Module 10

The Integumentary System

Introduction
The integument is one of the largest and most extensive organs in the body. Composed
of all four tissue types, it covers and protects underlying structures and forms a critical barrier
between the delicate inner workings of the body and the harsh elements of the external world.
Its surface is constantly being rubbed, scratched, attacked by microbes, irritated by external
parasites, and subjected to environmental chemicals and ultraviolet radiation. The skin, together
with related structures such as horns, hooves, claws, glands and hair, form the integumentary
system or common integument. This system involves every inch of the external animal and is
contiguous with the mucous membranes that line the mouth, anus, and nostrils. It is frequently
injured, but possesses a remarkable ability to regenerate and heal.

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this module you will be able to:

▪ Describe general structure of the skin

▪ Identify function of the keratin deposited in the epidermis
▪ Identify the structure and function of keratin skin structures including calluses, scales,
nails, claws, hoofs and horns
▪ Describe that antlers are not made either of keratin or in the epidermis
▪ Identify the structure of hairs
▪ Identify the structure of the different types of feathers and the function of preening
▪ Explain the general structure and function of sweat, scent, preen and mammary glands
▪ Know the basic functions of the skin in sensing stimuli, temperature control and
production of vitamin D
▪ Describe the mechanisms by which the skin regulates body temperature

Learning Content
The Skin
▪ The skin, sometimes known as the Integumentary System is, in fact, the largest organ
of the body. It has a complex structure, being composed of many different tissues.
▪ It performs many functions that are important in maintaining homeostasis in the body.
▪ Probably the most important of these functions is the control of body temperature.
▪ The skin also protects the body from physical damage and bacterial invasion.
▪ The skin has an array of sense organs which sense the external environment, and also
cells which can make vitamin D in sunlight.
▪ The skin is one of the first systems affected when an animal becomes sick so it is
important for anyone working with animals to have a sound knowledge of the structure
and functioning of the skin so they can quickly recognise signs of disease.
▪ Skin is one of the largest organs of the body, making up 6-8% of the total body weight.
MODULE 10 The Integumentary System

▪ It consists of two distinct layers. The top layer is called the epidermis and under that is
the dermis.
▪ The epidermis is the layer that bubbles up when we have a blister and as we know from
this experience, it has no blood or nerves in it. The cells at the base of the epidermis
continually divide and push the cells above them upwards. As these cells move up they
die and become the dry flaky scales that fall off the skin surface. The cells in the
epidermis die because a special protein called keratin is deposited in them.
▪ Keratin is an extremely important substance for it makes the skin waterproof. Without it
land vertebrates like reptiles, birds and mammals would, like frogs, be able to survive
only in damp places.

Skin Structures Made of Keratin

Claws, Nails and Hoofs
▪ Reptiles, birds and mammals all have nails or claws
on the end of their toes.
▪ Protect the end of the toe or may be used for
grasping, grooming, digging or in defense.
▪ Continually worn away and grow continuously from
a growth layer at their base.

Figure 30. A carnivore’s claw

Hoofs
▪ Found in sheep, cows, horses also known
ungulate mammals.
▪ Animals that have lost toes in the process of
evolution and walk on the “nails” of the
remaining toes.
▪ A cylinder of horny material that surrounds Figure 31. A Cows Hoof
and protect the tip of the toe.

Horns and Antlers

▪ True horns are made of keratin and are found in sheep,
goats and cattle/carabao.
▪ Never branched and once grown, and never shed.
▪ Consist of a core bone arising in the dermis of the skin
and are fused in the skull

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▪ Forms as a hollow cone-shaped sheath

around the bone Figure 32. Carabao’s Horn

▪ The antlers of male deer have quite a different structure.

▪ Not formed in the epidermis and do not consist of keratin but
are entirely of bone.
▪ Shed each year and are often branched, especially in older
animals. When growing they are covered in skin called velvet that
forms the bone.

Figure 33. A deer antler and the velvet

Hair
▪ Made of keratin and develops in the epidermis.
▪ Covers the body of most mammals where it acts as
an insulator and helps to regulate the temperature of
the body.
▪ The colour in hairs is formed from the same pigment,
melanin that colours the skin.
▪ Hairs lie in a follicle and grow from a root that is well
supplied with blood vessels.
▪ Consists of layers of dead keratin - containing cells
and usually lies at a slant in the skin.
▪ A small bundle of smooth muscle fibers (the hair erector Figure 34. Hair
muscle) is attached to the side of each hair and when this
contracts the hair stands on end.

Feathers
▪ Lightness and stiffness of keratin is also a key to bird flight.
▪ In the form of feathers it provides the large airfoils necessary for flapping and gliding
flight.
▪ In another form, the light fluffy down feathers ,also made of keratin, are some of the
best natural insulators known.
▪ This superior insulation is necessary to help maintain the high body temperatures of
birds.
▪ Contour feathers are large feathers that cover the body, wings and tail.
▪ They have an expanded vane that provides the smooth, continuous surface that is
required for effective flight.

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Figure 35. A Contour Feather

Figure 36. Types of Feathers

Skin Glands
▪ Glands organs that produce and secrete fluids.
▪ Divided into two groups depending upon whether or not they have channels or ducts to
carry their products away.
▪ Exocrine glands have ducts and also found in the skin as well as the glands that produce
digestive enzymes in the gut.
▪ Endocrine glands have no ducts and release their products (hormones) directly into the
blood stream.

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1
3

4 2

Figure 37. Uropygial (preen) gland; dorsal view.

1. Uropygial gland; 2. Papilla of uropygial gland through which the secretion is extruded; 3. Cut edge of
skin; 4. Feather follicle; 5. Caudal vertebrae and associated muscles.

▪ Sebaceous glands secrete an oily secretion into the hair follicle. This secretion, known
as sebum, keeps the hair supple and helps prevent the growth of bacteria
▪ Sweat glands secrete a watery fluid containing various and waste products of
metabolism. These serve as organ of excretion and temperature regulation.
▪ Mammary glands are only present in mammals. They are thought to be modified
sebaceous glands and are present in both sexes.The number of glands varies from
species to species. They open to the surface in well-developed nipples. Milk contains
proteins, sugars, fats and salts, although the exact composition varies from one species
to another.

The Skin and Sun

A moderate amount of UV in sunlight is necessary for the skin to form vitamin D. This
vitamin prevents bone disorders like rickets to which animals reared indoors are susceptible.
Excessive exposure to the UV in sunlight can be damaging and the pigment melanin, deposited
in cells at the base of the epidermis, helps to protect the underlying layers of the skin from this
damage. Melanin also colours the skin and variations in the amount of melanin produces colours
from pale yellow to black.
Sunburn and Skin Cancer
Excess exposure to the sun can cause sunburn. This is common in humans, but light
skinned animals like cats and pigs can also be sunburned, especially on the ears. Skin cancer
can also result from excessive exposure to the sun. As holes in the ozone layer increase
exposure to the sun’s UV rays, so too does the rate of skin cancer in humans and animals.

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The Dermis
The underlying layer of the skin, known as the dermis, is much thicker but much more
uniform in structure than the epidermis. It is composed of loose connective tissue with a felted
mass of collagen and elastic fibres. It is this part of the skin of cattle and pigs etc. that becomes
commercial leather when treated. The dermis is well supplied with blood vessels, so cuts and
burns that penetrate down into the dermis will bleed or cause serious fluid loss. There are also
numerous nerve endings and touch receptors in the dermis because, of course, the skin is
sensitive to touch, pain and temperature. When looking at a section of the skin under the
microscope you can see hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands dipping down into the dermis.
However, these structures do not originate in the dermis but are derived from the epidermis. In
the lower levels of the dermis is a layer of fat or adipose tissue. This acts as an energy store and
is an excellent insulator especially in mammals like whales with little hair.
The Skin and Temperature Regulation
Vertebrates can be divided into two groups depending on whether or not they control
their internal temperature. Amphibia (frogs) and reptiles are said to be”cold blooded”
(poikilothermic) because their body temperature approximately follows that of the environment.
Birds and mammals are said to be warm blooded (homoiothermic) because they can maintain a
roughly constant body temperature despite changes in the temperature of the environment. Heat
is produced by the biochemical reactions of the body (especially in the liver) and by muscle
contraction. Most of the heat lost from the body occurs via the skin. It is therefore not surprising
that many of the mechanisms for controlling the temperature of the body operate here.
Reduction Of Heat Loss
When an animal is in a cold environment and needs to reduce heat loss the erector
muscles contract causing the hair or feathers to rise up and increase the layer of insulating air
trapped by them.
Heat loss from the skin surface can also be reduced by the contraction of the abundant
blood vessels that lie in the dermis. This takes blood flow to deeper levels, so reducing heat loss
and causing pale skin.
Shivering caused by twitching muscles produces heat that also helps raise the body
temperature.
Increase Of Heat Loss
There are two main mechanisms used by animals to increase the amount of heat lost
from the skin when they are in a hot environment or high levels of activity are increasing internal
heat production. The first is the expansion of the blood vessels in the dermis so blood flows near
the skin surface and heat loss to the environment can take place. The second is by the production
of sweat from the sweat glands. The evaporation of this liquid on the skin surface produces a
cooling effect. The mechanisms for regulating body temperature are under the control of a small
region of the brain called the hypothalamus. This acts like a thermostat.

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Heat Loss and Body Size

The amount of heat that can be lost from the surface of the body is related to the area
of skin an animal has in relation to the total volume of its body. Small animals like mice have a
very large skin area compared to their total volume. This means they tend to loose large amounts
of heat and have difficulty keeping warm in cold weather. They may need to keep active just to
maintain their body temperature or may hibernate to avoid the problem. Large animals like
elephants have the opposite problem. They have only a relatively small skin area in relation to
their total volume and may have trouble keeping cool. This is one reason that these large animals
tend to have sparse coverings of hair.

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Exercises
Exercise 1 Identify the following structure on the skin of a pig. (Answer only).

Exercise 2 Answer the following questions:

1. Why is skin important? Can you think of six important functions of skin?
2. What is keratinization and why is it an important process?
3. How is the skin of hairy animals different from that of humans?
4. How is the dermis different from the epidermis?
5. How does hair form and grow?
6. What are the three cycles of hair growth?
7. Why does hair turn gray and then white as animals age?
8. What factors stimulate contraction of the arrector pili muscle? Why is this muscle
important?
9. Name two types of sweat gland. How are they different from one another?
10. Where anal sacs found and what are their importance to animals?

Reference/s
Colville, T.P. 2016. Clinical anatomy and physiology for veterinary technicians, 3rd edition,
ISBN:978-0-323-22793-3

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Colville, T.P.2016. Laboratory manual for clinical anatomy and physiology for veterinary
technician, 3rd edition, ISBN: 978-0-323-29475-1

Frandson, R.D., Lee Wilke, W., and Anna Dee Fails, 2009. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm
Animals by, Publisher: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

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