photon: Quanta of Light
A photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of light and all other forms of
electromagnetic, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force, even
when static via virtual photons. Photons are tiny little particles of light, far too small
to see individually.
Photons behave in some ways like particles, little bits of stuff, and in other ways like
waves. It's not just visible sunlight that is made of photons, but a lot of other kinds of
waves like radio waves, television broadcasts, x-rays, and the ultraviolet (UVA and
UVB) rays that give you sunburns. The difference between light and these other kinds
of waves depends on the size of the wave - the wavelength. Very short waves are x-
rays and ultraviolet rays that cause sunburn. Visible light like sunlight is made of
medium-length waves. Radio and television waves are very long waves. But all of
these rays are made of photons.
The quantized nature of electromagnetic field: the energy and momentum are not
continuous, but are integer values of minimum quanta - the photons. The particle-
properties and wave-properties of light are connected by the following relationship
Photon energy Photon momentum

P=

E=
 is the light frequency and λ is the light wavelength
Black Body
A blackbody is a special type of object characterized by being a perfect absorber of
radiation. From Kirchhoff's law, a blackbody is not only the most efficient radiation
absorber; it is also the most efficient radiation emitter. One characteristic of all
blackbodies is that the spectrum of radiation they emit depends only upon their
temperature. Radiation incident over black bodies will be totally absorbed. Lamp
black is the nearest approach to such a body. Apparently, it neither reflects nor
transmits the light which falls on it, absorbs all, and hence appears black. But the
perfectly black body does not exist in nature, for even the lamp black is found to
transmit light of long wavelength. It absorbs about 96% of visible light; platinum
black absorbs about 98%.

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
A black body is an ideal body which allows the whole of the incident radiation to pass
into it (without reflecting the energy) and absorbs within itself the whole incident
radiation (without passing on the energy). This property is valid for radiation
corresponding to all wavelengths and to all angles of incidence. Therefore the black
body is an ideal absorber of incident radiation. Black body does not depend on the
type of object emitting it. Entire spectrum of black body depends on only one
parameter, the temperature, T.
A black body is a theoretical object that absorbs 100% of the radiation that hits it.
Therefore it reflects no radiation and appears perfectly black.

Courtesy By:
http://www.egglescliffe.org.uk/physics/astronomy/blackbody/bbody.html
In practice no material has been found to absorb all incoming radiation, but carbon in
its graphite form absorbs all but about 3%. It is also a perfect emitter of radiation. At a
particular temperature the black body would emit the maximum amount of energy
possible for that temperature. This value is known as the black body radiation. It
would emit at every wavelength of light as it must be able to absorb every wavelength
to be sure of absorbing all incoming radiation. The maximum wavelength emitted by
a black body radiator is infinite. It also emits a definite amount of energy at each
wavelength for a particular temperature.
Black body radiation
"Blackbody radiation" or "cavity radiation" refers to an object or system which
absorbs all radiation incidents upon it and re-radiates energy which is characteristic of
this radiating system only, not dependent upon the type of radiation which is incident
upon it. The radiated energy can be considered to be produced by standing wave or
resonant modes of the cavity which is radiating.
The concept of blackbody radiation is seen in many different places. The intensity of
the energy coming from the radiator is a function only of temperature. A good
example of this temperature dependence is a flame. The flame starts out with a low
frequency emitting red light in the visible range, as the temperature increases the
flame turns white and then blue as is moves across the visible spectrum with an
increasing temperature.

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube

Also, with each temperature correspond to a new maximum radiance which can be
emitted? As the temperature increases, the total radiation emitted also increases due
to an increase in the area under the curve.
Let’s look at how the color of a filament changes as the temperature changes.
As the resistive wire (filament) heats up it the resistive wire (filament) heats up it goes
from red to white hot. Colour is related to temperature!

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
An odd aspect of Quantum mechanics is contained in the Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle (HUP). The HUP can be stated in different ways; first we talk in terms of
momentum and position. If there is a particle, such as an electron, moving through
space, I can characterize its motion by telling you where it is (its position) and what
its velocity is (more precisely, its momentum).
Classically, that is, in our macroscopic world, I could, in principle, measure the
position and momentum of the object to infinite precision (more or less). There is
really no question about a particle's position and momentum.

In the Quantum mechanical world, the idea that we can locate objects exactly breaks
down. Suppose a particle has momentum p and position x. In a Quantum mechanical
world, I would not be able to measure p and x precisely. There would be an
uncertainty associated with each measurement that I could never get rid of, even in a
perfect experiment. The size of the uncertainties is not independent; they are related
as

h
Where the symbol on the right hand side of the inequality, the h with a slash through,
it is known as "h bar" and represents the Planck constant h divided 2 П. The above is
a statement of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. A consequence of the
Uncertainty Principle is that if an object's position x is defined precisely then the
momentum of the object will be only weakly constrained, and vice versa. One cannot
simultaneously find both the position and momentum of an object to arbitrary
accuracy.

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
This uncertainty leads to some strange effects. For example, in a quantum mechanical
world, we cannot predict where a particle will be with 100 % certainty. We can only
speak in terms of probabilities. For example, we can only say that an atom will be at
some location with a 99 % probability, and that there will be a 1 % probability it will
be somewhere else (in fact, there will be a small but finite probability that it can even
be found across the Universe). This is strange.
We do not know if this indeterminism is actually the way the Universe works,
because the theory of Quantum mechanics is probably incomplete. That is, we do not
know if the Universe actually behaves in a probabilistic manner (there are many
possible paths a particle can follow and the observed path is chosen probabilistically)
or if the Universe is deterministic in the sense that we could predict the path a particle
will follow with 100 % certainty.
A consequence of the quantum mechanical nature of the world is that particles can
appear in places where they have no right to be. This has interesting consequences for
nuclear fusion in stars.
Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect is a quantum electronic phenomenon in which electrons are

emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation
such as X-rays or visible light. The emitted electrons can be referred to as
photoelectrons in this context. The effect is also termed the Hertz Effect, due to its
discovery by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, although the term has generally fallen out of use.
Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum
nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of wave–
particle duality. The term may also refer to the photo conductive effect (also known as
photo conductivity or photo resistivity), the photo voltaic effect, or the photo
electrochemical effect.

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube

The photons of the light beam have a characteristic energy determined by the
frequency of the light. In the photo emission process, if an electron absorbs the energy
of one photon and has more energy than the work function, it is ejected from the
material. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the surface
of the material. Increasing the intensity of the light beam does not change the energy
of the constituent photons, only the number of photons. Thus the energy of the
emitted electrons does not depend on the intensity of the incoming light, but only on
the energy of the individual photons. Electrons can absorb energy from photons when
irradiated, but they follow an "all or nothing" principle. All of the energy from one
photon must be absorbed and used to liberate one electron from atomic binding, or the
energy is re-emitted. If the photon energy is absorbed, some of the energy liberates
the electron from the atom, and the rest contributes to the electron's kinetic energy as
a free particle.
Laws of Photoelectric Emission
For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons
are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
 For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident
radiation below which no photoelectrons can be emitted. This frequency is
called the threshold frequency.
 Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photo electron is independent of the intensity of the incident light but depends
on the frequency of the incident light.
 The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photo
electron is very small, less than 10-9 seconds.

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Black body radiation curves

Theoretical black body curve for 7000K

The black body radiation curve (Figure) shows that the black body does radiate
energy at every wavelength. The curve gets infinitely close to the X-axis but never
touches it. The curve touches at infinite wavelength. It also shows that the black body
emits at a peak wavelength, at which most of the radiant energy is emitted. At 7000K
the peak wavelength is about 7x10-7m (500nm) which is in the visible light region, in
the yellow-green section. At each temperature the black body emits a standard amount
of energy. This is represented by the area under the curve.
This graph shows how the black body radiation curves change at various
temperatures. These all have their peak wavelengths in the infra-red part of the
spectrum as they are at a lower temperature than the previous graph. The graph
shows: As the temperature increases, the peak wavelength emitted by the black body
decreases. It therefore begins to move from the infra-red towards the visible part of
the spectrum. Again, none of the graphs touch the x-axis so they emit at every
wavelength. This means that some visible radiation is emitted even at these lower
temperatures and at any temperature above absolute zero; a black body will emit some
visible light. The graph also shows: As temperature increases, the total energy emitted
increases, because the total area under the curve increases. It also shows that the
relationship is not linear as the area does not increase in even steps. The rate of
increase of area and therefore energy increases as temperature increases.

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Optical Filter
Optical filters are devices that selectively transmit light of different wavelengths,
usually implemented as plane glass or plastic devices in theoptical path which are
either dyed in the bulk or have interference coatings.
Filters mostly belong to one of two categories. The simplest, physically, is
the absorptive filter; interference or dichroic filters can be quite complex.
Optical filters selectively transmit light in a particular range of wavelengths, that
is, colours, while blocking the remainder. They can usually pass long wavelengths
only (longpass), short wavelengths only (shortpass), or a band of wavelengths,
blocking both longer and shorter wavelengths (bandpass). The passband may be
narrower or wider; the transition or cutoff between maximal and minimal
transmission can be sharp or gradual. There are filters with more complex
transmission characteristic, for example with two peaks rather than a single
band;[1] these are more usually older designs traditionally used for photography; filters
with more regular characteristics are used for scientific and technical work.

Monochromatic filters only allow a narrow range of wavelengths (essentially a

single colour) to pass

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Planck's constant
Planck's constant is the fundamental constant in modern physics. It relates the energy
of a photon to its frequency. To determine this constant we can use Light Emitting
Diodes (LED) also. Diodes today come in a variety of colors. Each color is achieved
by having a slightly different semiconductor material. We can choose a number of
LEDs, with different colors including Blue, Green, Red and Orange.
The experiment is based on the fact that the energy of the photon relates to its
frequency as:
E=hxf
Where, E is the energy of photon, h is the Planck’s constant and f is the frequency of
the emitted photons. When the diode first emits light the voltage across the diode, V0,
is just enough to give energy to electrons to jump between two energy levels.
Therefore
V0.e = h x f
Where e is the electron charge and V0 is the threshold voltage. Therefore by
measuring the voltage across the diode when the first light is observed for a number
of diodes, the relation between the maximum wavelength, λ, and the turn on voltage,
V0, is
E = hf = hc/λ (1)
E = eV0. (2)
From (1) and (2) we get,
hc/λ = eV0
or
h = eV0λ/c (3)
Where,
h is Planck’s constant,
e is the electronic charge,
V0 is Threshold voltage,
λ is wavelength of LED and
c is the velocity of light

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Usages of Planck's constant
The Planck constant is used to describe quantization. For instance, the energy (E)
carried by a beam of light with constant frequency (v) can only take on the values
E= nhv, n N
It is sometimes more convenient to use the angular frequency ω = 2πv, which gives
E= nhw, n N
Many such "quantization conditions" exist. A particularly interesting condition
governs the quantization of angular momentum. Let J be the total angular momentum
of a system with rotational invariance, and Jz the angular momentum measured along
any given direction. These quantities can only take on the values

= m ћ, m= -j,-j+1,…………,j
Thus, ћ may be said to be the "quantum of angular momentum".
The Planck constant also occurs in statements of Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.
Given a large number of particles prepared in the same state, the uncertainty in their
position, Δx, and the uncertainty in their momentum (in the same direction), Δp obey

xp
Where the uncertainty is given as the standard deviation of the measured value from
its expected value, There are a number of other such pairs of physically measurable
values which obey a similar rule.
Dirac constant
The Dirac constant or the "reduced Planck constant", h = h/2π, differs only from the
Planck constant by a factor of 2π. The Planck constant is stated in SI units of
measurement, joules per hertz, or joules per (cycle per second), while the Dirac
constant is the same value stated in joules per (radian per second).
In essence, the Dirac constant is a conversion factor between phase (in radians) and
action (in joule-seconds) as seen in the Schrödinger equation. The Planck constant is
similarly a conversion factor between phase (in cycles) and action. All other uses of
Planck's constant and Dirac's constant follow from that relationship

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Significance of the size of Planck's constant
Expressed in the SI units of joule seconds (J·s), the Planck constant is one of the
smallest constants used in physics. The significance of this is that it reflects the
extremely small scales at which quantum mechanical effects are observed, and hence
why we are not familiar with quantum physics in our everyday lives in the way that
we are with classical physics. Indeed, classical physics can essentially be defined as
the limit of quantum mechanics as the Planck constant tends to zero.
In natural units, the Dirac constant is taken as 1 (i.e., the Planck constant is 2π), as is
convenient for describing physics at the atomic scale dominated by quantum effects.
Kinds of photoelectric effects
 The photoionisation (the photoelectric effect on isolated atoms) – which consists
of the extraction of electrons from the atoms of a gas at their interaction with
visible or ultraviolet radiation.
 The photoelectric effect of X-rays – which is given by the extraction of the
interior electrons of atoms by the X-rays (that have energies of the order of
thousands electron volts).
 The internal photoelectric effect – which represents the increase of the number
of “free” electrons of a metal or a semiconductor without leaving the solid,
because of the interaction between the atoms and the light waves. One will
obtain a decrease of the irradiated material electrical resistance.
 The external photoelectric effect – which represents the emission of electrons by
a condensed substance under the action of radiation from the visible and
ultraviolet spectrum.
 The photovoltaic effect – which consists of the appearance of an electromotor
bias at the contacts between a semiconductor and a metal or between two
semiconductors, if the contact region is irradiated with a light beam.
This work studies the external photoelectric effect for a metal (the cathode of a
photoelectric cell). Voltage V (positive or negative with respect to the cathode), a
voltmeter to measure this voltage; a micrometer to measure the photoelectric current I
The current – voltage characteristics for constant frequency and variable flow The
laws of the external photoelectric effect were experimentally obtained by Lenard in
1905 and the experimental method was described by Millikan in 1916.

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
A simple circuit is used (see Figure). It is formed by: a photoelectric cell, whose
cathode C is irradiated with a light beam characterized by the frequency ν and the
flow φ; a potentiometer allow applying on the cell anode A. From these
characteristics one can determine the saturation current Is and the braking voltage V0.
The last one stands for canceling the photoelectric current intensity and it is a measure
of the maximum photoelectron energy.

Maintaining constant the flow Φ and changing the frequency ν of the incident light,
one can observe the following:
 The photoelectric effect is not produced for a frequency lower than a threshold
frequency νt , depending on the cathode material.
 The modulus of the braking voltage increases linearly with the frequency (Fig. 3).
On this basis, we can infer the following laws for the external photoelectric effect:
1. The saturation intensity of the photoelectric current is directly proportional with
the flow of the incident radiation at a constant frequency Is ~ φ .
2. The maximum photoelectron kinetic energy increases linearly with the radiation
frequency and does not depend on their flow (Ek max = aν + b)
The slope of this line does not depend on the experimental conditions (.a is universal
constant).
3. The external photoelectric effect is produced only if the incident radiation
frequency is greater than or equal with a minimum value, called threshold
frequency νt, specific for each material.
4. The external photoelectric effect is practically instantaneous.

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Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
These laws appear to be in total contradiction with the electromagnetic wave theory of
the light, but they become obvious in the frame of the corpuscular theory of light.
Their theoretical explanation was given by Einstein in 1905.
This theory considers the light as a flow of photons having the energy hν and effect
corresponds to the energy transfer from a photon to an electron, in other words
represents a plastic collision between the photon and the electron, with photon
annihilation. If the energy of the photon hν is greater than the extraction work, the
emitted electron leaves the substance with a kinetic energy Ek .
The momentum h /λ (h is Planck’s constant, ν represents the frequency and λ is the
light wavelength.). Using this fact, Einstein showed that the photoelectric The energy
conservation theorem applied to this effect leads to the following formula:
hν =We + Ek , (1)
Where we are the extraction work (the energy needed for the electron to leave the
substance). The equation (1) is called Einstein’s equation. In the 81 case of the
threshold frequency, the electron kinetic energy is zero and we have:
hνt =We . (2)
The determination of the kinetic energy Ek for the emitted electrons is made by using
the braking electric field method: on the photoelectric cell anode is applied a negative
bias with respect to the cathode. This leads to the braking of the electrons and the
decrease of the photoelectric current braking voltage V0 is experimentally determined
for different frequencies intensity I. The maximum value of the modulus of this bias is
called braking voltage and is quoted V0. It corresponds to the case when no electron
reaches the anode and I become zero. Then

Where e is the elementary charge

From the equations (1 – 3) we obtain:

And therefore

The last formula explains the second and the third laws of the external photoelectric
effect and the experimental results shown in Figure. The, straight line corresponding
to the equation |V0| = f (ν) is drawn and from its slope the Planck’s constant is
computed.

24
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Glass Blowing for Vacuum Devices
Magnesium Photoelectric Cell
When electromagnetic radiation falls on a metal surface, electrons can be released.
Electron emission only occurs if the frequency of the radiation is above a value called
the threshold frequency. The threshold frequency is dependent upon the type of
material.
Wave theory does not explain the photoelectric effect. Instead, it is necessary to
consider the radiation as particles called photons. The energy of each photon is related
to the frequency by E = hf where E is the energy in joules (J), h is Planck's constant
(6.626x10-34Js) and f is the frequency in Hz. Joules can be converted to electron volts
by dividing by 1.6x10-19.
Each metallic element has a fixed value called its work function, which is usually
expressed in electron volts (eV). If photons striking the material have energies greater
than its work function, electrons will be released. This means that the lower the work
function a material has, the lower the frequency and hence the longer the wavelength
of electromagnetic radiation that will cause electron emission. Some elements such as
cesium (1.95eV) and sodium (2.36eV) exhibit photoelectric emission with visible
light, but the threshold of most metals is in the ultraviolet.
A photoelectric cell consists of a very clean surface of a low work function material in
a vacuum. One connection is made to this surface, which is called the photocathode.
A second electrode (the anode) is positioned in front of the photocathode. A voltage is
applied from anode to cathode, so that electrons which are emitted are electro
statically attracted to the anode. The resulting current is then measured and is
proportional to the intensity as long as the wavelength of the light is constant.
Magnesium has a work function of about 3.66eV which is less than most metals. For
photoelectric emission to occur, the photons would require energies of 3.66 x 1.6x10-
19
= 5.86x10-19J. The threshold frequency is therefore 5.86x10-19 / 6.626x10-34 =
8.84x1014Hz. The threshold wavelength is therefore λ = c/f = 3x108 / 8.84x1014 =
339nm. This is just beyond violet, in the soft ultraviolet part of the spectrum.

25
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
A schematic of the photoelectric effect apparatus is shown in figure. A light sensitive
material, called an emitter is placed in a transparent evacuated tube along with a
collector. This device is then connected to a variable voltage source which allows the
generation of an adjustable (uniform) electric field between the emitter and the
collector. As light is incident on the light sensitive emitter, electrons are released
which have an initial kinetic energy. If the electric field does work on the charged
particle equal to the charged particle’s initial kinetic energy, the charged particle will
come to rest. As a result, the electrical current between the emitter and the collector
will go to zero.
The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons is determined by the frequency of the light
striking the phototube. The quantity of ejected electrons is dependent on the intensity
of the light. The maximum kinetic energy, Kmax, of the photoelectrons is given by
Kmax = hf - φ
Where h is equal to Planck's constant, f is the frequency, and φ is the work function.
Since the work function, which is the energy required to release an electron from the
surface a metal, is a constant for any given material, the maximum kinetic energy
depends directly on the frequency of the incident radiatio11n.
If the potential applied to the anode is gradually decreased and made negative, the
electrons ejected from the cathode will not have enough energy to reach the anode and
will be repelled back to the cathode. At a certain voltage called the "stopping
potential", Vs, the electron current from the cathode to the anode will go to zero. At
that point, the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons is equal to the stopping
potential where
e Vs = hf - φ
Where e is equal to the electronic charge (1.6 x 10-19 C), and VS is the stopping
potential (volts). By experimentally determining the stopping potential for several
values of frequency and using the above equation, Planck's constant can be
experimentally determined and compared with the known value.
Identification of Stopping Voltage
In order to properly analyze the current-potential curves to obtain the stopping
potential, the emission of electrons from the anode must be taken into account. Anode
emission probably occurs because of a small amount of photosensitive material
deposited on it during construction of the cell. Although the relative number of
electrons emitted by the anode is very small, their contribution to the current is
appreciable. Thus, the potential required to stop completely the electrons emitted by
the cathode is greater than the potential at which the net current is zero. A typical
experimental curve is given below (in bold). It can be seen to be composed of two
curves: forward current (thin line) and reverse current (dashed line). The forward
current is the electron current from cathode to anode, while the reverse current results
from anode emission. The stopping potential is estimated as that value of the voltage
at which the observed current becomes approximately constant.

26
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube

In summary, the stopping potential could be a higher voltage than the voltage at
which the photocurrent is zero. When the average value of the stopping potential has
been obtained for each frequency, stopping potential should be plotted against
frequency. Planck's constant can be determined from the slope of the V-f curve by
using the relation
h = e (ΔV)/ (Δ f) (slope of the line)
The work function φ can be determined by the second fit parameter, the y-axis
intercept at f = 0.
The dual nature of light, that light exhibits characteristics of waves and particles at
different times is connected to the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect is
explained considering the light made by photons, so light has characteristic of
particles.
The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from matter upon the absorption
of electromagnetic radiation, such as ultraviolet radiation or X-rays.
The photoelectric effect was explained mathematically by Albert Einstein, who
extended the work on quanta developed by Max Planck. Einstein established the
equation of photoelectric effect, also called the Einstein equation for photoelectric
effect. The light is made by photons. Photon (quanta of light) interacts with
substances. The absorption of single quanta of light explains the photoelectric effect.
The idea of light quanta was motivated by Max Planck's law of black-body radiation.
Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect won him the Nobel Prize in 1921.
Exposing a metallic surface to electromagnetic radiation, the photons are absorbed
and electrons are emitted, and current is produced.

27
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube

Photoelectric Effect
The electromagnetic radiation must have the frequency equal or bigger than the
threshold frequency v. The threshold frequency is specific to the type of
surface and material.
No electrons are emitted for radiation with a frequency below that of the threshold, as
the electrons are unable to gain sufficient energy to overcome the electrostatic barrier
presented by the termination of the crystalline surface. This electrostatic barrier is the
material work function,
Lfunction the minimum energy required to remove an electron from atomic binding.
Alkaline metals have the smallest values for work function. Some values for the work
function are given in the table below.

Photoelectric cells work in visible, UV or infrared in function of the values of the

work function. Some cells (with Na and K) work in UV and others (with alloy of Cs)
in infrared.
Work function in metals: Figure shows a schematic energy diagram of a metal. The
valence bands are filled with electrons up to the Fermi energy (EF). The energy
difference between Fermi energy and vacuum level corresponds to the work function
(Φ). The work function corresponds to the minimum amount of energy needed to
remove an electron from the metal. In metals, work function and ionization energy are
the same.

28
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube

The work function of a surface is strongly affected by the condition of the surface.
The presence of minute amounts of contamination (less than a monolayer of atoms or
molecules),or the occurrence of surface reactions (oxidation or similar) can change
the work function substantially. Changes of the order of 1 eV are common for metals
and semiconductors, depending on the surface condition. These changes are a result of
the formation of electric dipoles at the surface, which change the energy an electron
needs to leave the sample. Due to the sensitivity of the work function to chemical
changes on surfaces, its measurement can give valuable insight into the condition of a
given surface. The work function also has significant influence of the band line-up at
semiconductor interfaces (see interfaces tutorial).
Work function in semiconductors:
Valence bands and conduction bands are separated by the band gap (Eg). In a no
degenerate semiconductor (having a moderate doping level), the Fermi level is located
within the band gap. This means the work function is now different from the
ionization energy (energy difference between valence bands maximum (VBM) and
vacuum level). In a semiconductor, the Fermi level becomes a somewhat theoretical
construct since there are no allowed electronic states within the band gap. This means
the Fermi distribution needs to be considered which is a statistical function that gives
the probability to find an electron in a given electronic state the Fermi level refers to
the point on the energy scale where the probability is just 50%, even if there are no
electrons right at the Fermi level in a semiconductor, the work function can be
measured by photoemission spectroscopy (PES)

29
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube

The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons. The energy of the photon is absorbed
by the electron and, if sufficient, the electron can escape from the material with a
finite kinetic energy. A single photon can only eject a single electron, as the energy of
one photon may only be absorbed by one electron. The photons of the light beam have
a characteristic energy given by the wavelength of the light. In the photoemission
process, an electron can be ejected from the material if absorbs the energy of one
photon and has more energy than the work function. If the photon energy is too low,
however, the electron is unable to escape the surface of the material. Increasing the
intensity of the light beam does not change the energy of the constituent photons, only
their number. The energy of the emitted electrons does not depend on the intensity of
the incoming light.
Photoelectric effect is studied with a photoelectric cell and the variation of
photoelectric current intensity with respect voltage is given in the figure below. The
photoelectric current intensity increased from zero, has some values and reaches the
maximum value
I max.

30
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Laws of Photoelectric Effect
 The photoelectric current intensity is inversely proportional to the intensity of
the light.
 The energy of the photoelectrons increased with increasing frequency of
incident light (1905).
 The photoelectric effect occurs only for frequencies equal or bigger than the
threshold frequency threshold. The threshold wavelength is in visible for
alkaline metals and in UV for the majority of the other metals. Some examples
of threshold wavelength are given in the table below.

 The photoelectric effect occurs in a very small time 10-8 s.

Einstein’s equation for photoelectric effect
Enunciation of Einstein’s equation (1905) for photoelectric effect is: the energy of
photon is equal to the energy needed to remove an electron plus the kinetic energy of
the emitted electron.
Einstein’s equation for photoelectric effect was in good concordance with Millikan’s
experiments (1916).
The mathematical statement is given by

where hv is the energy of photon, the expression of the work function is replaced by
eV0 which is the energy needed to overcome the electrostatic barrier, his Planck's

constant, v is the frequency of the incident photon, is the maximum kinetic

energy of ejected electrons, e is the electric charge of electron, m is the mass of the
ejected electron, v is the velocity of the ejected electron.
Furthermore, one gets

Where Vs is the sticking voltage – the value of voltage corresponding to the zero
value of the photocurrent, The Einstein equation becomes

Einstein explained the equation of photoelectric effect considering that light is made
by photons. More quanta generate bigger values for energy. Some effects for UV and
X-rays are highlighted by the light characteristic of particles. Einstein’s equation for
photoelectric effect was studied by Millikan (1916) who won the Nobel Prize in 1923
and after this by Lukirski (1928). The Planck’s constant was obtained from studies.

31
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Experiment
Objective
Determination of Planck's constant using Photo Vacuum Tube.
Items Required
1. Planck's constant trainer
2. Patch cords
3. Mains cord
4. Filters
Procedure
1. Take the Planck's constant Setup & fix the photo vacuum tube at particular
position.
2. Connect + ive terminal of DC power supply to + ive terminal of DC voltmeter .
3. Now connect - ive terminal of DC power supply to - ive terminal of DC voltmeter.
4. Connect + ive terminal of DC voltmeter to - ive terminal of DC ammeter.
5. Connect + ive terminal of DC ammeter to anode (+ ive terminal) of photo
vacuum tube.
6. Connect - ive terminal of DC power supply to Cathode (- ive terminal) of photo
vacuum tube as shown in figure below.

7. Set the range of DC voltmeter at 2V and Ammeter at 20 μA.

8. Connect the mains cord and switch on the power supply and light source.
9. Now you can observe some value of current on ammeter.
10. Now first insert the blue color filter in front of photo vacuum tube.
Note: After inserting filter, if you are not getting current properly then slide the
photo vacuum tube towards light source till the getting some current.
11. Switch on the DC power supply.
12. Now vary the DC voltage slowly by variable resistance pot and see the value of
current. It will be decreases as the increase of voltage.
32
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
13. When the current becomes zero, note the value of applied voltage by DC
voltmeter. This is stopping potential for blue color.
14. Now switch off the DC power supply.
15. Again repeat the same procedure for different colors of filters at same distance.
16. Note down all the values in observation table given below.

Color of Wavelength Frequency Stopping potential

14
Filter λ ν = c/ λ (in Hzx0 ) V0

16 Plot the graph between Frequency on X- axis and stopping potential on Y- axis.
V = ν (h/e) - W/e
Where, V= stopping potential
ν = Frequency of light corresponding to the wavelength
W = work function of the metal in the tube
h = Planck’s constant
e = charge on electron = 1.6x 10-19 coulomb.
This follows the normal straight line formula of: y = ax + b

So,
Slope = h/e Or h= Slope x e
h =........... Joule Sec.
The intercept on the Y axis will be -W/e
Calculation of Percentage Error
Standard value of plank‟s constant = 6.62 X 10-34 joule seconds

33
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Sample Results
Experiment
Objective
Determination of Planck's constant using Photo Vacuum Tube.
Frequency
Wavelength
Colour ν = c/ λ Stopping potential
(in nm ) 14
(in Hz x 10 )
Blue 475 6.315 0.813

Green 510 5.882 0.592

Yellow 570 5.263 0.408

Orange 590 5.084 0.256

Red 650 4.615 0.143

Graph showing the variation of frequency and Stoping potential

34
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Calculation of Slope
The straight line can be obtained by using any graph analysis software like MS Excel,
Origin or any other spread sheet software.
From above graph
Slope = 3.94 x 10 -15............... (1)

Extrapolating the straight line

= = = 3.90 x 10- 15
Slope of the straight line gives the ratio h/e
Slope = 3.90 x 10 -15 .................... (2)
Taking average of Equn (1) & (2)

= 3.92 x 10 -15

Slope = h/e
So that
h = ( Slope x e ) = (h/e) x e
And e = elementary charge = 1.6 x 10-19
Substituting the value of slope in formula h= Slope x e
h = ( 3.92 x 10- 15) x ( 1.6 x 10-19)
= 6.27 x 10- 34 Js

Percentage Error = = 5.28%

35
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Glossary
1. Absorption: Light energy lost through transformation to another form, such as
heat, while passing through a material.
2. Ambient Light (Available Light): The surrounding light exclusive of that
being directed on a specific subject, usually non-directional.
3. Backdrop Lighting: The even illumination of a painted or photographic
background or backing,
4. Black body: An ideal body which would absorb all incident radiation and
reflect none
5. Convex: A term used to describe a lens side that is outwardly and usually
spherically curved.
6. Color Temperature: The absolute temperature of a blackbody radiator having a
chromaticity equal to that of the light source.
7. Elementary Colors: The six regions of color in the solar spectrum observed by
the dispersion of sunlight: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
8. Eelectron Volt: The energy required to move an electron between two points
that have a difference at potential of one volt.
9. Energy: The capacity for doing work.
10. Energy Level: One of a series of discrete energy values that characterize a
physical system governed by quantum rules.
11. Incandescent Lamp : A lamp that produces White Light when electric current
excites the filament.
12. Internal Energy: Sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of all
molecules of an object.
13. Inverse photoelectric effect: The emission of photons of radiation from a
material when bombarded with high speed electrons.
14. Light: Radiant energy that is capable of exciting the retina and producing a
visual sensation. The visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum extends
from about 380 to 770 nm.
15. Lens: Used in luminaries to redirect light into useful zones
16. Monochromatic light: Light composed of a single color.
17. Photo electric effect: The ejection of electrons from a solid by an incident beam
of sufficiently energetic electromagnetic radiation.
18. Photoelectric effect: The emission of electrons by a substance when
illuminated by electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently short wavelength.
19. Photo elastic: Pertaining to certain materials that become double refracting
when strained.

36
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
20. Photoelectrons: Electrons emitted from a light-sensitive material when it is
illuminated with light of sufficiently short wavelength.
21. Photometer: An instrument comparing the intensity source with that of a
standard source.
22. Photometry: The quantitative measurement of visible radiation from light
sources .
23. Photon: A quantum of light energy; the carrier of the electromagnetic
interaction.
24. Photovoltaic effect: The generation of a potential difference across a P-N
junction as a consequence of the absorption of incident light of appropriate
frequency.
25. Planck's constant: A fundamental constant in nature that determines what
values are allowed for physical quantities in quantum mechanics; h = 6.63 x 10-
34
Js.
26. Planck Curve: The graphical representation of the mathematical relationship
between the frequency (or wavelength) and intensity of radiation emitted from
an object by virtue of its heat energy.
27. Polychromatic light: Light composed of several colors.
28. Scattering: It is a general physical process where some forms of radiation, such
as light, sound, or moving particles, are forced to deviate from a straight
trajectory by one or more localized non-uniformities in the medium through
which they pass.
29. Transverse Waves: A wave that oscillates perpendicular to the axis along
which the wave travels. Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, since the
electric and magnetic fields oscillate at a right angle to the direction of motion.
30. Second law of photoelectric emission: The kinetic energy of photoelectrons is
independent of the intensity of the incident light.
31. Wavelength: In a periodic wave, the distance between consecutive points of
corresponding phase.
32. Work function: The minimum energy required to remove an electron from the
surface of a material and send it into field-free space.
33. Wavelength: Light travels in waves varying in length. Measurement is from top
of one wave to top of next one and is usually measured in units of mill microns
(mμ) or Angstroms (A˚).

37
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Frequently Asked Questions
Q1. What Does Planck’s constant represent?
Ans. Planck's Constant represents the Photon Potential Energy. Planck's Energy
E= is the key to Planck's constant.
Q2. What is Photo-electric effect?
Ans. Photo electric effect is a process where electron are ejected from a surface
by the action of light (Electromagnetic Radiation)
Q3. What is the unit of Planck’s constant?
Ans. The unit is Joule-second.
Q4. What is the relation between energy of photon and its wavelength?
Ans. A photon is characterized by either a wavelength, denoted by λ or
equivalently energy, denoted by E. There is an inverse relationship between
the energy of a photon (E) and the wavelength of the light (λ) given by the
equation

Q5. If the frequency of light increases, will the energy increase or decrease?
Ans. As the frequency of electromagnetic radiation increases, the energy of each
photon increases. These quantities are directly proportional; within a
constant (Planck's constant).
Q6. What is the law of photoelectric emission?
Ans. Laws of Photoelectric Effect:
[1] For a given substance there is certain minimum frequency of light
called threshold frequency ν0bvelow which no photoelectric emission
takes place whatever be the intensity of light.
[2] The number of photoelectrons emitted per second by a substance is
directlyproportional to the intensity of the incident photon beam.
[3] The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons is
directly proportional to the frequency of incident photon beam and is
independent of the intensity of the light.
[4] The process of photoelectric effect is instantaneous i.e. as soon as the
light whose frequency greater than threshold frequency falls on metal
surface electrons are emitted [within 10-9s]
Q7. How wavelengths of light affect the production of photo electron?
Ans. Light of shorter wavelength is more effective in producing photo- electrons
than light of longer wavelength.

38
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Q8. What is Plank's constant?
Ans. It is the constant of proportionality relating the energy of a photon to the
frequency of that photon. Its value is approximately 6.626 × 10-34 joule-
second. Its symbol is h.
Q9. Describe the importance of Planck’s constant.
Ans. Planck’s constant is important for several reasons: it defines the quanta
(minimum amount) for the energy of light and therefore also the energies of
electrons in atoms. It also factors into something called the Uncertainty
Principle.
Q10. How do colour filters work?
Ans. Coloured filters are sheets of plastic or made of colored glass used to get
colour away from white light. They work by letting some of the spectrum
through and absorbing other parts of it. For example a red colour filter lets
red light and some orange light pass through- it absorbs all other colours of
the spectrum.

39
Nvis 6024 Planck's constant Determination Using Photo Vacuum Tube
Warranty
 We guarantee the product against all manufacturing defects for 12 months from
the date of sale by us or through our dealers.
 The guarantee does not cover perishable item like cathode ray tubes, crystals,
batteries, photocells etc.
 The guarantee will become void, if
 The product is not operated as per the instruction given in the learning
material.
 The agreed payment terms and other conditions of sale are not followed.
 The customer resells the instrument to another party.
 Any attempt is made to service and modify the instrument.
 The non-working of the product is to be communicated to us immediately giving
full details of the complaints and defects noticed specifically mentioning the
type, serial number of the product and date of purchase etc.
 The repair work will be carried out, provided the product is dispatched securely
packed and insured. The transportation charges shall be borne by the customer.

List of Accessories
 Color Filters. 5 Nos.
 2mm Patch Cords Black 24” 1 No.
 2mm Patch Cords Red 24” 1 No.
 2mm Patch Cords Black 24” 5 No.
 2mm Patch Cords Red 12” 5 No.
 Mains Cord 1 No.
References
 http://rsl.eng.usf.edu/Documents/Tutorials/TutorialsWorkFunction.pdf
 http://scienceforkids.kidipede.com/physics/light/photon.htm
 http://www.egglescliffe.org.uk/physics/astronomy/blackbody/bbody.html
 http://rugth30.phys.rug.nl/quantummechanics/black_body.htm
 http://www.egglescliffe.org.uk/physics/astronomy/blackbody/bbody.html

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