INALS AND SYSTEMS (Includes Matlab Programs) etl) t NSE eaeStrictly According to the Prescribed Syllabus of epi, DSMANIA UNIVERSITY (HYDERABAD) G-MounikTeA A TEXT BOOK OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS FOR BE - (0.U) II YEAR II SEMESTER (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) Prepared by EXPERIENCED FACULTIES ™ ‘7 PROFESSIONAL foe nen] ‘The Destination Towards Knowledge & Success Scanned with CamScannerThe rapid changing, increasing global environment and innovation in technologies, multiplicities of activities and growing interdependence make Jarger and larger disaster inevitable. Engineers and managers are assigned and responsibilities to scare the factors by the different activities to achieve the objectives for the best advantages. This book is titled as “SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS" is the right choice of subject for students in their curriculum of study. We have worked hard to make “Signals and Systems”, the most interesting, relevant and understandable text available. ‘This book is for the B.E students of Osmania University. It can be use as a basic text book by students of other universities also. The basic purpose of this book is to assist the learner to develop a thorough understand of the various concept and make it useful extremely self study approach for students and as a useful tools for faculties. The significant highlight of this book is the method of presentation, comprehensive coverage to topics and an emphasis on lucidity and the most important to rule out the necessity of referring other books, as this itself covers the entire syllabus. So, We have tried to accomplish the presentation in a magnificent way which focus to cover the entire syllabus with complete inclusive of topics which make the reader a guided field of knowledge and complete fetch to score marks in examination. We wishes to express the profound gratitude and thankful to all these who are directly or indirectly responsible for bringing out the edition. Suggestions for improvement are always welcome. [email protected]) (e-mail AWARNING. Scanned with CamScannerUNIT - I SYLLABUS OSMANIA UNIVERSITY CHAPTER - 1 : INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Some Useful Operations on Signals : Time Shifting, Time Scaling, Time Inversion. Signal Models : Impulse Function, Unit Step Function, Exponential Function, Even and Odd Signals. Systems : Linear and Non-linear Systems, Constant Parameter and Time Varying Parameter Systems, Static and Dynamic Systems, Causal and Non-causal Systems, Lumped Parameter and Distributed Parameter Systems, Continuous-Time and Discrete- Time Systems, Analog and Digital Systems. UNIT - Il CHAPTER - 2 : FOURIER SERIES Signals and Vectors, Signal Comparison, Correlation, Signal Representation by Orthogonal Signal Set, Trigonometric Fourier Series, Exponential Fourier Series, LTI System Response to Periodic Inputs. UNIT ~ III + Functions, Properties of Fo CHAPTER - 3 : CONTINUOUS-TIME SIGNAL ANALYSIS : FOURIER TRANSFORM Aperiodic Signal Representation by Fourier Integral, Fourier Transform of Some Useful ier Transform, Signal Transmission through LTI Systems, Ideal and Practical Filters, Signal Energy. ° CHAPTER - 4 : LAPLACE TRANSFORM Definition, Some Properties of Laplace Transform, Solution of Differential Equations using Laplace Transform, . Scanned with CamScannerUNIT - Iv CHAPTER - 5 : DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Introduction, Some Useful Discrete-time Signal Models, Sinusoids and Ali: Sampling Continuous-time + Useful Signal Operations, Examples of Discrete-time Systems, Fourier Analysis of Discrete-Time Signals, Periodic Signal Representation of Discrete. ‘Time Fourier Series, Aperiodie Signal Representation by Fourier Integral. UNIT - V CHAPTER - 6 : DISCRETE-TIME SIGNAL ANALYSIS Z-TRANSFORM Z-Transform, Some Properties of Z-Transform, Solution to Linear Difference Equations Using Z-Transform, System Realization, Relation between Laplace Transform and Z- Transform, DIFT : Definition, Properties of DTFT, Comparison of continuous-time Signal Analysis with Discrete-time Signal Analysis. ° Scanned with CamScannerHARTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS SYLCABUS [BEE O.U] Some Useful Operations on Signals : Time Shifting, Time Scaling, Time Inversion. Signal Models : Impulse Function, Unit Step Function, Exponential Function, Even and Odd Signals. Systems : Linear and Non-linear Systems, Constant Parameter and Time Varying Parameter Systems, Static and Dynamic Systems, Causal and Non-causal Systems, Lumped Parameter and Distributed Parameter Systems, Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Systems, Analog and Digital Systems. Scanned with CamScannerRE ee gees 12 Tnireduction to Signals and Systems (Unit 1) chy (RM INtRopuction The concept of signals and systems are widespread in many areas of science ang engineering. These concepts are very extensively applied in the field of circuit analysi, and design, long distance communication, bio-medical engineering, aeronautics, speech and image processing etc. A signal is defined as “a function of one or more independent variables which containg some information”. If the function depends on a signal variable, the signal is said to be one dimensional signal. Example : Speech signal. If the function depends on two or more variables the signal is.’said to be multidimensional signal. Example : Image signal. When these signals are operated on few devices, produces a signals in the same or modified form. Such devices are called systems. A system may thus defined as a set of elements or functional blocks which are connected together to produce an output in response to an input signals. Amplifiers, transmitters and receivers in a communication system, chemical plants, nuclear reactor, a government establishment etc., are few examples of systems. 7 Fig. 1.1.1 shows the amplification of input signal when. operated on a system, amplifier. . no [=] uo (a) Input Signal (b) System (ej Output signal MUSRERE An Example: Signal and System Applications of signals and systems are in biomedical engineering, speech processi"? and circuit design etc., SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS t Scanned with CamScannerIntroduction te Signals and Systems [Unit > Bie qQ) Q) @) (4) (5) (6) (7) Ch. = 1 1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS The signals are classified according to their characteristics. Some of them are, Continuous-time and discrete-time signals, Analog and digital signals. Deterministic and random signals. Periodic and non-periodic signals. Energy and power signals. Even and odd signals. Causal and non-causal signals. {E00 continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals variable ‘t’. A continuous time signal is also called as analog si A continuous time signal is defined for each and d every value of the independent ignal. Example : A speech signal as a function of time and atmospheric pressure ds a function of an attitude are examples of continuous time signals. discrete- . Consequently for. A discrete-time signal is defined only-at discrete_instants_of ti me signals, the independent variable takes on only a discrete values. The amplitude of discrete time signals between two instants of time is not defined. Example : The weekly Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) market index is an example of discrete-time signal. Mathematical Representation : The way in which continuous and discrete-time signals are mathematically represented are also different, (1) 2) A one-dimensional continuous-time signal that varies in time is represented as x(t). In this representation, t can take on any real value. = Discrete-time signals are represented as an"indexed sequence of number, mathematically denoted by x[n], where n can hold only integer values (....., -2, - 1,0, 1, 2, «). Discrete-time signals can often be considered as a result of sampling a continuous- time signal by using an analog to digital (A/D) converter. Assume that a continuous-time signal x(t) is sampled at a rate of f, = 1/T, samples per second. The sampled discrete- time signal x{n} is then equal to the value of the analog signal x(t) at time nT, as follows, SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS xin] = x), eats = X(T) Gwe << Where, T, is the sampling period. PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Scanned with CamScannerjals and Syst Introduction to Sign’ items (Unit - 1, 14 Graphical Representation : Fig. 1.2.1 illustrates and discrete-time signals. ated > the graphical representation of con; wo (vyoisereteTime Signat (2) Continuous-Time Signal + BRMERI examples of Plots EB analeg and Digital Signals (Te_continuous-time signal which can take on any value in the continuous inter (<=; =) is called an analog signal. A discrete-time signal which can take only 2 finite number of distinct value is called a digital signal. In digital signals the value (amplitude) cf te signal at every discrete time ‘n’ is represented in binary codes. A discrete-time signa x[n] is converted into digital signal by quantizing the each sample of x[n] and coding the quantized signal. The process of conversion of a analog signal to digital signal involves sampling in time, quantization and coding. - (EI Deterministic and Random Signals DETERMINISTIC SIGNAL A signal is said to be a deterministic signal, if there is no uncertainty about its at any particular instant of time, that is, amplitude of such a signal at any time predictable. Examples (1) x(t) = bt 3 This is a ramp signal whose amplitude can be predictable 2t instant of time. (2) x(t) = Asin(et) ; The amplitude of this signal varies sinusoidally with time 2x8 value is predictable at any instant of time. RANDOM SIGNALS A signal is said to be 2 random signal, if there is some uncertainty about its valve any particular instant of time, that is, amplitude of such signal at any time is unpresecle | Random signal is also called as underterministic signal. a SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PUBLICA ‘Scanned with CamScannerIntroduction to Signals and Systems [Unit ati h.= 1 15 Examples (1) Noise generated in the amplifier of a radio receiver, (2) ECG signal. Fig. 1.2.2 illustrates the deterministic and random signals. x(t) x(t) 2x (a) Deterministic Signal (b) Random Signal Ea Deterministic and Random Signals [223 Periodic‘and Non-Periodic Signals A signal which repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called a periodic signal and a signal which does not repeat at regular intervals of time is called a non-periodic or aperiodic signal. Mattiematically, a continuous-time signal x(t) is called periodic if it satisfies the condition, x(t + T) = x(t) For all t Where, t = Time. T = A constant. The smallest value of T for which the above condition is satisfied is‘called the fundamental period of x(t). A signal Is aperiodic if the above condition does not satisfied = even for one value of t. The reciprocal of fundamental period T is calléd the fundamental frequency f of x(t). i she, f= Hertz T The angular frequency is given by, 2n = 2nf == (radians/sec) Fundamental period T = 2% - [ONS SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS . PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATS Scanned with CamScanner1 16 Introduction to Signals and Systems [Unit -1, Chazy] | Some examples of continuous-time, periodic/non-periodic si 1.2.3. xe) jgnals are shown in Fig, X(0) = A sin( aft) Non-Periodic Signal x() =e {Period of Repetition —+} Note that one Cycle Period is T = o (2) Period Signal () Aperiodic Signal (a) Period Signal (b) Aperiodic Signal Periodicity Condition for x(t) = x,(t) + x,(t) : Suppose a continuous-time signal is expressed | BF 2 sum of two signals x(t) and x,(t), hey x(t) = x,(t) +-x,(t). Let signals x,(t) and *2(0) are periodic with fundamental periods T, and T, respectively. | So, X(t) = x(t + T,) = x(t + mT,), m is a positive integer. : x(t) = x(t + T,) = x(t + aTY,, nis a positive integer. x(t) = g(t + mT) + xA(t + AT) For x(t) to be periodic with period T we require, x(t) = x(t + T) i = X(t +7) + x,(t +7) } x(t) = x(t #mT,) + x(t + AT.) mT, = nT, =T 7h « 2. Rational number : ae Then the fundamental period T of x(t) is, T= mt, = nt, So, we can say that, the sum of two periodic signals Is periodic only if the ratio of their respective periods is a rational number. Then the fundamental period is the LCM of the respective fundamental periods, T = LCM[T,, T,) SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Scanned with CamScannerIntroduction to Signals and Systems [Unit - 1, Ch. - 1] 17 ————————— EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.1 Prove that the sinusoidal signal x(1) = sin(ogt + 0) Is periodic with period 22/09. Given, x(t) = sin(ogt + 0), We know that a signal x(t) will be periodic if, x(t) = x(t + T) = sin(ogt + 0) = sinfog(t +7) + 0] = sin[agt + 0 + oT] For sin(agt + 0) to be equal to sin(ugt + 0 + ogT), oT must be equal to 2nx, where n is a positive integer. 2nn Tea od MEL 23, on The fundamental period is smallest value for which the periodicity condition satisfies. Hence the fundamental period is, 2 io A EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.2 Examine whether the following signals are periodic or not? If periodic determine the fundamental period, “ta (i) sin(6xt) (ii) el Geo. Ls (ili) sin(2xt) u(t) (iv) cos(2t) + sin /3¢ (% sin(1ot + 1) ~ 2cos(5t ~ 2) (l) x(t) = sin(6xt) . Comparing it with sin(wt), we have, o = 6x. Therefore fundamental period is, oO 6x 3 Since T is a ratio of two integers, hence x(t) is periodic with fundamental period T = 1/3 sec. GNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Scanned with CamScannerIntroduction to Signals and Systems (Unit - I Ch. - 1] Gi) x(t) = elt Comparing it with et, we have, o = 6x. Therefore fundamental period is, Since T is a ratio of two integers, hence x(t) is periodic with fundamental period T = 1/3 sec. (ii) x(t) = sin(2zt) v(t) Qn _2n Here, sin(2zt) is periodic with period T = eS Fy 7 USEC: But, u(t) exists only | between t = 0 to t = , So it is not periodic. sin(2xt) u(t) which is the product of a periodic and a non-periodic-signals, is not a periodic. (iv) x(t) = cos(2t) + sin (V31) Let x(t) = x,(t) + xp(t), Where, x,(t) = cos(2t). ; x,(t) = sin(V3t). i Comparing x,(t) = cos(2t) with cos (w,t), we have ,=2 and fundamental period is given by, ; j \ | Comparing x,(t) = sinv3t with sin(a,t), we have, @, = V3 fundamental Fy} period is given by, 2x _2n ' 02 V3 , @ The ratio of two periods, Tere T, (2x/V3) 2 Since T,/T, is not a ratio of two integers (i.e., not a rational number), henct the given signal x(t) is non-periodic. oe IGN PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATION — SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS "Seanned with CamScannerintroduction to Signals and Systems [Unit =, Ch. 1] 19 (vy) x(t) = sin(10t + 1) - 2cos(5t ~ 2) : Let, . x(t) = x4(t) + x,(t). Where, x,(t) = sin(1ot + 1), x,(t) = -2cos(St - 2). Comparing x(t) = sin(10t + 1) with sin(ojt + 0,), we have o,"= 10 and ° fundamental period is given by, 2x _ 21 fee ‘oe; 10°5 Comparing x,(t) = -2cos(St - 2) with Acost(w,t + 0,), we have a, fundamental period is given by, sec The ratio of two periods is, 28 i T, 2n/S 2 Since T,/T, Is a ratio of two integers (i.e., a rational number), the given signal x(t) is periodic with fundamental period T, = 21, =T T=2r, (or) T=T, = [sec. ———__ XAMPLE PROBLEM 1.8 Determine whether the continuous-time signal x(t) = x,(1) + x,(t) + x,(1) Is perlodic, where % (1). XG(1) and x,(t) have periods of 8/3, 1.26 and V2 sec. respectively. arm Let T,, Ty | be fundamental time periods of y,(t), ya(t)ys..- and y,(t) respectively, where 2 y The energy contained in the signal x(t) is given by, E= fror dt = few é E=@ The power contained in the signal x(t) is given by, T+] + im| 2 2 = G dt Pp gin) fixer a ~ Tr ; 1 = = [tt at Lin f a a P =e Since E = P = a, hence the given signal is neither an energy signal. a power signal. ; (iv) x(t) = elt ++ = cos(St) + jsin(Sty So, ~~ [x(t)[?'= |cosSt + jsinSt|? . = Jcos?(St) + sin2(5t) = 1 Ix(t)? = 1° Energy contained in x(t) is, e= fimo at fre- [tt =< Fz Power contained ‘in x(t) is, SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Scanned with CamScannerintroduction to Signals and Systems (Unit - 1, ch. - 1] 1.7 ‘ 1 2 = Lint fixe at a Tr 1 timo fiat j 1 stim reat” tims-[t], Tae 1 = Lim. 27 Tae 27 eee « and 0

t (a) Symmetric (or) Even Signal (b) Antisymmetric (or) Odd Signal REY symmetric and Antisymmetric Continuous Time Signals Properties of Signals with Symmetry : The properties of signals with symmetry are, (a) (2) 3) (4) (5) When a signal is even, then its odd part will be zero. When a signal is odd, then its even part will be zero. The product of two odd signals will be an even signal. The product of two even signals will be an even signal. The product of an even and odd signal will be an odd signal. Decomposition of Signal : A continuous-time signal x(t) can be decomposed into a sum of two signals, one of which is ‘even signal x,[t] -and the other is odd signal, x[t] such that, x(t] = x,[t] + x,[t] et ww (1.2.1) For x,[t] to be even : x,[-t] = x,{t] For x,{t] to be odd : x,{-t] = -Xelt] Substituting t = -t in Eq. (1.3.1), we get, x{-t] = x¢[-t] + xol-t] x[-t] = Xft] - Xolt] ; w= (1.2.2) SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Mountk Tea Scanned with CamScannerIntroduction te Signals and Systems [Unh 1.20 Ua Solving for x,{t] and x,{t] from Eq. (1.2.1) and Eq. (1.2.2), We get, x(t) = Foe) + x(-t)] And XO F&O -x-H] Procedure to Find Even and Odd Components of the Signal x(t) Step 1: Draw the signal x(t). Step 2 : Draw the folded version of x(t) |.€., x(-t). Step 3 : Add x(t) and x(-t) or subtract x(-t) from x(t). Step 4 : Divide the addition or subtraction by 2 to get even component x,(t) ang component x,(t) respectively. ‘ EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.1 Draw even and edd components of function x(t) shown in Fig. x(t) tl oa Step 1 : Draw x(t) [Original Signal] vet x(t) pt) . y y P| | ot . “da * (a) (b) Step 2 : Draw x(-t) [Fold Signal] x(-t) © «) SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PUBLICA Scanned with CamScannerintroduction te Signals and Systems [Unl=1, Cho > IT - 1.21 Step 3: Add (or) subtract Ex(t) + x(-t)) f x(t) - x(-t)) Y (e) 0] Step 4 : Divide by 2 with signals in step 3 to get X,(t) and x,(t). Fig. 1.2.7 illustrates the construction of even and odd signals. F batt — x01 = x00) 0.5 >t (9) . (h) Construction of Even and Odd Signals —_______ EYAMPLE PROBLEM 1.8 The even and odd parts of a signal are shown in Fig. 1.2.8. Draw the signal x(t). Xe(t) Q(t) “12 0 1/2 (@) (b) ual Even and Odd Parts of a Signal xi) SSNALS aND systems PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Scanned with CamScannerThe signal x(t) is given by, x(t) = x(t) + xQ(t) The addition of x,(t) and x,(t) is shown in Fig. 1.2.9. 4 x(t) 4 “TR at x(t) = (0) + X(0) ENAMPLE- PROBLEM 1.9 Determine the even and odd part of the following continuous time signal. @) x(t) = 3 + 2t + 51? (i) x(t) = sin2t + cost + sint cos2t. () x(t) = 3 + 20+ 5? x(-t) = 3 + 2(-t) + 5(-t)? = 3- 2t+ St? Introduction fo Signals and Systems (Unit -1, chy = _— Wl SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PuBLicATiON Scanned with CamScannerimvoduciion fo Signals and Systems [Unit - I, Ch. - 1] 1.23 Even part, Xe(t) = F(t) +x(-1)] (3+ 2t+5t? +3-2t+5t2] = its +10t?] Xo(t) = 3+ St? odd part, elt) = ZOa(t)—x(-0)] =F +2t45t? -3 + 2t-st2] a Stat) xo(t) = 2t (i) x(t) = sin2t + cost + sint cos2t x(-t) = sina(-t) + cos(-t) + sin(-t) cos2(-t) x(-t) = ~sin2t + cost - sint cos2t [+ .cos(-8) = cos0, sin(-0) = -sind] Even part, Xt) = Six) +x0)] = $tsinzt +cost+sintcos2t~sin2t + cost - sintcos2t] x,(t) = cost — SIGNALS AND systEMS Scanned with CamScanner24 Introduction to Signals and Systems [Unit >) Odd part, = Xolt) = F(t) x(-1)] = $tsin2t +cost +sintcos2t + sin2t - cost + sintcos2t], = $rsin2t+2sintcos2t] Xo(t) (QERAl causal and Non-Causal Signals CAUSAL SIGNALS sin2t + sintcos2t Bintnititeini A signal is said to be causal, if it is defined for't 2 0. Therefore if x(t) is causal, x(t) = 0, for t < 0. Example : Step signal (x(t) = A; t 2 0), Exponential signal (x(t) = Ae u(t)) and com; exponential signal (x(t) = Ae! u(t)). NON-CAUSAL SIGNALS A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for either t < 0, or for both t <0 t > 0. Therefore if x(t) is non-causal, then x(t) # 0 fort < 0. lan en Example : Exponential signal (x(t) = Ae**; for all t), complex exponential signal (x(t) = As) for all t). When a non-causal signal is defined only for t < 0, it is called anticausal sig SOME USEFUL OPERATIONS ON SIGNALS The basic operations performed on continuous time and discrete time signal (1) Amplitude scaling. (2) Signal addition (or) subtraction. (3) Signal multiplication. (4) Time shifting. (5) Time scaling. (6) Time ‘reversal. ; The first three operations correspond to transformation on amplitude of a5? The last three operations correspond to transformation in independent variable tt 1n of signal. GEMM Amplitude scaling The amplitude scaling is performed by multiplyitg a signal x(t) by a cae _ Mathematically amplitude scaled signal y(t) is represented as, ier SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS SS PROFESSIONAL FUDUOY Scanned with CamScanner| jroduction to Signals and Systems (Unit - 1, Ch. - 1] 1.25 y(t) = Ax(t) When A > 1, y(t) is called amplified version of x(t). When A < 1, y(t) is called attenuated version of x(t). A continuous-time signal x(t) and its amplitude scaled signals y,(t) = 2x(t) and y,(t) 0.5x(t) are shown in Fig, 1.3.1. x(t) 2 2;foro 0 (i.€., positive), the signal is shifted to the right and the time shift results in a delay of the signal by |t,| units of time. Ift, < 0 (i.e, negative), the signal is shifted to the left and the time shift results in an advance of the signal by |t,| units of time. An arbitrary Signal x(t), its delayed version.anid. advanced version are shown in Fig. 1.3.5(8), Fig. 1.3.5(b) and Fig. ‘1.3.6(c) respectively. - x(t) tiford 1, scaling results in time compression (i-e., speeded-up) If a <1, scaling results in time expansion (i.e., slowed-up), ‘A continuous-time signal and its scaled version are shown in Fig. 1.3.6. x2) 25 ores {(b) Time Compression of Signal x(t) x(/2) or SS : fj} t-2-—_} a (8) Griginat signal x(t) 2 fr ———} (€) Time Expancion of Signal x(t) ‘A Continuous Time Signal and Its Scaled Versions: SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Scanned with CamScanner1.31 Time reversal of a continuous-time signal is performed by replacing time base in x(t) with -t. Mathematically, time reversal of a signal is expressed as, y(t) = x(-t) The time reversal operation, thus produces a signal x(-t) which is a mirror image of the original signal x(t) w.rt time origin t = 0, xe) 2 xt) 2; foro Area 1 “7 or > Area 1 > Areal us =e I 1 “a2 a2 va | FEED rea uncer ato | Property 2: The width of 8(t) along time axis is zero. i na one J 18(t)dt = 1 Let, e+ 0 on Still the total area under 4(t) does not change. Hence, it has zero width along the # | time axis around the origin. Provtery 3 : If x(t) is*continuous at t = +, then, -% Jocontt ~ oat = x(t) ee = x0) a For any time t, and t, such that the interval t, to t, includes t = +. SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Scanned with CamScannerB 1.34 Introduction to Signals and Systems [Unit - 1, Ch. - 1] " _ facovroae = x(0) [att = ty " = Jacosee ~ x)dt 4 Bo = fucontt = rt t = x(x) Jac ~ dt a = x(t). 1 = x(x) ‘Jue dt =1 4 t c faone -qdt = frtowee ~ dt 4 4 For any x(t) which is continuous at t = + and for any t, and t,, if their interval includes t = x. Thus, we conclude, . 4 x(t)8(t - 1) = x(1)6(t - 1) This is called sampling property of the impulse function. This property conclude that the unit impulse function (t), can be visualized as ,t,*() where x(t) is as shown in Fig. 1.4.3. ° x(t) 1 wa i Xt) esl (0) -aj2 0 we ‘ SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Scanned with CamScannerIntroduction to Signals and Systems (Unit - 1, Ch. - 1] 1.35 x(t) t ° mH Property 4 : If x(t) is continuous function then, x(t) H(t - 1) = x(t - 2) Called replication property, Property 5 : Time scaling, 6 (at) = i a(t) Property 6 : 6(t) is an even function (Time reversal), 5(t) = 6(-t) Property 7: x(t). &(t ~ to) = x(tp) . 6(t - ty) Property 8 : x(t)6(t) = x(0) 6(t) (ty 0, x(t) is said to be a growing Srponential. Fig. 1.4.7(a) and 1.4.7(b) illustrate the decaying and growing exponential ions respectively. (2) Decaying Exponential Function (b) Growing Exponential Function {EZ even and Odd Signals (or) Function fer Section No. 1.3.6, Topic : Even and Odd Signals | Note lee {EM unit Ramp Function This function starts at t = 0 and increases linearly with time’ t. For continuous time signal ramp function r(t) Is defined as, 0; fort <0 r(t) = ws (1.4.4) t;fort>0 co PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Scanned with CamScannerre) Introduction to Signals and Systems [Unit - I, Ch. - 1] Slope = 1 t ° BEREREY Continuous time Unit Ramp Signal The shifted unit ramp signal is defined as, Oj fort uty = 0) =-Tfs = xt = Lett) ret) = J fiver at os sey aa wd) = Faedt => st) n ERR Rectangular Pulse A rectangular pulse, symmetrically located with respect to the time origin having an amplitude A and duration T is shown in Fig. 1 w111 and Is defined as, [As-Tr2stst/2 x(t) = lo; omervise ve (1.4.6) Wo, Since it is encountered quite frequently, it is given a special symbol. A rect (t/T) (or) An(uT), t= A rectangular pulse in time domain, A= Amplitude. T = Duration, TE unit Area Triangular Function The unit area triangular function is represented in Fig. 1.4.12. It is symbolically written 'S x(t) = tri(ty. It is defined as, any = (OTE orreL st ‘ ww (14.7) lo jfor}ty>a SSNALS AND SYSTEMS ___ PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Scanned with CamScannerIntré To 7 t if Eq. (1.4.7) can also be written in the following form, ta u t)pfor-1ts0 tri(t) = 7 |p ti; for -1sts0 x(t) © tri(t) 1 sit ex BE Sinusoidal Signals ‘The sinusoldal signals Include sine and cosine signals. They are shown in Fig. 1.4) xt) x(t) (b) Cosine Signal i Mathematically, they can be represented as under, (a) Sine Sighal A sine signal ; x(t) = A sin(wt) = A sin(2nft) } A cosine signal : x(t) = A cos(mt) = A cos(2ntt) Where, A = The amplitude i w = The angular frequency In radians/sec. in The frequency In Hertz, PROFESSIONAL PUBL! § AND SYSTEMS Scanned with CamScannerIntroduction to Signals and Systems [Unit -1, Ch. 1] 1.41 The period of a sinusoidal signal is defined by, T = z, A continuous time sinusoid a is always periodic with a period = T. This can be proved as follows, x(t + T)= A cosfo (t +7) + 4] = A cosfot + oT + 4] = Acoslot + 2x + 4] = A cos[at + 4] x(t + T) = x(t) which defines the condition for a periodic signal. Therefore, a continuous time sinusoidal signal is always periodic. [RE Exponential Damped Sinusoidal Signal When we multiply the continuous time sinusoidal signal A sin(wt + 6) by the exponential e~*' we get the exponentially damped sinusoidal signal, x(t) = Ae sin(ot + 4), a >°0 For increasing time ‘t’ the amplitude of the sinusoidal oscillations decrease in an exponential fashion. The signal is shown in Fig. 1.4.14. x{n} I A pe EXEM Exponentially Damped Sinusoidal Signal A discrete time exponentially damped sinusoidal signal is described by, x(n] = Br" sinfan + 4] For the above: signal to decay exponentially with time, the parameter 'r’, must lie inthe range 0 < Ir] < 1. Si - IGNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Scanned with CamScannerIntroduction to Signals and Systems [Unit =], 142 _ red ignel (EM signum Function The signum function is shown in Fig. 1.4.15. x(t) = sant) (GSEEE Signuni Function Signum function is defined as, 1; fort > 0 san(t) = 1; fort <0 The signum function is an odd or antisymmetric function. [ERIM Relation Between u(t) and sgn(t) Relation between u(t) and sgn(t) is given by, u(t) = 3 [1 + son(t)] for all t x(t) = 1/2 for allt wa 1 4 sanct +ysamtt) at nad + sone ier |GNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PUBLICA Scanned with CamScannerintroduction to Signals and Systems [Unit =1, Gh. >] 143 3 ; too $ san(t) =o : 4 1 QF t<0 1;t>O u(t) = 0;t=0 [EMD Sinc Function Continuous time sinc function will be encountered in many contexts and is defined as, sin(at) sine(t) = Fe wes (14,8) Since the sinc term oscillates while the factor 1/t decreases with time, sinc(t) shows decaying oscillations, tim Sin(at) to ort at 1 im sin(nt) _ |. xcos(at) (or) LeU epee are A sketch of sinc(t) is shown in Fig. 1.4.17. sinc(t) ‘Area of any sinc Equals Area of Triangle ABC Inscribed within the Main Lobe ‘Amplitude 0.133 WERE sinc Function PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS SIGNALS AND systems Scanned with CamScannerIntroduction to Signals and Systems [Unii~ ‘i 1.44 {UEIRE DEFINITION OF SYSTEMS A system may be defined as “a set of elements or functional blocks whi connected together to produce an output in response to an input signal”. Thus, a g can be thought of as a process that involves in transforming input signals into o Le signals. ‘The operation performed by a system on input sequence x{n] to produce an sequence y[n] is mathematically expressed as, y(n) = TEx(n)] Such a system is as shown.in Fig. 1.5.1. ; “\the x(n) Tt) y(n) tin ADTS that Transforms an Input Sequence xin) into an Output Sequence yin) [ESM Classification (or) Properties of Systems sy The systems are classified as follows, (1) Continuous-time and discrete-time systems. (2) Linear and, non-linear system. (3) Time invariant and time variant systems. (4). Static (memoryless) and dynamic (memory) systems. (5) Causal and non-causal systems. (6) Lumped-parameter and distributed-parameter systems. (7) Stable and unstable systems. (8) Invertible and ‘non-invertible systems. [ERM continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Systems \s-time system is one in which continuous Continuous-Time Systems (CTS) : A continuou ha systel input signals are transformed into continuous-time output signals. Sucl represented pictorlally as shown in Fig. 1.5.2(a), where x(t) is the input and y(t) 5 output. | discrete-time # nals are transformed into discrete-time output signals. Such a system is shown It) Discrete-Time Systems (DTS) : A discrete-time system is one in which sig 1.5.2(b), where x{n] is the input and-y(n] is the output. __ae SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL P Scanned with CamScannerintroduction to Signals and Systems [Unit - 1, chy = y 1.45 Input Output I< x(t) Y{n) A system is sald to be linear system if it satisfies the principle of super position. If a ystém does not satisfy the principle of superposition, then it is said to be a non-linear system, Superposition rule states that response due to sum of weighted inputs is same as ie sum of weighted responses. In symbolic terms linearity property for both continuous- fime and discrete-time systems is defined as, For continuous-time system : Hf {a,x,(t) + a,x,(t)} = ayyy(t) + a,y,(t) For discrete-time system : 9 {a,x,{n] + a,x,[n]} = a,y,{n] + a,y,{n] Where, ay, a, = Constants. v.it) (ys{n]), va{t) (Ya{n]) = Outputs of the system when x,(t).(x[n]) and x,(t) (x,{n}) are respective inputs. The diagrammatic explanation: of linearity property is shown in Fig. 1.5.3. a(t) + 3,0) H{A,x,(t) + a,x,(t)} ajH{x,(t)} + a,9%%,(t)} (b) Weighted Sum of Responses PEET Diagrammatic Exptanation of Linearity PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Scanned with CamScanner1.46 Procedure to Test for Linearity + linearity, Tntrodvetion to Signals and Systems ara ——— e —_——— ; Following steps Illustrate the procedure to test (1) Let x,(t) and x,(t) be two Inputs to the system Jf, and y,(t) and y,(t) be corresponding responses. (2). Consider a signal, x3(t) = a,x, (t) + aaxa(t) which is a weighted sum of x,(t) a | ela (3) Let ya(t) be the response to the x;(t). i (4) Check whether y3(t) = ayyy(t) + azyz(t)- If equal then the system Is linear, others it is nonlinear. } Similar procedure is applicable for discrete - time systems. | EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.10 i Determine whether the following systems are linear or non-linear, | @ y= txt) (i) yt) = et ily sx + 10y(t) = 2x(t) ) yin] = 2x%[n] : @) y = tx(t) . Given, y(t) = t.x(t) Consider, y,(t) = tx,(t) and y,(t) = tx,(t) Output due to weighted sum of inputs, Yat) = FAOx3(t)} = Iayx,(t) + ax,(t)} = ayIKx,()} + ayItx,(t)} = ayy,(t) + azy,(t) Output due to individual weighted sum of outputs ayyi(t) + ayya(t) = aytx,(t) + agtx(t) = t{a,x,(t) + ax,(t)} ya(t) = be,(t) ; Since output due to weighted sum of inputs outputs, hence linear system, ‘ SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PUBLICA’ i Scanned with CamScanner = Individual weighted 5% _ ‘SIIntroduction to Signals and Systems [Unit =1, hy 1] 147 Gi) y@) = eX) Given, y(t) = ex tet, ry ¥att) = e% and y(t) = e%(t) Output due to weighted sum of inputs, ya(t) = 91x3(t)] Hfayx y(t) + agxa(t)] = eAXi(t) + 2px, (0) D ya(t) = e@Mg ana Output due to individual weighted sum of outputs, auya(t) + agya(t) = er + eral Since output due to weighted sum of inputs + Individual weighted sum of outputs, hence non-linear system. gy S00 HO + roy(r) = 2x(t) The output due to weighted sum of inputs is given as, 2, MA 9, MA + rofaay lt) + anyalt = 2axstt) + ape(0] Aas) + azya(t)] + 10%a,¥s(0 + apya(8] = laratt) + ape2(0] Output due to individual weighted sum ‘of outputs, Stay (t) + 108,y,(8 = 2a tony a(t + 102,y2(0 = 223x210) Adding the above two equations we get, Seogy (0) + aay (t+ 10lay,(t) + Aaya (0) = aye + 23%2(0) Since output due to weighted sum of inputs = Individual weighted sum of outputs, hence linear system. . : SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Scanned with CamScanner1.48 Introduction to Signals and Systems [Unit - (i) yin] = 2x?[n] Given, — y{n] = 2x2{n} Consider that y(n] = 2x?{n] and y,{n] = 2x3[n] Output due to weighted sum of inputs, : j ysin] = I€(x3[n]] =" [a,x,[n] + a,x,[n]] = 2[a,x,[n] + a,x,[n]]? 2adxZIn] + a3x,{n] + 2a,a,x,[n}x2{n]) vate = 2a3x Fin] + 243%, {n] + 4a,a,%,{n} 7] = DYNAMIC SYSTEM a stem is said to b a e dynamic or memory system if the output at any instant depends not only on the input at that instant but also on past and future values. Examples (1) y(t) = x(t = 3) + 2x(t + 2). (2) yin) = x(n ~ 2) + xn - 4) Nore : A purely resistive electrical circuit is a static system, whereas an electric circuit having inductors andjor capacitors is a dynamic system. ——_—___—_ EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.12 Find whether the following systems are static or dynamic, @) ytt) = x(-1) (ii) y(t) = x(21) x(t iii) aa + 3x(t) (iv) y[n] = x?[n] SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS @ y(t) = x(-1) Given, -y(t) = x(-t) . When, t = 1, y(1) = x(-1) = The output at t = 1 depends on the past input x(-1). When, t = 0, y(0) = x(0) = The output at t = 0 depends on the present input x(0). : When, t = input x(1). From the above analysis we can say that the output for any value of t (except t = 0) depends on past, present and future values of input. Hence the system , y(-1) = x(1) = The output at t = -1 depends on the present is dynamic. (ii) y(t) = x(2t) Given, y(t) = x(2t) When, t = 1, y(-1) = x(-2) = Output at t = -1 depends on the past input x(-2), When, t = 0, y(0) = x(0) = Output at t = 0 depends on the: present input x(0). When, t = 1, y(1) = x(2) = Output at t = 1 depends on the future input x(2). From the above analysis we can say that the output for any value of t(except t = 0) depends on past, present and future values of input. Hence the system is dynamic, “PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Scanned with CamScanner1.82 Introduction to Signals and Systems [Unit « 1, Ch, ay a) + 3x(1) ' Given, y(t)» ex 84 axe) Note : Any continuous-time system described by a differential equation or any discrete, time system described by a difference equation ts always a dynamic system. Since the given system Is described by a differential equation. Therefore, the system is dynamic, (iv) yn] = x?f[n] When, n = 1, y[-1] = x?[-1] = The output at n = ~1 depends on input x?[-1] When, n = 0, y[0] = x2[0] "= The output at n = 0 depends on input x2[0] When, n = 4, y[1] = x2[1} = The output at n = 1 depends on input x2[1] From the above: analysis, we can say that output at any instant depends only on the input at that instant. Hence the system is static. [ESE causal and Non-Causal Systems — CAUSAL SYSTEM CAUSAL SYSTEM exists only at t or n = 0, ie, h(t) = 0 for t < 0 and hin] = 0 for n < ° Examples “y(t) = x(t --2) + ax(ty y(t) = tx(t) yln] = nx[n] yin] = x[n - 2) + x(n - 1] 4 xn] NON-CAUSAL SYSTEM A system is said to be non-casual (anticipative) if the Output of the ; st t depends on future inputs. They do not exist in real tim ois SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS hey are not physically realizable ~ Te 2M Scanned with CamScannerfjpiroduction to Signals and Systems [Unit - I, ch. = 1] Examples y(t) = x(t + 2) + 2x(t) y(t) = x(t) + tx(t + 1) y(n] = x(n] + x{2n) y(n] = x?[n] + 2x[n + 2] __— EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.19 Find whether the following systems are causal or non-causal? yl) = 2x(t) + 3x(2 - 1) cay ye) = sxqy + 2) (ii) yn] = x[n7] ERE @ yit) = 2x(t) + 3x(2 = t) When t = -1, y(-1) = 2x(-1) +:3x(3) = The output at t = -1, ie, y(-1) depends on the present input x(-1) and future input x(3). When t = 0, y(0) = 2x(0) + 3x(2) = The output at t = 0, ie., y(-1) dep- ends on the present input x(0) and future input x(2). When t = 4, y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(1) = The output at t = 1, ite., y(1) dep- ends on the present input x(1). When t =.2, y(2) = 2x(2) + 3x(-1) = The output at t = 2, i.e., y(2) dep- ends on the present input x(2) and past input x(-1). From the above analysis we can say that for t < 1, the system output depends on present and future inputs. Hence the system is non-causal. CH) YO) = axqy + 2D x(t) - x(t - | y(t) = 3x(t) + 2a) = 3x(t) + 2, a In the above equation, for any value of t, the x(t) is present input and x(t ~ At) is the past input. Therefore we can say that the response for any value of t depends on Present and past input. Hence the system is causal. SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS Mount Tey 4 Scanned with CamScanner(iii) y[n] = x[n?} When n = =1, yf-1] = x{-1] = The response at n=—1, le ¥I-1] depends the future input x{-1]. : When n = 0, y[0] = x{0] = The response at n = 0, i.e, y[0} depeng on the present input x{0]. When n = 1; y[1] = x[1] =» The response at n = 1, le. y[1] depeng| : on the present input x[1]. When n = 2, y[2].= x[4] = The response at n = 2, 1.€., y[2] depeng: on the future input x(4). From the above analysis we can say that the response for any value ¢! n(except n = 0 and n = 1) depends on future inputs. Hence the system is ney causal. {SGN Stable and Unstable Systems A system is said to be stable Bounded: Input-Bounded Output (BIBO) system if ax) only if every bounded input produces a bounded output. Let x(t) be the input of continuous time system and y(t) be the response or outp: for x(t). The term bounded input refers that input x(t) is bounded in magnitude such tha Ix(t)|-s M, and M, < ©, for alll t, Where, M, is the constant. ‘Also the term bounded output refers that output g(t) is bounded in magnitude sod that, Iv s M, and M, < ©, for all t, Where, M, is the constant. CONDITION FOR STABLE OF AN LTI SYSTEM For an Linear Time’ Invariant (LTI) system, the condition’ for BIBO stability cant transformed to a condition on impulse-response, h(t) or h{n], (1) For BIBO stability of an LTI continuous-time system, the integral of impulse respom* should be finite. firmiet1 [ESRA Lumped Parameter and Distributed Parameter Systems In lumped-parameter systems, each component is lumped at one-point in space. These systems are described by ordinary differential equations. In distributed-parameter systems, the signals are functions of space as well as time. These systems are described by partial differential equations. ” O fry ater Vy froxenat eh) Sm c- 4 —— a ie. Sart > C JO nn (2.26. fees _2 f(a). eG aa 4 a Observe that Eq. (2.2.11) is similar to Eq. (2.2.6). The denominator of Eq. (2.2.11) represents energy of x(t). So, it cannot be zero. Hence, numerator must be zero to make ‘¢’ zero. If ‘c’ is zero, there will be no component of f(t) along x(t).{Then, f(t) and x(t) are said to be orthogonal over time interval {t,, t,] i.e., for orthogonality, ) & Jrcexcnat =0 eee (2.2.12) u Similarly, f(t) and x(t) are complex’signals, then they are orthogonal over an interval Lif, : a & ¥ | Jrex* (edt = 0 (or) fr*coxcyat = 0 eu (2.2.13) 4 4 Where, x*(t) = Complex conjugate: of x(t). *(t) = Complex conjugate of f(t). EEE SIGNAL COMPARISON | Mostly, the signals are compared-on the basis of similarity of waveforms. | Quantitatively, a comparison may be based upon the- amount of the component of one waveform contained in other waveforms. Let us consider two waveforms x,(t) and x,(t), then the waveform x,(t) contains an amount of c,,x,(t) of that particular waveform x,(t) in the interval of (t,, t,), where, es J x,(t)x,(t) dt =i — wus (2.3.1) paw dt & . In Eq. (2.3.1), magnitude of the integral in the numerator might’ be taken as an indication of similarity. Now, this integral vanishes. S t ie, Jacoqe dt=0 a SIGNALS AND systems Scanned with CamScanner