MATH 122: Calculus I

Curve Sketching

Ralph A. Twum, PhD

Second Semester, 2023

Department of Mathematics
University of Ghana

1
Outline

1 Polynomial Functions

2 Rational Functions

3 More General Functions

2
Why is Curve Sketching on the Syllabus?

In the era of graphing calculators and software, it is normal to ask if one needs to learn
how to sketch curves of functions.

Two reasons come to mind:

● The act of sketching a curve combines many of the applications and techniques
we have covered so far. It helps us to understand why those methods are
necessary, and how to apply them.
● By learning how to graph functions using calculus, we are better able to intuitively
understand the behavior of functions we will encounter in real life examples.

3
Polynomial Functions
Sketching Graphs of Polynomial Functions

Recall that polynomial functions are of the form

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + ⋯ + an xn .

Polynomial functions are smooth functions, with domain the set of real numbers,
R.

To sketch polynomial functions, we need the following information:

4
Sketching Graphs of Polynomial Functions

1 intercepts

2 intervals of increase/decrease

3 maximum and minimum points

4 intervals of concavity

5 points of inflection.

For polynomial functions p(x), lim p(x) = ∞ or − ∞, and the same holds when
x→∞
x → −∞.

5
In fact,
● for an > 0 and n even, lim p(x) = ∞ and lim p(x) = ∞.
x→∞ x→−∞
● or an > 0 and n odd, lim p(x) = ∞ and lim p(x) = −∞.
x→∞ x→−∞
● for an < 0 and n even, lim p(x) = −∞ and lim p(x) = −∞.
x→∞ x→−∞
● or an < 0 and n odd, lim p(x) = −∞ and lim p(x) = ∞.
x→∞ x→−∞

6
Example

Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 12x + 3.

Solution:

1 Intercepts: The y-intercept is (0, 3). We can use a calculator to compute the
x-intercepts.

2 Intervals of Increase or Decrease: We have

f ′ (x) = 6x2 − 6x − 12
= 6(x2 − x − 2)
= 6(x − 2)(x + 1)
Therefore f ′ (x) = 0 when x = −1, 2. We check the intervals (−∞, −1), (−1, 2),
and (2, ∞).
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 Interval (−∞, −1) (−1, 2) (2, ∞)
Conclusion >0 <0 >0
So f is increasing on the intervals (−∞, −1) and (2, ∞), and decreasing on
(−1, 2).

3 Maxima and Minima: As we saw earlier, f ′ (x) = 0 when x = −1 or x = 2. Since

f (−1) = 2(−1)3 − 3(−1)2 − 12(−1) + 3 = 10, and

f (2) = 2(2)3 − 3(2)2 − 12(2) + 3 = −17, we check the points (−1, 10) and (2, −17).

f ′′ (x) = 12x − 6, so f ′′ (−1) = −18 < 0. Therefore (−1, 10) is a maximum point.
Similarly f ′′ (2) = 18 > 0, and so (2, −17) is a minimum point.

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 4 Intervals of Concavity: Since f ′′ (x) = 12x − 6, f ′′ (x) > 0 when x > 1/2 and
f ′′ (x) < 0 when x < 1/2.

Therefore f is concave upward on the interval (1/2, ∞), and concave downward
on the interval (−∞, 1/2).

We see that f (1/2) = −7/2, so (1/2, −7/2) is a point of inflection.

5 Finally, we see that f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞, and f (x) → −∞ as x → ∞.

Now we have the information necessary to sketch the graph of f (x).

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10
Rational Functions
Rational Functions

Recall that a rational function is given by

P (x)
R(x) = ,
Q(x)

where P and Q are polynomial functions.

Unlike polynomial functions, rational functions may not be defined everywhere1

The domain of R(x) is the set {x ∈ R∣Q(x) ≠ 0}.

1
If Q(x) = 0 has real solutions, then the domain cannot be the set of all real numbers.
11
Asymptotes

We will consider three kinds of asymptotes:

● Vertical Asymptotes: lines of the form x = h

● Horizontal Asymptotes: lines of the form y = k

● Oblique or Slant Asyptotes: lines of the form y = mx + c.

Vertical asymptotes occur at the point(s) where Q(x) = 0. For instance, for
2x
R(x) = , the line x = −1 is a vertical asymptote. Note that the graph of R(x)
x+1
can NEVER cross a vertical asymptote.2

Horizontal asymptotes occur when lim R(x) = k or lim R(x) = k.3

x→∞ x→−∞
2
this would mean division by zero, which is impossible.
3
or both.
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Asymptotes

P (x)
For R(x) = , if deg P (x) ≤ deg Q(x), then there exits a horizontal
Q(x)
asymptote.

Oblique or slant asymptotes occur when deg P (x) = deg Q(x) + 1 . For
instance,

x2 − 2 (x2 − 1) − 1 1
f (x) == =x−1− .
x+1 x+1 x+1
So y = x − 1 is a slant asymptote for the graph of f (x).

Note: For rational functions, either horizontal asymptotes or slant asymptotes will
occur, but not both.4
4
It helps to simplify functions, before applying the rules of differentiation.
13
Examples

x
Consider the function f (x) = . Let us sketch the graph of f (x).
x2 − 1
1 Domain: The domain of f (x) is the set {x ∈ R∣x ≠ ±1}.

2 Intercepts: The x-intercept of f (x) is (0, 0). This is also the y-intercept.

3 Asymptotes: The vertical asymptotes are the lines x = −1 and x = 1. Since

lim f (x) = 0, the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.
x→∞

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4 Intervals of Increase or Decrease:
x
f (x) =
x2 − 1
(x2 − 1)(x)′ − x(x2 − 1)′
f ′ (x) =
(x2 − 1)2
(x2 − 1) − x ⋅ (2x) x2 − 1 − 2x2
= =
(x2 − 1)2 (x2 − 1)2
2
1+x
=− 2
(x − 1)2

Notice that f ′ (x) is always negative on the domain of f (x), so f is always

decreasing. For the same reason, there are no values of x for which f ′ (x) is zero.
Thus the function has no maximum or minimum points.

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 5 Intervals of Concavity:

(x2 − 1)2 ⋅ (x2 + 1)′ − (x2 + 1)[(x2 − 1)2 ]′

f ′′ (x) = −
(x2 − 1)4
(x2 − 1)2 ⋅ 2x − 4x ⋅ (x2 + 1)(x2 − 1)
=−
(x2 − 1)4
4x(x2 + 1) − 2x(x2 − 1)
=
(x2 − 1)3
4x + 4x − 2x3 + 2x 2x3 + 6x
3
= = 2
(x2 − 1)3 (x − 1)3
2x(x2 + 3)
= .
(x2 − 1)3

Therefore, we check the values x = −1, x = 0, and x = 1.5

5 2
x + 3 is always positive.
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We summarize the results in the following table:
Interval (−∞, −1) (−1, 0) (0, 1) (1, ∞)
Sign <0 >0 <0 >0
Meaning ∩ ∪ ∩ ∪
We see that the concavity changes at x = −1, x = 0 and x = 1.

Therefore (0, 0) is a point of inflection.6

6
Remember f (x) is not defined at x = −1 and x = 1.
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 6 Behavior: Finally, let us consider the behavior of f (x). From our work on limits,
we see that
= 0+ = 0−
x x
lim lim
x→∞ x2 − 1 x→−∞ x2 − 1
x x
lim = −∞ lim =∞
x→−1− x2 − 1 x→−1+ x2 − 1
x x
lim = −∞ lim+ 2 =∞
x→1− x2 − 1 x→1 x − 1

Now we have all the information we need to plot the curve.

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 x2 + x − 6
Let us consider another example: g(x) = .
x−1
x2 + x − 6 (x + 3)(x − 2) 4 7
Note that g(x) = = = (x + 2) − .
x−1 x−1 x−1
1 Domain: The domain of g(x) is {x ∈ R ∣ x ≠ 1}.

2 Intercepts: The x-intercepts of the graph of g(x) are (−3, 0) and (2, 0). The
y-intercept is (0, 6).

3 Asymptotes: The vertical asymptote is the line x = 1. There is no horizontal

asymptote. The oblique asymptote is the line y = x + 2.

7
the degree of the numerator is 1 greater than the degree of the denominator
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 4 Intervals of Increase/Decrease:

= (x + 2) − 4(x − 1)−1
4
g(x) = (x + 2) −
x−1
g ′ (x) = 1 + 4(x − 1)−2
4
=1+ >0
(x − 1)2

Therefore g(x) is increasing on the intervals (−∞, 1) and (1, ∞). There are no
maximum/minimum points.

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 5 Intervals of Concavity:
g ′ (x) = 1 +
4
(x − 1)2
g ′′ (x) = −
8
(x − 1)3
Therefore g ′′ (x) > 0 when x < 1, and g ′′ (x) < 0 when x > 1. Hence g(x) is
concave upward on the interval (−∞, 1), and concave downward on the interval
(1, ∞).

6 Behavior: As x → 1− , g(x) → ∞, and as x → 1+ , g(x) → −∞.

We use the information we have to sketch the graph of g(x).

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23
 x
Let us consider one more example, the function h(x) = .
x2 +4
1 Domain: Since x2 + 4 is always positive, the domain of h(x) is the set of real
numbers, R.

2 Intercepts: The point (0, 0) is the only intercept.

3 Asymptotes: The function h(x) has no vertical asymptote and no oblique

x
asymptote. Since lim 2 = 0, the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.
x→∞ x + 4

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 4 Intervals of Increase/Decrease:
x
h(x) =
x2 + 4
(x2 + 4)(1) − x(2x)
h′ (x) =
(x2 + 4)4
4 − x2
= 2
(x + 4)2

h′ (x) is zero when x = ±2. We summarize the information on intervals of increase

and decrease in the following table:
Interval (−∞, −2) (−2, 2) (2, ∞)
Sign <0 >0 <0
We see that h(x) is increasing on the interval (−2, 2), and decreasing on the intervals
(−∞, −2) and (2, ∞).
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 5 Maximum/Minimum Points:

(x2 + 4)2 (−2x) − (4 − x2 )(2)(2x)(x2 + 4)

h′′ (x) =
(x2 + 4)4
(x2 + 4)(−2x) − (4 − x2 )(4x)
=
(x2 + 4)3
−2x3 − 8x − 16x + 4x3 2x3 − 24x
= = 2
(x2 + 4)3 (x + 4)3
2
2x(x − 12)
= .
(x2 + 4)3

The critical points are (−2, −1/4) and (2, 1/4).8

8
h(−2) = −1/4 and h(2) = 1/4.
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We see that h′′ (−2) =
−4(4 − 12)
> 0, so (−2, −1/4) is a minimum point.
(4 + 4)3

Similarly, h′′ (2) =

4(4 − 12)
< 0, so (2, 1/4) is a maximum point.
(4 + 4)3
6 Intervals of Concavity: Since (x2 + 4) > 0, we check the values of x for which
2x(x2 − 12) is greater than or less than zero:
√ √ √ √
Interval (−∞, − 12) (− 12, 0) (0, 12) ( 12, ∞)
Sign <0 >0 <0 >0
Meaning ∩ ∪ ∩ ∪
√ √ √ √
The points of inflection are (− 12, − 12/16), (0, 0) and ( 12, 12/16).

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 7 Behavior:
→ 0+
x
As x → ∞,
x2 + 4
→ 0− .
x
as x → −∞, 2
x +4

We use the above information to sketch the graph of h(x).

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More General Functions
More General Functions

We can use the techniques above to sketch graphs of more general differentiable
functions. Consider the function f (x) = xe−x .

f (x) is defined for all real numbers, so the domain is R.

f (x) has (0, 0) as the only intercept, and there are no vertical asymptotes.
x
Since lim x = 0, the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. On the other hand,
x→∞ e
lim (f (x)) = −∞.
x→−∞

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f ′ (x) = e−x − xe−x =
1−x
. Since ex > 0, we see that f (x) is increasing when
ex
1 − x > 0, that is on the interval (−∞, 1), and decreasing when 1 − x < 0, that is on the
interval (1, ∞).

The point (1, 1/e) is a critical point. We have

ex (1 − x)′ − (1 − x)(ex )′ ex (−1) − (1 − x)(ex )

f ′′ (x) = =
e2x e2x
x
e (−1 − 1 + x) x − 2
= = x .
e2x e

Therefore f ′′ (−1) = (−1)e−(−1) = −e < 0, so (1, 1/e) is a maximum point.

Further, f is concave downwards on the interval (−∞, 2) and concave upwards on the
interval (2, ∞), and the point (2, 2/e2 ) is a point of inflection. The graph of f is given
below.
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32
Let us consider one more example: g(x) = x1/3 . This function is not a polynomial, but
is defined for all real values of x.

g ′ (x) = x−2/3 , which is always positive, so g(x) is increasing everywhere.

1
3
g ′ (x) is not defined at x = 0, so we need to investigate further using the second
derivative.

g ′′ (x) = − x−5/3 , and so g ′′ (x) > 0 when x < 0 and less than zero when x > 0. This
2
9
means that g(x) is concave upward on (−∞, 0) and concave downward at (0, ∞). The
point (0, 0) is a point of inflection. The graph of g is as follows:

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