ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

MODULE-1
COULOMB’S LAW AND ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
EXPERIMENTAL LAW OF COULOMB:

Coulomb invented the force exerted between two objects each having a static charge of
electricity. He then stated a Coulomb’s law i.e.

“The electrostatic force between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is directly proportional to
the product of the magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.”

The expression for the above statement is,

F ---------1

Where, Q1 and Q2 are charges, and

R is the distance between them.

The proportionality constant is given by k.

F ---------2 where k =

Where is the permittivity of free space and the value of = 8.854 F/m.

Unit of force is measured in terms of NEWTON, denoted by N.

All the units are measured in S.I. units.

Explanation:

Let us represent the Coulomb’s law in vector form.

The direction of ⃗ is as shown because Q1 and Q2 are considered as same charge.

If, is the distance of Q1 from origin, and

is the distance of Q2 from origin.

From figure, force F2 has to be calculated, then F2 is the force on Q2 exerted by Q1 and from
Coulomb’s law,

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-1-Page 1

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

F2 ̅ ---------3

Where, ̅ is the unit vector in the direction of and is

given by,

̅ =| =| .
| |

Where, is the distance between and given by (i.e. destination-source).

⇨ Vector quantity

| | ⇨ Magnitude of the vector quantity

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY:

The concept of electric field intensity came to an existence due to an electric charge.

An electric charge always sets up an electric field in its surroundings, and it exerts a force
upon any other charge which arrives in this field zone. Therefore, this field zone is called electric
field intensity. This electric field intensity is defined as,

“The electric field intensity at any point in an electric field is the force experienced by a
unit positive charge placed at that point”.

If we now consider one charge fixed in position say Q1 and move a second charge slowly
around it, it experience a force in this region around the charge Q1, which is given by,

F --------1, where is second charge.

If we consider as a unit charge, then force per unit charge is,

--------2

This force per unit charge is called electric field intensity.

E= --------3

Where, E is electric field intensity and the unit is represented by Newton/Coulomb i.e. N/C or
Joules/Coulombs, general representation is V/m.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-1-Page 2

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY AT A POINT DUE TO MANY CHARGES:

The field at appoint when there are many charges

contributing to the field can be found by employing the
principle of superposition.

“If there are more than two point charges, then each
will exert a force on each other, then the net force on any
charge is the Principle of Superposition”.

In the figure, we have considered three charges Q1,

Q2 and Q3 with electric field intensity E1, E2 and E3.
P ⇨ point with charge Q
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + ------- + En (for n charges)

⇨ E=
| |
+ | |
+ | |
+ ------ + | |

E=∑ .
| |

FIELD DUE TO A CONTINUOUS VOLUME CHARGE DISTRIBUTION:

If the charge distribution is such that the charges are distributed continuously in a volume then it
is referred to as a volume charge distribution.

is defined as the volume charge density i.e. charge per unit volume.

= ---------1 unit c/ .

Mathematically by using limiting process for above expression,

= ---------2

But total charge within some finite volume is obtained by integrating throughout that volume.

i.e. Q= d ---------3
We have electric field intensity at point P due to point charge is given by,

= ̂ ---------4

From figure, since the charge distribution is continuous, the field at P due to the entire volume
charge distribution is,
MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-1-Page 3
 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

E= = ̂ ( ̂ ).

But = from equation 1.

⇨ E= ̂ d

E= ̂ d

FIELD OF A LINE CHARGE:

Consider an infinitely long straight line, carrying uniform line charge having line charge density
denoted by c/m.

Let the charge on a very short segment, dl of a line be dQ. Then,

= (c/m) ---------1

⇨ dQ = dl. ---------2 𝜌 = or d = ρ d

Now let us calculate electric field intensity at a point due to

infinitely long straight conductor, i.e. line charge varying
from to

Let P be the point on the y axis, at which electric field

intensity is to be determined, and r be the distance of a
point P from origin as shown in the figure.

Now let us calculate electric field intensity at a point P, due to entire line charge present
on z-axis.

Now, let us consider a small length dl on the z-axis as shown in figure, carrying a charge
dQ at point (0, 0, z). Then,

dQ = dl form equation (2).

But dl = dz because of a small length.

⇨ dQ = dz. ---------3

From figure dQ has a coordinates as (0, 0, z) and point P has a coordinates of (0, r, 0).

Then the distance R = r ̅ z and

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-1-Page 4

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

| |=√ {(0-0, r-0, 0-z)}

Unit vector is given by, ̂=

| |

⇨ ̂= = ---------4
| | √

But we have electric field intensity at a point charge is given by,

= ̂ .

Substituting the value of dQ from equation (3) and (4),

d
⇨ = ( ).
√

d
⇨ = -------5 ( √ )

Important Note: since the line charge on z-axis is symmetry to y-axis then the electric field
intensity produced by all charges get cancelled. Hence there are no z-components for the above
equation 5.

⇨ = ( ) dz -------6

The above equation gives the electric field generated by small charge dQ over the length then the
net electric field intensity is given by integrating over entire length. (i.e. to )

E= ( ) d -------7

From the figure, we have,

= or =

⇨ z=r

Differentiating with respect to , we get,

⇨ d = d

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-1-Page 5

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

Substituting the limits,

For z= =

z= =0

Equation (7) becomes,

E= ( ) d

E= ( ) d

⇨ E= ( ) d

⇨ E= ( ) d

⇨ E= ( ) d

⇨ E= ( ) d

⇨ E= d

⇨ E= [ ]

⇨ E= [ ]

⇨ E= [ ]

⇨ E= [ ]

⇨ E= [ ]

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-1-Page 6

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

⇨ E=

Above equation is electric field intensity due to infinitely long straight conductor.

ELECTRIC FLUX ( ):

If a unit test charge is placed near a point charge, it experiences a force. The
direction of this force can be represented by the lines, coming radially outward
from a positive charge. These lines are called flux lines.

Thus the electric field due to a charge can be imagined to be present

around it in terms of a quantity called electric flux or displacement flux.

Michael Faraday performed the experiment on electric field and induced

some rules as listed below,

 Faraday found that the total charge on the outer sphere was equal in magnitude to the
original charge placed on the inner sphere, and this was true regardless of the dielectric
material separating the two spheres.
 He also showed that a large positive charge on the inner sphere induced a
correspondingly larger negative charge on the outer sphere. This concept leads to a
directly proportionality between the electric flux and the charge on the inner sphere.

i.e. =Q

Electric flux is measured in terms of Coulombs.

ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY (D):

The electric flux density is defined as total number of flux

lines passing normally through the unit surface area is called
electric flux density and it is represented by D.

Unit for this is Coulomb/m2 (C/m2).

D=

To explain this let us consider the following figure.

At the surface of the inner sphere, coulombs of electric flux are produced by the charge Q
coulomb which is distributed uniformly over a surface having an area of 4 .

⇨ D= for inner sphere.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-1-Page 7

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

And the direction of the flux line at that point gives the direction of D.

⇨ D= --------1 for inner sphere.

⇨ D= --------2 for outer sphere.

If we now let the inner sphere become smaller and smaller, while still retaining a charge Q. then
it becomes a point charge in the limit, then the electric flux density at point r meter from the
point charge is given by,

D= --------3 ( = Q).

We can find the relation between D and E, because we have

E= --------4

From equation (3), if we compare equation (4),

⇨ E= ( D= )

D= E for free space only.

From this relation we can find the flux density for volume charge distribution in free space.

Since we have, E=

⇨ D=

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-1-Page 8

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

IMPORTANT FORMULAE:

1. Force between two charges “F”:

F2 ̂ N

Where, 8.854 ,

R = distance between and

̂ |
, is unit vector
|
and

Where, = , vector form & | | ⇨ Magnitude.

2. Electric Field Intensity “E”:

= V/m

Where, & r ⇨ distance

| |

3. Electric Field Intensity due to a Many Charges

E=∑ . V/m
| |

4. Electric Field Intensity due to Continuous Volume Charge Distribution:

E= ̂ d V/m

Where, = or Q= d

is different for rectangular, cylindrical and spherical components

5. Field due to Line Charge:

E= V/m

Where, = or Q= d

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-1-Page 9

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

6. Electric Flux Density “D”:

D= = or D= c/m2

D= or D= E

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-1-Page 10

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

MODULE-2
GUASS’S LAW:

Faraday’s experiments lead to the following result, i.e.

“The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed
by that surface.” The statement was called Gauss’s Law.

Gauss is the person who proved the statement of

=Q ----------1

Now let us prove the above statement with the help of following figure.

We have electric field intensity of a point charge, is given by,

E= --------2

But we have,

D= E --------3

⇨ D= --------4

Form figure, the flux density at surface having r = a, is given

by,

D= --------5

But for small surface ds flux density is given by,

D=

⇨ =D

⇨ = ∫D --------6
Figure shown is spherical surface,

⇨ Surface area of the differential element is given by,

= --------7
MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-2-Page 1
 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

Substituting equation (7) and equation (5) in equation (6), we get,

= D

At r = a,

⇨ =∫ ∫

⇨ =∫ , -

⇨ = * ,( ) ( )-+ , -

⇨ = (2) 2

⇨ = Q.
Q coulombs of flux are passing the surface area.

We have = ∫D

⇨ = D

But Q=∫ d

⇨ D =∫ d

⇨ Total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed by that surface.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-2-Page 2

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

DIVERGENCE:

Consider a differential volume element of volume as shown in

figure, with the region having the electric charges. Let , ,
and be the dimensions of the element as shown.

Consider a point P exactly at the center point of the

volume element. Due to the field produced by the charges in the
region, then the electric flux density at point P be D, where it is
having a component , , and .

The value of D at point P may be expressed in rectangular

component represented as,

D= + + --------1
But from Gauss’s law,

D = Q. --------2
Closed surface integral has to be divided into six faces, i.e.

D =∫ +∫ +∫ +∫ +∫ +∫ = Q. --------3

Considering any one surface, since surface area is very small D is essentially constant and is
given by,

∫ = --------4

∫ =

Since it is in x-direction,

⇨ ∫ = --------5

The front face is at distance of from P, then,

= + rate of change of with x.

⇨ = +

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-2-Page 3

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

Where is the value of at P.

⇨ Equation (5) becomes,

⇨ ∫ =( ) --------6

Similarly for back surface the distance is from the point P.

= , + ( )]

⇨ = , ]= .

Negative sign is taken because the direction of flux is in opposite direction.

⇨ ∫ =( ) --------7

Adding equations (6) and (7), we get,

∫ ∫ = --------8

Similarly, ∫ ∫ = --------9

∫ ∫ = --------10

Substituting equations (8), (9) and (10) in equation (3), we have,

D =. / = Q.

⇨ . / = = .

Applying the limiting factor as , we get,

⇨ . /= = =

i.e. = . --------11

Above equation is called Divergence.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-2-Page 4

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

The divergence of the vector flux density D is the outflow of flux from a small closed surface
per unit volume as the volume shrinks to zero.

⇨ D= , for rectangular component.

⇨ D= ( ) , for cylindrical component.

⇨ D= ( ) ( ) ,

for spherical component.

From Divergence we have,

D=

But =

D=

This is the Maxwell’s first equation and it is also called as Gauss’s Law in point form or
differential form. Statement of Gauss’s Law in point form,

“The divergence of electric flux density in a medium at a point is equal to the charge per
unit volume at the same point.”

From Gauss’s Law, we have,

= D

But continuous charge distribution in volume is given by,

Q=∫ d

From the definition of divergence we have, = D.

⇨ = D =∫ d =∫ d

⇨ D = d

The above equation is called divergence theorem.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-2-Page 5

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

The divergence theorem states that,

“The integral of normal component of any vector field over a closed surface is equal to
the integral of the divergence of this vector field throughout the volume enclosed by the closed
surface.”

ENERGY AND POTENTIAL

ENERGY EXPANDED IN MOVING A POINT CHARGE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD:

The electric field intensity was defined as the force on unit test charge that point at which we
wish to find the value of this vector field. In this electric field we try to move the charge against
the electric field, for this we have to exert a force equal and opposite to that exerted by the field,
due to this it exert a negative charge.

Suppose we wish to move a charge Q a distance dl in an electric field E.

The force on Q arising from the electric field is,

=Q E

Or in vector form,

=F

=Q E

Since the force which we must apply is equal and opposite to the force and distance.

= Q E ̂

i.e. Differential work done by external source moving through small distance dl is given as,

The total work done in moving a point charge from infinite to finite distance is given by,

= ∫

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-2-Page 6

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

THE LINE INTIGRAL:

Now let us calculate the work done on a charge moving from infinite distance is given by,

= ∫

Let us calculate the work done for a line integral for the figure shown.

Now let us calculate a work done on a path B to A over a uniform electric field as shown in the
figure.

The path is divided into six segment , , , , , and a component of E

along each segment is denoted by , , …….. .

The work involved in moving a charge Q from B to A is given by,

W= , -

Using vector notation, we get,

W= , -

But we have assumed uniform field,

⇨ E= = = =

W= , -

But,

W=

But we have summation of small value of L is nothing but the integration,

= ∫

From this expression it is clear that work involved in moving the charge depends on Q, E
and , a vector drawn from the initial to the final point of the path chosen.

Note: will have following value.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-2-Page 7

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

= (Rectangular)

= (cylindrical)

= (spherical)

But electric field intensity of line integral is,

E= =

Work done = ∫

= ∫

= , -

= , - , -

W= . /

CURRENT AND CONDUCTORS:

CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY:

Electric charges in motion constitute a current. The unit of current is Ampere (A), it is also
defined as a rate of movement of charge passing a given reference point of one coulomb per
second, current symbol is given by,

I= .

Now let us define the current density measured in A/ ,

current density is a vector represented by J.

The incremental current crossing an incremental surface s normal

to the current density is,

Now, if current density is not perpendicular to the surface, then Δ = ρν ΔV

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-2-Page 8

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

Total current is obtained by integrating.

I=∫
Fig a
Current density may be related to velocity of volume charge density at a point, as shown in fig.

We know that, V =
Δ = ρν ΔV
i.e. rate of change of distance with respect to time.

Now, from figure it is clear that the element has moved a

distance , as shown in figure b.

= V=

Now since it has travelled a distance dx,

⇨ =

through a reference plane perpendicular to the direction of motion in a time increment t.

= =

= V

V represent x component of the velocity.

⇨ Current density, = V

In general, = V

The above equation clearly shows that, charge in motion constitutes a current, we call this type
of current as convection current J or is the convection current density.

CONTINUITY OF CURRENT:

The continuity equation of current is based on the principle of conservation of charge.

The principle states that, “The charge can be neither created nor be destroyed”.

But we have I= , total current passing through the surface s.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-2-Page 9

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

But we also know that current is nothing but the flow of positive charges. Hence the
current I, is obtained due to the outward flow of positive from the closed surface.

According to the principle of conservation of charge, there must be decrease of an equal amount
of positive charge inside the closed surface.

Hence the outward rate of flow of positive charge gets balanced by the rate of decrease of charge
inside the closed surface.

Let = charge within the closed surface, then

= rate of decrease of charges inside the closed surface.

Negative sign indicates the decrease of charges.

⇨ I= =

This is the integral form of the continuity equation of the current.

From the above equation we can derive the point form of continuity equation with the help of
divergence theorem.

= ( )

But we have, =

⇨ = ( )

If we keep the surface constant, then derivative becomes partial derivative.

⇨ ( ) = ∫

Since the expression is true for any volume, then it is true for small incremental volume and is
given by,

⇨ = The above mentioned equation is the point form or differential form of the
continuity equation of the current.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-2-Page 10

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
MODULE – 3
POISSON’S EQUATIONS AND LAPLACE EQUATIONS
Till now we have learned few methods of finding the electric field intensity, given a known
charge distribution or a potential field.
We have learned more about the close relationship between the potentials and electric
fields.
In this unit we are going to solve Laplace and Poisson’s equations. These equations
enable us to find potential field with in the regions, bounded by known potential or charge
density.
Laplace and Poisson’s equations, when compared to our other methods, are probably the
most widely used.

Derivation of Poisson’s and Laplace Equation

From the Gauss’s Law we have

------------- (1)

But D = ------------- (2)

------------- (3)

We also have E=

------------- (4)

Equation (4) is called Poisson’s Equation, which is applicable to homogeneous medium.

If = 0, indicating zero volume charge density, but allowing point charges, line charges and
surface charge density to exist at singular location, then

------------- (5)

The above equation (5) is called Laplace Equation.

Laplace equation in three different co-ordinates:

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 1

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
 Rectangular co-ordinates/Cartesian co-ordinates system ;

+ + =0

 Cylindrical co-ordinates system;

( )
 Spherical co-ordinates system;

( ) ( )

THE STADY MAGNETIC FIELD

At this point we have studied a lot of concept of electric field. Now we study the effect of the
magnetic field and its properties.

Magnetic field and its properties:

To understand the properties of magnetic field we take simple magnet as an example which has
North pole and South pole.

Therefore the region around a magnet within which the influence of the magnet can be
experienced is called Magnetic field.

These fields are represented by imaginary lines around the magnet, which are called
magnetic lines of forces, or Magnetic flux lines and the direction of these lines are always from
North to South pole, which means magnetic line of forces exists in closed loops only as shown in
figure.

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 2

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
Magnetic field due to current carrying conductor:

A right hand thumb rule is used to determine the direction of magnetic field around a conductor
carrying a direct current.

“It states that, hold the current carrying conductor in the right hand such that the thumb pointing
in the direction of current and parallel to the conductor, then curled fingers points the direction of
magnetic lines of flux around it, as shown in figure.”

Another method of identifying the direction of magnetic flux around a conductor is right hand
screw rule; it states that the direction of magnetic field is given by the direction in which the
screw must be turned, as the screw moves in the direction of current.

Magnetic flux lines always forms a closed loop and is denoted by Φ. It is measured in Weber
Wb.

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 3

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
Magnetic field Intensity:

The magnetic field intensity at any point in the magnetic field is defined as force experienced by
a unit north pole of 1Wb strength, when placed at that point and is measured in Newton/Weber
(N/Wb) or Ampere/meter (A/m). It is denoted by H.

Magnetic flux density:

Magnetic flux crossing a unit area in a plane at right angles to the direction of flux is called
magnetic flux density. It is denoted as B and is a vector quantity. It is measured in Weber/m2 or it
is also called Tesla.

Relation between B and H:

B= =

For free space =1

B= and =4

Biot Savart Law:

We assume a current I is flowing in a conductor as shown in figure. We have to calculate

the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity, to calculate this we apply BIOT-SAVART LAW
at any point P due to differential element length dl.

The magnitude of the magnetic field intensity produced by the differential element length
is proportional to the product of the current, the magnitude of the differential length, and sine of
angle made between the filament and a line connecting the filament to the point P and inversely
proportional to the square of the distant from the differential element to the point P. The
direction of the magnetic field intensity is normal to the plane containing the differential element
and the line joining the filament to the point P.

The BIOT-SAVART LAW mathematically represented by

dH

dH

Where k=

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 4

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
dH

The vector notation of above expression is given by considering the direction along .

dH

But we have from cross product

dH

The integral form of BIOT-SAVART LAW is given by

H A/m

Where =| |

BIOT-SAVART LAW for infinitely long straight conductor or filament:

Let us consider an infinitely long straight current carrying conductor, along z-axis.

To calculate the magnetic field intensity at point P due to the current carrying conductor,
let us consider dl i.e. differential element in z-axis at a distant of z.

We have from BIOT-SAVART LAW,

But =| |

R=

|R| = √

aR =
√

𝝆𝒂𝝆 ( ρ, 0, 0)

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 5

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

dl R = | |

dl R =

dl R =

Substitute in H expression above for infinite length,

H ∫

H ∫

H ∫

From figure, Z =

dZ = - cosec2 d

If Z=-

Z= 0

H ∫ dθ

H ∫ dθ

H ∫ dθ

H ∫ dθ

H ∫ d

H [ ]

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 6

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
H [ ]

H [ ]

H x2

H A/m

Similarly, B=

B= Wb/m2

BIOT-SAVART LAW for finite current carrying conductor:

To calculate magnetic field intensity due to a finite current carrying conductor, we consider the
following figure, for the length of Z1 to Z2.

To find H, let us consider dl from the finite length Z1 to Z2 having length of Z from origin
and which makes angle with point P by connecting the point.

Similarly we have are the angle made due to point Z1 and Z2 respectively with
point P.

We have from BIOT-SAVART LAW,

But =| |

R=

|R| = √

aR =
√

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 7

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

dl R = | |

dl R =

dl R =

Substitute in H expression above for infinite length,

H ∫

H ∫

H ∫

From figure, we can select Z1 = ( )

Z2 = ( )
Z=
dz = d
Substituting in the above equation of H, we get,

H ∫

 H ∫

 H ∫

 H ∫

 H ∫

 H ∫

 H [ ]

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 8

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
H [ ] A/m

But B = μH

 B= [ ] wb/m2

MAGNETIC FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY:

Gauss’s law in differential form for magnetic fields:

We have B= H, where free space permeability.

We also have B = Wb/m2

=B for small surface

i.e. Magnetic flux density is defined as flux in weber passing through unit area in a plane at
right angle to the direction of flux.

If the flux passing through the unit area is not exactly at right angles to the plane
crossing the area but making some angle with plane then the flux crossing the area is
given by,

magnetic flux density.

B m2 .

flux passing through the area.

Since we know that magnetic flux lines always exits in closed loop, thus for a closed
surface the number of magnetic flux lines entering must be equal to the number of flux lines
leaving the surface, due to this no magnetic flux exist in a closed surface.

Hence =0

But from divergence theorem,

Since ,

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 9

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
=0

Therefore, the divergence of magnetic flux density is always zero.

Th G ’ w

Th h M w ’ q

Ampere’s Circuital Law:

The line integral of magnetic field intensity H around a closed path is exactly equal to the direct
current enclosed by that path.

H dl = I -----------1
But we have already studied the magnetic field intensity H for infinitely long current carrying
conductor is given by,

H= -----------2

And dl = -----------3

i.e. If we assume closed circular path radius then dl is given by equation (3).

H dl =

H dl = d ( )

Taking Integration both side, we get

H dl = d

=∫ d

= [ ]

= [ ]

=I

H dl = I This proves Ampere’s Circuital law.

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 10

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
A conductor has total current I. The line integral of H about the closed paths a and b is
equal to I, and the line integral around the path c is less than I. Since the entire current is not
enclosed by the path.

Area of circle = R2.

Perimeter of circle = 2 R.

Current/unit area of cross section = .

Current enclosed by the path = area of element.

= =I .

Expression for H at any point due to a co-axial cable:

This is the application of Ampere’s Circuital Law, consider infinitely long co-axial
transmission line carrying a uniformly distributed total current I in the center conductor and –I in
the outer conductor, as shown in the figure.

Symmetry shows that H is not a function of or Z.

Further, component at produced by a filament located at and , is

cancelled by component produced by and , as shown in fig b.

varies only with respect to .

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 11

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
a) Consider a circular path of radius such that <a, and apply Ampere’s Circuital Law to
the closed path.
H dl = I
et us assume that the solid conductor is made up of infinitely large number of filament
conductors, each carrying a current in z-direction. So that component of H is produced
i.e. H= and dl =

∫ =2
But we have current enclosed by the circular path = RHS = I
Equating, we get
2 I

b) If >c = 0 (no current is enclosed = I – I = 0)

c) For radius such that a < < b acts as current filament.

(a < < b)

d) b < <c Since the path lies within the outer conductor, we
have

2 I –I ( )
Figure C
2 I( )

( ).

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 12

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

H due to infinitely long straight conductor by using Ampere’s Circuital Law:

Consider an infinitely long straight conductor placed along z-

axis, carrying a direct current I as shown in the figure.

Applying the Ampere’s Circuital Law we find the value of H 𝐚𝛗

from the figure where radius of the path is and point P is
the perpendicular distance from the conductor, on the 𝛒
closed path.

Since we know that if the current is travelling along

z-axis then the direction is always tangential to the closed
path i.e. along .

H=

If we consider elementary length dl at point P and long straight conductor acts as a cylinder.

dl =

H dl = .

H dl =

∫ H dl = ∫ =I ( of closed path)

0 to

∫ =I

[ ] =I

[ ]=I

=I

= A/m.

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 13

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

CURL:

We now apply the Ampere’s Circuital Law to the

perimeter of a differential surface element and discuss
the third and last of the spherical derivatives of vector
analysis, the curl.

Our immediate objective is to obtain the point

form of Ampere’s Circuital Law.

Again we shall choose rectangular co-ordinates,

and an incremental closed path of side x and y is
selected as shown in figure. We assume that some
current, as yet unspecified produces a reference value
for H at the center of this small rectangle, given by

The closed line integral of H about this path is then approximately the sum of four values of H.dl
he direction as on each side.

Let us choose the direction as 12341, which corresponds to a current in the - direction
and the first contribution is,

(H L)1-2 = y

The value of on this section of the path may be given in terms of the reference value

at the center of the rectangle, the rate of change of with x and the distance is from the
center to the midpoint of side 1-2.

= + ( ).

(H L)1-2 = +( ( )) y -----------1

Similarly along the next section of the path, we have

(H L)2-3 = x) = - x.

(H L)2-3 = -( + ( )) x -----------2

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 14

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
Similarly for path 3-4, we have

(H L)3-4 = - y.

(H L)3-4 = -[ - ] y -----------3 ( is negative direction of x).

Similarly, for 4-1

(H L)4-1 = - x

(H L)4-1 = [ - ] x -----------4

Adding equations 1, 2, 3 and 4, we get

= y+ - x–

- y+ + x-

= x y[ ]

If we assume a general current density J, the enclosed current is then

I= x y

And applying Ampere’s Circuital Law,

= x y[ ]= x y.

= = -----------5

Similarly we can derive for and .

i.e. = = -----------6

= = -----------7

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 15

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
* + * + [ ] .

H.

OR H=J= ∫

Similarly for cylindrical co-ordinates,

H =* + * + [ ] .

For spherical co-ordinates, we have

H= ) + ( ) + ( ) .

Stoke’s Theorem:

A line integral of a vector H around a closed a path L is equal to the integral of curl H over the
open surface S enclosed by the closed path L.

The theorem is valid only when H and H are continuous on the

surface S. 𝐚𝐍

Consider the surface S as shown in the figure where it is further broken

into small surface area as S. Applying curl definition for S, we get

=( H)N

N Normal to the surface.

Small incremental surface as shown in figure.

=( H)

=( H) .

From the figure we see that all the inner surface get cancelled due to the boundary traced in two
direction.

Remaining is outer surface i.e. total surface.

= ( H) This is the Stoke’s theorem.

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 16

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

Prove that divergence of a curl is zero using Stoke’s theorem:

i.e. “ = 0”

Let A represent only vector field, then let us consider the divergence of curl vector A as scalar
say T which is represented by,

= T. -----------1

Integrate the above expression with respect to volume, dv

dv = T dv -----------2

But from divergence theorem, we get

dv = ds

Then equation 2 becomes,

ds = T dv

The left side is the surface integral of the curl of A over the closed surface surrounding the
volume, then from Stoke’s theorem, which gives

T dv = 0.

Since the volume is not zero (v )

T=0

From equation 1 it is proved that,

= T = 0.

From Stokes theorem

H=J

( H) = J = 0.

J = 0.

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 17

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

Expressions for Curl in different co-ordinate system:

1. In Rectangular or Cartesian co-ordinates:

H=| |

2. In Cylindrical co-ordinates system:

H= | | = || ||

3. In Spherical co-ordinates system:

H= | | = || ||

MAHADEV S, ASST. PROFESSOR, ECE DEPARTMENT MODULE-3-Page 18

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

MODULE-4
MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS
If the current distribution is known, then we can easily determine, H, B and A at ever
point in space.
In this unit, we are going to determine the forces and torque exerted by the magnetic field
on the other charges.
The electric filed causes a force to be exerted on a charge which may be either stationary
or in motion.
We are going to study that steady magnetic field is capable of exerting a force only on a
moving charges.
A magnetic field may be produced by moving charges and may exert forces on moving
charge; a magnetic field cannot arise from stationary charges and cannot exert any force
on a stationary charge.
The problems associated with the motion of particles in a vacuum are largely avoided.

FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE.

From the electric field intensity we have

F
E=
Q

Or force on charge particle is given as

F = QE --------------------------------------------- 1

The force is in the same direction as the electric field intensity (for a positive charge) and
is directly proportional to both E and Q.

If the charge is in motion then force at any point in its trajectory is given by equation 1.
i.e

F = QE --------------------------------------------- 1

A charge particle in motion in a magnetic field of flux density B; experience a force whose
magnitude is proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charge, its velocity 𝑣, and the
flux density B and sine of the angle between the vector 𝑣 and B. the direction of the force is
perpendicular to both 𝑣 and B. and is given by a unit vector in the direction of 𝑣 x B is given as

F = Q 𝑣 Bsin 𝜃

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 1

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

∴ F = Q (𝑣 x B)---------------------------------------- 2

The fore on a moving particle is arising from both electric field and magnetic field and
the expression is obtained by superposition theorem and is given by adding equation 1 and
equation 2

F = QE + Q (𝑣 x B)

∴ F = Q (E + 𝒗 x B) ------------------------------------ 3

The above equation 3 is called LORENTZ FORCE EQUATION.

LORENTZ FORCE EQUATION and its solution has some applications such as

1. It is used in determine electron orbit in the magnetron

2. Proton path in the cyclotron
3. Plasma characteristics in a magneto hydrodynamics (MHD).

FORCE ON DIFFERENTIAL CURRENT ELEMENT.

The conventional current density J can be represented in term of the velocity of the volume
charge density and is given by

J = 𝜌𝑣 𝑣-------------------------------- 1

The force exerted on a differential element of charge dQ moving in a steady magnetic field is
given by

dF = dQ (𝑣 x B) ---------------------- 2

But we have,
𝑑𝑄
𝜌𝑣 = 𝑑𝑣

 dQ = 𝜌𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑣 ------------------------- 3

Substitute equation 3 in equation 2 we get

dF =𝜌𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑣 (𝑣 x B) ----------------- 4

but from equation 1, above equation can be simplified as

dF = J x B ∙ 𝑑𝑣 ----------------------- 5

the relationship between current element is given by

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 2

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

𝐽 𝑑𝑣 = k ds = I dl ------------------ 6

∴ Lorentz force equation applied to surface current density is given by

dF = K x B ∙ 𝑑𝑠 ---------------------- 7

∴ Lorentz force equation applied to differential current element is given by

dF = Idl x B -------------------------- 8

Integrating the equations 5, equation 7 and equation 8 we get

F=∮
𝑣
F J x B ∙ 𝑑𝑣

= ∮𝑠 K x B ∙ 𝑑𝑠

F = ∮ Idl x B or - ∮ IB x dl

If the conductor is straight and the field B is uniform along it, then

F = Idl x B = ILBsin 𝜃

Where θ is the angle between the vector representing the direction of the current flow and the
direction of the magnetic flux density.

FORCE BETWEEN DIFERENTIAL CURRENT ELEMENTS:

The concept of the magnetic field was introduced to break into

two parts, the problem of finding the interaction of one current
(element) distribution on a second current distribution.

Let us consider two current carrying conductors are placed

parallel to each other, such that each conductor produces its own
flux around it, due to which there exists a force of attraction or
repulsion depending upon the direction of current on the
conductor.

 If the direction of the both the currents are same, then the
conductors experience a force attraction as shown in the
figure (a).
 If the direction of the both the currents are opposite to
each other, then the conductors experience force
repulsion as shown in the figure (b).

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 3

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

 Let us consider two current elements 𝐼1dl1 and 𝐼2dl2 as shown in the figure (c).
 Note the direction of current 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are same.
 Since the current is in the same direction, the force of attraction is as shown in figure (c).

From the equation of force, the force exerted on a differential current element is given by,

d(dF1) = 𝐼1dl1 × dB2------------------------------------------------ 1

But from BIOT-SAVART LAW

I2dl2×aR21
dB2 = μ0 dH2 = μ0 4πR212
------2

Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get

𝐼1dl1×(I2dl2×aR21)
d(dF1 ) = μ0 4πR212

Integrating above equation twice, we get

F = μ0I1I2 ∮ ∮ dl1×(dl2×aR21) ------3

1 4π L1 L2 R212

Similarly we get

F = μ0I1I2 ∮ ∮ dl2×(dl1×aR12) ------4

2 4π L1 L2 R122

From the above equations (3) and (4) are opposite to each other

i.e. F1 = −F2 or F2 = −F1 ----------------------------------------- 5

Thus from above we see that it obeys Newton’s third law, i.e. for every action there is equal and
opposite reaction.

∴ For the two current carrying conductors of length L each, the force exerted is given by
𝛍𝐈𝟏𝐈𝟐𝑳
𝐅=
𝟐𝛑𝐝

Where I1 and I2 are the current flowing through conductor 1 and conductor 2 and d is the
distance of separation between two conductors.

MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:

The conditions of the magnetic field existing at the boundary of the two media when the
magnetic field passes from one medium to other are called boundary conditions.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 4

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

Figure below shows a boundary between two isotropic homogeneous linear materials with
permeability μ1 and μ2.

To study the boundary conditions let us consider two cases.

1. Normal to the boundary.

2. Tangential to the boundary.

Boundary conditions for normal component:

To find the normal component of B, let us select a closed Gaussian surface in the form of a right
circular cylinder as shown in figure.

Let the height of the cylinder be ∆h and be placed in such a way that ∆h is in medium1 and
2
remaining ∆h is in medium2, and axis of the cylinder is in the normal direction to the surface.
2

But Gauss’s law for magnetic field is,

∮sB∙ds = 0 ----------------------------------------------------------------- 1

⇨ L.H.S. is given by

∮sB∙ds = ∮topB∙ds + ∮bottomB∙ds + ∮lateralB∙ds =0 ---------------- 2

To calculate the boundary conditions let ∆h = 0 then surface integral is calculated for top and
bottom surface only.

Since these surfaces are very small. Let the magnitude of normal component of B be BN1 and BN2
in medium1 and medium2 respectively.

∴ ∮topB∙ds = BN1 ∮topds = BN1∙ ∆s ------------------------------ 3

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 5

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

Similarly, ∮bottomB∙ds = BN2 ∮bottomds = BN2∙ ∆s ---------------------- 4

∮lateralB∙ds =0 ⇨ ∆h = 0

But from figure, normal component is entering medium1 and leaving the medium2 so BN1
and BN2 are opposite to each other. Then equation2 becomes,

∴ BN1∙ ∆s − BN2∙ ∆s = 0

⇨ ∆s BN1 = ∆s BN2

⇨ BN1 = BN2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5

Thus the normal component of B is continuous at boundary.

But B = μH ⇨ equation (5) can be written as,

⇨ μ1HN1 = μ2HN2
𝐻𝙽1 μ
⇨ H𝙽2
= μ2
1

𝑯𝐍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝐫𝟐
∴ 𝐇𝐍𝟐
= 𝛍𝐫𝟏
𝛍𝟏

∴ Normal component of H is not continuous at the boundary.

i.e. Field strength in two media are inversely proportional to their relative permeability.

Boundary conditions for tangential component:

From Ampere’s circuital law we have,

∮H∙dl = I -------------------------------------------------------------------1

Consider rectangular path a-b-c-d-a as shown in the figure, which is placed in a plane normal to
the boundary surface, then equation(1) can be written as,
b 1 c d 2 a
∮ H ∙ dl = ∮a H ∙ dl + ∮b H ∙ dl ∮1 H ∙ dl + ∮c H ∙ dl ∮d H ∙ dl + ∮2 H ∙ dl = I -------------- 2

From the figure it is clear that, closed path is placed in such a way that its two sides a-b and c-d
are parallel to the tangential direction to the surface while the other two sides are normal to the
surface at the boundary.

 This closed path is placed in such a way that half of its portion is in medium1 and
remaining is in medium2.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 6

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

From the figure it is clear that the normal and the tangential components in medium1 and
medim2 are in opposite direction and equation(2) can be written as,
∆h ∆h
K ∙ dw = H (∆w) + H ∆h (∆w) − H ∆h -------------------
3
tan1 N1 ( 2 ) + HN2 ( 2 ) − Htan2 N2 ( 2 ) − HN1 ( 2 )

At boundary condition ∆h = 0

⇨ K ∙ dw = Htan1(∆w) − Htan2(∆w)

⇨ K = Htan1 − Htan2 --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4

In vector form above equation can be expressed as,

Htan1 − Htan2 = aN12 × K ----------------------------------------------5

Where aN12 is the unit vector in the direction normal at the boundary from medium1 to
medium2, where K ⇨ surface current density.

But B = μH

Bta𝚗1 Bta𝚗2
⇨ − =K
μ1 μ2

 Consider a special case with current at the boundary, then

Htan1 = Htan2 ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 6

Bta𝚗1 Bta𝚗2
OR =
μ1 μ2

Bta𝚗1 μ1
− ------ 7
Bta𝚗2 μ2

From equation (6) the tangential component of H are continuous in nature.

And from equation (7) B are discontinuous at the boundary, with the condition that the boundary
is current free.

Let us consider the field makes an angle α1 and α2 with normal to the interface as shown in the
figure. Then,

In medium1,
Bta𝚗1
tan α1 = B𝙽1
------ 8

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 7

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

In medium2,
Bta𝚗2
tan α2 = B𝙽2
- ---- 9

Dividing equation (8) and equation (9), we get

tan 𝝰1 Bta𝚗1 B
= ∙ B 𝙽2
tan 𝝰2 B𝙽1 ta𝚗2

Since BN1 = BN2

𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛂𝟏 𝐁 𝛍𝐫𝟏
⇨ = 𝐁𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟏 = 𝛍𝐫𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛂𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS:

In magnetic circuits, we determine the magnetic fluxes and magnetic

field intensities in various parts of the circuits. If we study the analogy
between the electric and magnetic circuits, then it becomes very easy
for us to understand the magnetic circuit.

Let us study analogy between the electric and magnetic circuits. An

electric circuit with closed path form a circuit similar to these magnetic
lines of flux is continuous and can form closed path.

So a single magnetic line of flux or all parallel magnetic lines of flux

may be considered as magnetic circuit.

Similar to electromotive force (e.m.f) in an electronic circuit, we can

define a new quantity in case of a magnetic circuit called magneto
motive force (m.m.f). The magneto motive force is defined as,

em = NI = ∫ H ∙ dl

S. I. unit of m.m.f is Ampere (A).

Generally in magnetic circuits, the source of m.m.f is a coil carrying

conductors with N number of turns as shown in the figure (c).

∴ m.m.f is measured in Ampere-turn (A-t).

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 8

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

In electronic circuits we have R = V

I

Similarly analogically in magnetic field reluctance is the ratio of the magneto motive force to the
total flux.

⇨ reluctance is measured in Ampere−turn

weber

The resistance in electric circuit can be expressed in terms of conductivity σ as,

1
=
𝑠

l ⇨ length, s ⇨ cross section, σ ⇨ conductivity of the linear isotropic homogeneous material. In case of
magnetic circuits, we can define reluctance in very much similar way as,

1
=
𝑠
where μ ⇨ permeability.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 9

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
MODULE-5

TIME VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

In this unit, we will introduce two new concepts, i.e

 The electric field is produced by changing magnetic field and
 The magnetic field is produced by changing electric field.
These topics were researched by a person called Michel Faraday, and it was proved by Maxwell.
FARADAY’S LAW:-
Faraday introduces the concept i.e. a current could produce a magnetic field, then the magnetic
field should be able to produce a current.
We now say that time varying magnetic field produces an electromotive force (e.m.f),
which may establish a current in a suitable closed path.
This e.m.f is merely a voltage that arises from conductor moving in a magnetic field or
from changing magnetic field.
Faraday discovered that the induced e.m.f is equal to the rate of change of flux (magnetic
flux).

i.e e.m.f = - Volts -------1

A non-zero value of may result from any of the following situation.

* A time changing flux linking a stationary closed path.
* Relative motion between a steady flux and a closed path.
* A combination of two.
The minus sign is an indication that the e.m.f. induced is in such a direction that produces
a current whose flux if added to the original flux, would reduce the magnitude of the e.m.f.
This statement that the induced voltage acts to produce an opposing flux is known as
LENZ’S LAW.
If the closed path is that taken by a N-turn filamentary conductor then e.m.f is

e.m.f = - N -------2

where is now interpreted as the flux passing through any one of N co-incident path.
Since the induced e.m.f is obviously a scalar, and is measured in volts then we define

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 1

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
e.m.f = ∫ -------3
And note that it is the voltage about a specific closed path.
If any part of the path is changed, e.m.f also changes.

But we have B =


 ∫ -------4
From equation 1

e.m.f = -

e.m.f = - ∫ =∫ -------5

Where the fingers of our right hand indicate the direction of the closed path, and our thumb
indicates the direction of
A flux density B in the direction of and increasing with time thus produces an average
value of E which is opposite to the positive direction about the closed path.
Let us divide our studies into parts by first finding the combination to the total e.m.f
made by changing field with in

(i) Stationary path (transformer e.m.f) and

(ii) Moving path within a constant(motional or generator or e.m.f)

(i) Stationary Path:- From equation 5 we have

e.m.f = - ∫ =∫

In the above expression, the magnetic flux is the only time-varying quantity on the right hand
side then the partial derivative may be taken under the integral sign.

e.m.f = ∫ =-∫ -------6

But from stokes theorem we can write

∫ =∫ -------7
Equating equation 6 and 7

∫ =-∫

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 2

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
 =

The above equation is called Maxwell’s equation in differential form or point form.
From equation 6 we have

∫ =-∫

The above equation is Maxwell’s equation in Integral form.

If B is not a function of time then

=0

 ∫ = 0 or these are called Electro static

(ii). Second only we consider moving path with constant (motional e.m.f)

Let the force on charge on Q moving at a velocity v, in a magnetic field B is given by

F = Q. v X B

=vXB

 Em = v X B motional electric field intensity.

But e.m.f = ∫
 e.m.f = ∫ . dl
where above equation is a non-zero value only along that portion of the path which is in motion.
If we consider the magnetic flux density is also varying with time then

e.m.f = ∫ ==-∫ +∫ .dl

Displacement Current:-
From Faraday’s law we got the Maxwell’s equation given by

---------1

From the above equation 1 we can analyze that, time varying magnetic field produces an electric
field,
from ACL, we have steady magnetic field in point form is given by
---------2
Taking divergence on both sides of the equation 2, we get

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 3

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

But from CURL property we have

Then we get
----------3
We also have the equation for continuity in terms of current density given by

------------4

If = 0 then only it satisfies


Which is unrealistic or not compatible with time varying field?
 We have to add some unknown term G in equation 2 i.e
 ------------5
Now again taking divergence both sides for equation 5 we

Applying curl property to above equation we get

but we have

but =

Interchanging the

We get

Comparing L.H.S and R.H.S we get

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 4

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
------------6

Therefore equation 5 becomes

---------7

Therefore the above equation is the second Maxwell’s Equation, and the additional term has
the dimension of current density A/m2. And since it varies w.r.t to time for electric field, So
Maxwell named it as displacement current. i.e

 Equation 7
Were J = σ E is called conduction current density

and is called Displacement Current Density.

Now, if we consider the non-conducting medium in which volume charge density is zero then
 J=0
Then equation 7 becomes

-------8

But we have b

------9

Equation 8 and 9 are symmetry to each other

Therefore is called point form of Displacement Current.

Taking integration for the above equation of w.r.t to surface we get

ID = ∮ =∮

Therefore taking integral w.r.t surface for equation 7 we get

∮ ∮ ∮

But from stroke’s theorem we get

∮ ∮ this equation is the Maxwell’s equation in Integral form.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 5

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

Maxwell’s Equation in Point Form or Differential Form

1. From Faraday’s Law

2. From Curl

3. From Gauss’s Law

4. From Biot-Savart Law
Maxwell’s Equation in Integral form

1. ∮ ∮ ds From Faraday’s Law

2. ∮ ∮ From Ampere’s Circuital Law

3. ∮ =∮ dv From Gauss’s Law

4. ∮ From Biot-Savart Law

UNIFORM PLANE WAVES

The existence of electromagnetic (EM) wave was stated by prof. Heinrich Hertz.

Maxwell himself predicted the existence of EM waves earlier.

Hertz was the first scientist who generated and detected radio waves successfully, where waves
are means of transporting energy or information from source to destination.

Uniform plane wave in free space:

Uniform plane waves are those waves, where electric and magnetic fields are uniform
everywhere. There is no variation at any point.

i.e. Consider that an electric field is in x-direction, while a magnetic field in is y-direction. Both
the fields will not vary with x and y directions but vary in only z-direction.

Consider Maxwell’s equation expressed in E and M as,

H=J+

Let us assume that a free space is perfect dielectric, then J=0. Because σ = 0.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 6

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
H=

D is a rectangular co-ordinates system. Then

* + * + * + = [ ].

As H is in y-direction ⇨ =0.

+ = .

Since is not changing with x, because wave is in z direction so we have

⇨ = 0.

⇨ = .

But D = E.

⇨ = .

Equating the coefficient of the vector direction, then we get

 = -----------1

Again we have to consider Maxwell’s equation,

E= .

* + * + * + = ..

As E is in x- direction ⇨ . And =0.

+ = .

Since is not varying with y, because wave I in z direction so above equation is written as,

⇨ =0

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 7

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
⇨ = .

Equating the coefficient of the above equation, we get,

⇨ = . ----------2

Differentiating equation 1 with respect to t, we get.

* += ----------3

Differentiating equation 2 with respect to z, we have.

* += ----------4

From equations 3 and 4 both LHS are same after changing the order of differentiation.

= .

⇨ = .

But we have =
√

⇨ = .

where is the wave velocity

Above equation is called wave equation.

Wave equation in free space:

Consider E= .

Taking curl of both sides, we have

E= .

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 8

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
E= .

We know that, D= E and B = H.

[ ] [ ]= . (∵ )

E .

But H=J+ [Ampere’s Circuital Law].

Substituting above expression, we get

E ( ).

In free space = 0 and J = 0.

⇨ E= .

⇨ E = 0.

But D = E.

⇨ E = 0.

In terms of H.

Consider H=J+

Taking curl on both sides, we get

H= J+ .

H= J+ .

We have B= H ⇨ H=

J= e D=

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 9

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
H= E) + .

=0 for free space = 0.

H= ( ).

H= .

H= .

H = 0.

Relation between E and H in uniform plane wave:

H=J+

In free space J = 0.

⇨ H= = = .

⇨ H =| |.

⇨ H = * + * + * += .

If we consider the wave to be uniform plane wave travelling in x-direction, then

⇨ + = + + .

⇨ Equating the vectors, we have

= ---------1

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 10

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
= ---------2

We have

= 0.

Let the solution of the second order differential equation be given by,

= (x- t) where =
√

Let u= x- t ⇨ du = dt

⇨ = (x)

= (x) (- ) = (x) ---------3

Substituting above equation in (1), we get

= (x) ---------4

Consider = (u) =1

= (u) ---------5

Substitute equation 5in 3, we have

But =
√

= √
----------6

Put equation 6 in 1, we have

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 11

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
= √

= √

Integrate with respect to x,

=√

= √

𝜂=Z= = √ where Z is called Intrinsic Impedance of the medium

But for free space,

𝜂=Z= = √ =√ = 377Ω

Therefore for free space Z = 377Ω.

Skin Depth or Depth of Penetration:

It is defined as the depth of a conductor at
which the amplitude of the wave has been attenuated
to or 0.367 or 36.7% of the initial amplitude is
called Skin depth.

When an electromagnetic wave enters a

conducting medium, its amplitude starts attenuating
and finally it reaches to zero after certain distance, as a result the current induced by the wave
exists only near the surface of the conductor, this effect is called a Skin depth.

If x is the distance travelled in the medium and Eo is the maximum amplitude at the initial
incidence then we can write,

E=

At x = where is called Skin depth or depth of penetration.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 12

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

Then expression of E becomes,

E=

E=

E = 0.367 Eo or 36.7% of Eo

For good conductor,

We have

=√

then

=√ =√ =√
√

=√

Poynting theorem
Poynting theorem is the mathematical expression of the law of conservation of energy as applied
to the electromagnetic fields.

Statement:- At any point in an electromagnetic field the power per unit area or power density
vector is given by

The vector S is given the name Poynting vector. The direction is perpendicular to
the plane E and H.

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 13

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

To derive the expression we have from Maxwell’s equation,

H=J+

Multiply above equation with E both side we get,

= ( ) --------1

But from vector identity,

 =
Substitute in the above equation in equation 1we get,

But J = D=

But

= ( )

= ( )

= ( ) --------2

But ( )

( ) ( )

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 14

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)

Therefore above equation 2 simplifies to,

= ( ) ( ) -------3

The above equation is the point form or differential form of the Poynting theorem.

Integrating the equation 3 with respect to volume, we get

∫ ∫ ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )

MAHADEV S, ASST.PROFESSOR, ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 15