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ICT notes - full course unit

Information Systems Management (Bugema University)

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 NOTES FOR
COMPUTER STUDIES, INFORMATION

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AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
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PREPARED BY: GULE RATIB

Email: [email protected]
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© Aringa Secondary School
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER STUDIES.........................................................................................1
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS ........................................................................................8
A. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL SIZE............................................. 8
Supercomputers ................................................................................................................... 9
Mainframe Computers ......................................................................................................... 9
Minicomputers .................................................................................................................... 10
Microcomputers/ Personal Computers, PCs.................................................................. 11
B. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE .................................................... 12

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General-purpose computers. ........................................................................................... 12
Special-purpose computer ................................................................................................ 12
C. CLASSIFICATION BY CATEGORY .......................................................................................... 13
Digital computers ............................................................................................................... 13
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Analogue computers.......................................................................................................... 13
Hybrid computers ............................................................................................................... 14
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ..................................................17
AREAS OF APPLICATION OF ICTS ............................................................................................... 18
Applications of ICTs in education.......................................................................................... 18
Applications of ICTs in business ............................................................................................ 19
Applications of ICTs in health ............................................................................................... 19
Application of ICT in Security ................................................................................................ 20
Application of ICT in Politics and governance....................................................................... 20
Applications of ICTs in entertainment .................................................................................. 20
Applications of ICTs in industry ............................................................................................ 20
Scientific and Research systems ........................................................................................... 21
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 Application of ICTs in Transportation system ....................................................................... 21
Application of ICT in communication system ....................................................................... 22
Impacts of using ICTs on Society ....................................................................................................22
Future trends in computer, information and communication technology ....................................25
COMPUTER LABORATORY ..............................................................................................................26
Areas of laboratory security include ......................................................................................... 27
Safe use of the laboratory ......................................................................................................... 31
HANDLING OF MATERIALS & EQUIPMENTS.............................................................................. 32
Laboratory rules and regulations .............................................................................................. 32

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SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS ............................................................33
COMPUTER LITERACY .....................................................................................................................34
BOOTING/STARTING A COMPUTER .......................................................................................... 34
Desktop Features ...................................................................................................................... 36
FILE MANAGEMENT........................................................................................................................37
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File ............................................................................................................................................. 37
Folder ........................................................................................................................................ 38
MANAGING STORAGE DEVICES USING WINDOWS ........................................................................39
WORD PROCESSORS .......................................................................................................................42
FEATURES OF WORD PROCESSORS ............................................................................ 43
Uses of Word Processors .......................................................................................................... 43
Advantages of Word Processors ............................................................................................... 43
Mail merge ................................................................................................................................ 44
ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS ..........................................................................................................45
USES OF SPREADSHEETS ........................................................................................................... 45
Advantages of using electronic spreadsheets ........................................................................45
Advantages of using electronic spreadsheets ........................................................................45
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 Disadvantages of using electronic spreadsheets ...................................................................... 46
Application of Electronic Spreadsheets .................................................................................... 46
Spreadsheet Features ............................................................................................................... 46
SPREADSHEET DATA TYPES ....................................................................................................... 47
Excel Cell Addressing or Cell Referencing ............................................................................ 48
PRESENTATION SOFTWARE ............................................................................................................53
Areas where presentations are used ........................................................................................ 53
Common features of presentation software ............................................................................ 53
Functions of presentation software .......................................................................................... 55

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Presentation Design Tips........................................................................................................... 55
COMPUTER SYSTEMS .....................................................................................................................57
COMPUTER HARDWARE COMPONENTS ........................................................................................57
Categories of computer hardware ............................................................................................ 58
Input hardware ......................................................................................................................... 58
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Input – Reading Text/ Codes ..................................................................................................... 76

The Keyboard ............................................................................................................................ 76
Voice Recognition System ......................................................................................................... 77
Bar code reader ......................................................................................................................... 78
Optical mark recognition (OMR) ............................................................................................... 78
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) ........................................................................................ 79
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) .............................................................................. 79
Magnetic strips readers ............................................................................................................ 80
POINTING DEVICES .........................................................................................................................80
Mouse – Mice (Plural) .............................................................................................................. 80
Touchpad................................................................................................................................... 81
Trackball .................................................................................................................................... 81
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 Touch screen ............................................................................................................................. 82
Joystick ...................................................................................................................................... 82
Light pen.................................................................................................................................... 83
Stylus / graphics tablet .............................................................................................................. 83
Input – Image/ Visual Devices ...................................................................................................83
Scanner...................................................................................................................................... 87
Digital camera ........................................................................................................................... 87
Digital Video (DV) camera ......................................................................................................... 88
Webcam .................................................................................................................................... 88

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Input – Audio Devices .................................................................................................................88
Sound Card ................................................................................................................................ 88
Microphone ............................................................................................................................... 88
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) ......................................................................... 89
Input – Biometric Devices...........................................................................................................89
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Biometric Device ....................................................................................................................... 89

A fingerprint scanner ...................................................................................................................89
A face recognition system ..........................................................................................................89
A voice recognition system ........................................................................................................89
A signature verification system ..................................................................................................89
An iris recognition system ..........................................................................................................89
Disadvantages of biometric devices .........................................................................................89
Input – Sensor and Remote Sensor ................................................................................................90
Remote Control ......................................................................................................................... 90
Input - Sensors .......................................................................................................................... 90
OUTPUT DEVICE .............................................................................................................................92
Display devices .......................................................................................................................... 92
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 Factors that affect display devices ............................................................................................ 93
Advantages of display devices ..................................................................................................93
Disadvantages of display devices .............................................................................................93
CRT monitors ............................................................................................................................. 93
Advantages of CRT monitors.....................................................................................................94
Disadvantages of CRT monitors ...............................................................................................94
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitors ....................................................................................... 94
Advantages of LCD monitors .....................................................................................................94
Disadvantages of LCD monitors................................................................................................94

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PRINTERS ........................................................................................................................................94
Advantages of printers ................................................................................................................95
Disadvantages of printers...........................................................................................................95
Impact printers .......................................................................................................................... 95
Non-impact printers .................................................................................................................. 96
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AUDIO OUTPUT DEVICES ................................................................................................................97

STORAGE DEVICES ........................................................................................................................100
Primary memory/ Main memory .......................................................................................... 100
Uses of Primary Memory in a Computer ................................................................................ 101
Secondary memory/ Auxiliary/ Backup storage units............................................................. 102
Magnetic Storage Devices / Media ..................................................................................... 102
Optical Storage Devices / Media ............................................................................................. 106
Solid-State Storage Devices ................................................................................................ 108
BACKINGUP DATA ................................................................................................................... 110
Data Representation in Memory ............................................................................................ 110
Factors to consider when choosing a storage device ............................................................. 111
Accessing Stored Data ............................................................................................................. 111
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 Central processing unit (CPU).......................................................................................................113
Control unit ............................................................................................................................. 113
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)..................................................................................................... 114
Registers .................................................................................................................................. 114
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING COMPUTER HARDWARE .....................................................................116
COMPUTER SOFTWARE ................................................................................................................118
Characteristics of computer software..................................................................................... 118
Software Categories ................................................................................................................ 118
System Software ..................................................................................................................... 119

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OPERATING SYSTEM (OS) ........................................................................................... 120
Graphical User Interface...........................................................................................................123
SYSTEM UTILITY .................................................................................................................. 125
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES ............................................................................................ 127
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING COMPUTER SOFTWARE ................................................................. 141
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DATA COMMUNICATION..............................................................................................................142
Terms used in Data communication ....................................................................................... 142
Types (Modes) of Data Transmission ...................................................................................... 144
Data Communication Tools ..................................................................................................... 145
Uses of data communications ................................................................................................. 146
Functions of computer communications system .................................................................... 151
COMPUTER NETWORKS ...............................................................................................................152
Functions of Computer Networks (Why computer networks?) ...........................................152
Network Connection Methods (Common Transmission Media) ............................................ 152
PHYSICAL MEDIA ................................................................................................................. 153
WIRELESS MEDIA ................................................................................................................ 155
TYPES OF NETWORKS .............................................................................................................. 157
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 NETWORK REQUIREMENTS..................................................................................................... 159
Basic hardware and software for a Network facility .............................................................159
ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS ............................................................................. 161
DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS ........................................................................ 162
NETWORK TOPOLOGY ..................................................................................................................166
Bus topology or linear bus topology ....................................................................................... 166
Ring topology .......................................................................................................................... 167
Star topology ........................................................................................................................... 168
Hybrid Topology ...................................................................................................................... 169

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Mesh topology ........................................................................................................................ 170
THE INTERNET & WORLD WIDE WEB ...........................................................................................171
Differences between an Intranet and Internet ....................................................................... 171
Different Internet Communication Software .......................................................................... 171
Basic Internet Connection requirements ................................................................................ 172
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Internet Service Providers (ISPs)......................................................................................... 172

Implications of using Internet ................................................................................................. 173
Uses of Internet as means of communication ........................................................................ 175
Use of the Internet as a learning tool ..................................................................................... 175
INTERNET COMMUNICATION SERVICES ................................................................................. 177
The World Wide Web ...................................................................................................................180
Terminologies.......................................................................................................................... 180
CLOUD COMPUTING.....................................................................................................................187
COMPUTER SYSTEM SECURITY .....................................................................................................188
Common computer risks ......................................................................................................... 188
Computer viruses ............................................................................................................. 188
Unauthorized access ........................................................................................................... 190
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 Access control ..................................................................................................................... 190
Hardware theft ................................................................................................................... 191
Software piracy ................................................................................................................... 192
Information theft ................................................................................................................ 192
System failure ..................................................................................................................... 193
Computer ethics ...................................................................................................................... 193
Code of conduct ...................................................................................................................... 194
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN COMPUTING ....................................................................................194
Jobs a Sub-ICT Student can do ................................................................................................ 196

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Revision Questions .......................................................................................................................197
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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER STUDIES
Definition of a computer
A computer is an electronic device (machine) that can processes a user’s input (data),
stores it and outputs meaningful information. The computer processes data by a set of
instructions called a computer program.
PARTS OF A COMPUTER
Physical Parts of a Personal Computer, PC
Physical and tangible parts of a computer are called computer hardware.
The physical parts of a computer are made of a collection of different components that

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are interconnected in order to function as a single entity.
System Unit
Monitor
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Speaker
Keyboard
Mouse
Fig.1.1 Desktop personal computer
Computer physical parts can be either internal or external.
External hardware components include keyboard, mouse, monitor, speakers, system unit.
System unit is a metallic case that houses the internal components/ parts.
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 Opening the System Unit
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Internal hardware components/ parts housed inside system unit include:
1. The central processing unit (CPU) or processor; referred to as
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the “brain” of a computer. It carries all the computer processes

2. Motherboard is a circuit board connecting all computer parts. The motherboard or
system board is the main circuit board in the system
unit.The motherboard also contains expansion slots into
which other circuit boards can be inserted for the expansion
of the computer system.An expansion slot is a socket
where a circuit board, or expansion card, can be inserted
into the motherboard to add new devices, or capabilities, to
the computer.An expansion card is a circuit board that can be inserted into an
expansion slot on the motherboard to add new devices, or capabilities, to the computer.
3. Main memory (Random Access Memory, RAM) which
temporarily stores information that the CPU uses when the
computer is on. RAM reads and writes data. The
information stored on RAM is erased when the computer
is turned off. The more RAM your computer has, the faster it runs
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 4. Internal Drives, the hard drive stores programs, images,
and all other files
5. Power supply, supplies power to all the computer
components/ parts.
6. Network interface card/ network adaptor, are
hardware devices that connect a computer with
the network. They are installed on the mother

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board. They are responsible for developing a
physical connection between the network and the
computer.
7. Video adapter allows your display device to display a picture
from your computer. Video adapters are also referred to as
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a graphics card, video board, video controller and video card

8. Sound card, converts digital data to analog
sound waves you can hear. The output signal is then
connected to a headphone or set of speakers. You
can also use a sound card to record audio with a
microphone.
Bus
A bus is an electrical channel that allows the various devices inside and attached to the
system unit to communicate with each other.
All buses consist of two parts: a data bus and an address bus.
Data bus transfers actual data.
Address bus transfers information about where the data should go in memory.
The two basic types of buses found in a computer are system bus and expansion
bus.
A system bus connects the CPU to memory.
An expansion bus allows the CPU to communicate with peripheral devices
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 Peripheral devices: these are devices that can be connected to the system unit via
connectors called ports. These are devices that are not part of the system unit. Examples
include keyboard, mouse, printer, scanner, drives, digital camera, projector,
monitor/screen, etc.
External devices or peripherals are often attached to the system unit by a cable.
Keyboard: is the most common peripheral device that enables a user to enter data and
instructions into a computer.
Mouse: is a pointing devices that enables the user to execute commands. It’s used to
control a pointer on the screen, select items on the screen, click to open commands.
Monitor, simply the screen (a TV like device) used for displaying information. It enables
the user to see or monitor what is going into the computer.

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External Drives e.g flash disks drives, external hard disk drives, etc.
Peripheral interface: is a point interaction with peripheral devices.
Ports
A port is the interface, or point of attachment, to the system unit.
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Common types of ports include:

Serial Port, Parallel Port, USB Port, SCSI Port, 1394 Port, MIDI Port, IrDA Port
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Serial Port
Used for external modems and older computer mouse
o versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
Parallel Port
Used to connect external devices that need to send or receive
a lot of data over a short distance.
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 PS/2 Port
Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
ers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and keyboard
Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as
external hard disk, printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc.
a USB port
Universal serial bus supports hot plugging (ability to add or
remove devices when a computer is running) and plug and
play (a computer’s capability to a recognize any new device
attached to it and assist in its setup by loading necessary

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drivers)
VGA Port /Video adapter port
is used to connect monitor to a computer's video card inside
the system unit.
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serial port connector but serial port connector has

pins, it has holes.
Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) port and
interface cables transmit data in parallel but are faster than
the parallel cables and allow connection of up to eight
peripheral devices.
Audio connectors are jack plugs found on a sound card
interface adapter used to connect speakers, microphone and
other portable audio equipment to the system unit.
Power Connector
Three-pronged plug
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 Firewire Port or 1394 port
Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
computer
Game Port
Connect a joystick to a PC
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Digital Video Interface, DVI port
IrDA (Infrared Data Association) port
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An IrDA (Infrared Data Association) port allows wireless devices to transmit data via
infrared light waves.
The IrDA port on the computer and the IrDA port on the peripheral device must be aligned
so that nothing obstructs the path of the infrared light wave.
Devices that use IrDA ports include keyboards, mouse, and printer
MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) port
A MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) port is designed to connect the system unit to
a musical instrument, such as an electronic keyboard.
MIDI is a standard of the electronic music industry.
A system unit with a MIDI port has the capability of recording sounds that have been
created by a synthesizer and then processing the sounds to create new sounds.
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 THE CHARACTERISTIC OF A COMPUTER
Speed: Computers work at very high speeds and are much faster than humans. The time
used by a computer to perform an operation is called the processing speed. Computer
speed is measured in Mega Hertz (MHz) or Giga Hertz (GHz).
Accuracy: ability of a computer to work (process data) without making any error/ mistake.
Modern computers are capable of detecting mistakes and making corrections once made
by the user.
Diligence: Computer has the ability to perform the similar task repeatedly without getting
tired or bored e.g. in industrial robotics, like those in Car assembly lines.

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Storage: ability of a computer to record and safely keep information or data for both now
and future use.
Communication: ability of a computer to share information with another computer when
connected (networked) by a communication device such as a modem, Bluetooth, etc.
These computers can share data, instructions, and information.
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Versatility: ability of a computer to perform tasks in many different ways or skills.

Automation: ability of a computer to follow instructions and do work in the absence of the
operator i.e. they do not need any supervision to do program routines.
Artificial Intelligence (AI): Computers can respond to requests given to them and provide
solutions. AI is the ability of a computer to mimic human thoughts. They can be
programmed to assume capabilities such as learning, reasoning, adaptation and self-
correction.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified according to the following factors:
1. Physical size & processing power.
2. Purpose for which they are designed.
3. Functionality (Method/ mode of operation).
A. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL SIZE.
Computers can be classified into 5 main groups according to their size as:
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  Supercomputers.
 Mainframe computers.
 Minicomputers.
 Microcomputers.
 Portable computers (Laptops, Notebooks & Palmtops).
Supercomputers
These are highly intelligent specialized computers designed to handle sophisticated tasks
in large plants.
 They are the biggest in size,
 They have the largest memory capacity
 They have the fastest processing speed
 Greatest processing power


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They are generally most expensive
 Most Supercomputers use multiple processors. In this case, a single task is split
among the processors for faster execution. However, all the processors are
controlled by a single central processor.
 Supercomputers generate a lot of heat, & therefore require special cooling systems.
 A Supercomputer can be operated by over 500 users at the same time.

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They are used in defense, nuclear plants, climate and weather stations, scientific
research, and large manufacturing plants.
Areas where supercomputers are used:
Supercomputers are mainly used for complex scientific applications that involve many
calculations & require a lot of computational power. Some of the applications that use
supercomputers include;
 Weather forecasting.
 Petroleum research.
 Defense and weapon analysis.
 Aerodynamic design and simulation.
Note. These tasks use large amounts of data, which need to be manipulated within a very short time.
Mainframe Computers
 Smaller than supercomputers.
 Slower than supercomputers
 Smaller memory capacity than supercomputers
 Cheaper than supercomputers
 They can support a large number of peripherals of different types (can support between
5–300 terminals).
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  They can handle hundreds of users at the same time, e.g., they can be operated by
200 users at a time.
 Mainframe computers are general-purpose, and can handle all kinds of problems
whether scientific or commercial.
 They are used in big large businesses as network servers. A typical application is
banking where they are used to provide online data of customer accounts to branch
offices across the geographical region. However, their high cost and inability to
upgrade has made them unpopular.
Areas where mainframe computers are used:
Mainframe computers are mostly found in government departments, big organizations
and companies which have large information processing needs, e.g., they are used;
 In Banks & Hospitals for preparing bills, Payrolls, etc.
 In communication networks such as the Internet where they act as Servers.

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 By Airline reservation systems where information of all the flights is stored.
Minicomputers
 Smaller than mainframe computers.
 Low processing power than mainframe computers
 Low memory capacity than mainframe computers
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 Cheaper than mainframe computers.

 A minicomputer can support several users at a time, e.g., can be operated by 6
users at a time. Several workstations/ terminals are connected to one central
minicomputer so that the users connected can share its resources (C.P.U time,
storage, etc).
 They are used to automate processes in manufacturing industries on the
production line.
 They are also used as autopilots in aeroplanes
Areas where minicomputers are used:
Minicomputers are used mainly in:
 Scientific laboratories & research institutions.
 Engineering plants/factories to control chemical or mechanical processes.
 Space industry.
 Insurance companies & Banks for accounting purposes.
 Smaller organizations as Network Servers.
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 Microcomputers/ Personal Computers, PCs
They are called microprocessors because their processor is very tinny. Their processor is
referred to as microprocessor or microchip. Their design is based on Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) that confines several physical components into an IC.
Characteristics:
 They support one person at a time
 They are small in size compared to minicomputers
 They are cheapest compared to minicomputers
 They are slowest compared minicomputers
NB: Microcomputers have a wide application in the computer industry due to their size
and cost.

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Areas where microcomputers are used
Microcomputers are commonly used in:
 Training and learning institutions such as schools.
 Small business enterprises, and
 Communication centres as terminals.
Microcomputers have become very popular because of the following reasons:
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1) Are cheaper than both mini & mainframe computers.

2) Are very fast (i.e. have high processing speeds).
3) Small in size, hence they occupy less space in an office.
4) Are more energy efficient (i.e., consume less power).
5) Are more reliable than the early Mainframe computers.
Examples of Microcomputers include:
Desktop computers, tower model computers, notebook computers, handheld computers,
and Internet appliances.
A desktop computer is designed so that the system unit, input devices, output devices,
and any other devices fit entirely on a desk or table. They are relatively cheaper than other
microcomputers
A notebook computer, or sometimes called a laptop computer, is a portable personal
computer small enough to fit on the lap. They are expensive compared to desktop
computers.
A handheld computer, sometimes called a palmtop computer, is a small portable
computer that fits in the hand of a user. Examples of palmtop computers include personal
Digital Assistant (PDAs) and modern smart phones.
A tower model computer has a tall and narrow system unit that usually sits on the floor.
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 An Internet appliance is a computer with limited functionality whose main purpose is to
connect to the Internet from home.
B. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
Digital computers can be classified further according to the tasks they perform either as:
 General-purpose.
 Special-purpose
 Dedicated computers.
General-purpose computers.
General-purpose computers are designed to perform a wide variety of tasks. They use
specifically written instructions (programs) to carry out the desired processing tasks.
For example a single computer can be used to process documents, perform
calculations, process the Payroll, simulate the loading on a bridge, process Insurance

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policies, and play games, among others.
Examples of general-purpose computers: Mainframes, Minicomputers,
Microcomputers & Laptops used in most offices & schools.
Special-purpose computer
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A special-purpose computer is designed to handle/accomplish a particular, specific task

only.
Such computers cannot perform any other task except the one they were meant to
do. Therefore, the programs which are used in a special-purpose computer are fixed
(hard-wired) at the time of manufacture.
A Special-purpose computer is dedicated to a single task; hence it can perform it quickly
& very efficiently.
Examples of special-purpose computers:
 Robots used in a manufacturing industry for production only.
 Mobile phones used for communication only.
 Calculators that carry out calculations only.
 Computers used in Digital watches.
 Computers used in Petrol pumps.
 Computers used in Washing machines.
 An Automatic pilot – a computer dedicated to the task of operating an aircraft.
 etc.
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 C. CLASSIFICATION BY CATEGORY
Usually, there are two forms of data; Digital data, and Analogue data.
Computers can be categorized according to the type of data they can process as
either.
 Digital computers.
 Analogue computers, or
 Hybrid computers.
Digital computers
 A Digital computer is a computer that operates on discrete data only. It can process
both numeric & alphabetic data within the computer, e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3…, A, B, C…
 Their operation is based on 2 states, “ON” & “OFF” or on digits “1” & “0”. Therefore,

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any data to be manipulated by a digital computer must first be converted to digital
form.
 Digital computers are usually general-purpose computers; hence, they are widely
used in different areas for data processing.
 Most of the devices found at homes today are digital in nature.
 Digital computers are less accurate, i.e. may not solve all your problems since the
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facilities provided are generalized.

Examples:
A Television with a button which is pressed to increase or decrease the volume.
Digital watches.
Calculators.
Microcomputers. They are said to be digital because they possess the ALU.
Analogue computers
 An Analogue computer is a computer that operates on continuous data.
 They carry out their data processing by measuring the amount of change that
occurs in physical attributes/quantities, such as changes in electrical voltage,
speed, currents, pressure, length, temperature, humidity, etc.
 An Analogue computer is usually a special-purpose device that is dedicated to a
single task. For example, they are used in specialized areas such as in:
 Scientific or engineering experiments,
 Military weapons,
 Controlling manufacturing processes like monitoring & regulating furnace
temperatures and pressures.
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  Weather stations to record & process physical quantities, e.g., wind, cloud
speed, temperature, etc.
 Analogue computers are very accurate & efficient since they are dedicated to a
single task.
 They are very fast since most of them use multiple processors.
Examples of analogue devices:
Thermometer. It uses a volume of Mercury to show temperature. The Thermometer
is calibrated to give an exact temperature reading.
Speedometer.
A Petrol pump measures the rate of flow of Gasoline (petrol) & converts the volume
delivered to 2 readings; one showing the volume & the other showing the cost.
A Post-office scale converts the weight of a parcel delivered into a charge for

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posting.
A Television with knobs that are rotated to increase or decrease the volume.
A Radio with a knob that slides in a slot to increase volume.
Hybrid computers
Hybrid computers are designed to process both analogue & digital data. They combine
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both the functional capabilities of the digital and analogue computers.

Hybrid computers are more expensive.
Example;
In a hospital Intensive Care Unit, an analogue device may be used to measure the
functioning of a patient’s heart, temperature and other vital signs.
Reasons why a Mobile phone is regarded to be a computer
 It is electronic.
 Has a screen.
 It has a Keypad.
 Has a Memory.
 It is programmable.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE TYPE OF A COMPUTER TO CHOOSE
There are a number of factors that determine the type of a computer to choose. Some of
these include:
 Type of processor (Central processing unit – CPU)
 Processing speed.
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  Amount of Main memory (RAM).
 Hard disk capacity.
 Cost of the computer.
 The monitor size.
 System requirements.
 Portability.
 Multimedia capability.
 Number of users who can access the computer at the same time.
1) Type of processor (Central processing unit – CPU)
Microcomputers use microprocessors, which are manufactured on a single chip,
as their CPU. In larger computers such as supercomputers, mainframe &

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minicomputers, the processing is carried out by a number of separate, high-
speed components instead of a single processor.
2) Processing speed.
Every computer has a clock that drives its operations. The faster the clock speed
the more instructions it can process per second compared.
3) Amount of Main memory (RAM).
All computers have some amount of RAM (Random Access Memory), which is
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used to hold the instructions required to perform a task. If the RAM capacity is
large, the computer can be faster.
4) Storage capacity of the Hard disk.
The storage capacity is the amount of space that is available for storing the
instructions required to manipulate data.
Higher storage capacities store more information or programs than low storage
capacities.
5) Cost of the computer.
The cost of a computer is directly related to the processing speed and memory
capacity and size. Microcomputers are less costly compared to minicomputers,
mainframes or Supercomputers.
6) Number of users who can access the computer at the same time.
Most microcomputers can support only 1, 2 or 3 users at the same time. However,
they can be networked to share resources.
Larger computers can support hundreds of users at the same time.
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 DATA AND INFORMATION
DATA:
Data is a collection of raw facts, figures or instructions which do not have much meaning
to the user.
Data may be in form of numbers, alphabets/letters or symbols, and can be processed to
produce information.
TYPES OF DATA
There are two types/forms of data:
a) Digital (discrete) data:
Digital data is discrete in nature. It must be represented in form of numbers, alphabets or
symbols for it to be processed by a computer.
Digital data is obtained by counting. E.g. 1, 2, 3, …

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b) Analogue (continuous) data:
Analogue data is continuous in nature. It must be represented in physical nature in order
to be processed by the computer.
Analogue data is obtained by measurement e.g. Pressure, Temperature, Humidity,
Lengths or currents, etc.
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Data Processing:
It is the process of collecting all items of data together & converting them into information.
Processing refers to the way data is manipulated (or handled) to turn it into information.
The processing may involve calculation, comparison or any other logic operation to
produce the required result. The processing of data usually results in some meaningful
information being produced.
INFORMATION:
Information is the processed data (i.e refined, summarized & manipulated) in the way you
want. They are meaningful to the user and provide basis for decision-making.
The information must be accurate, timely, complete and relevant.
COMPARISON BETWEEN DATA AND INFORMATION
Data Information
Unprocessed (raw) facts or figures. It is the end-product of data processing
(processed data)
Not arranged. Arranged into a meaningful format.
Does not have much meaning to the user. More meaningful to the user.
Cannot be used for decision-making. Can be used to make decisions.
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 INFORMATION PROCESSING CYCLE
The series of input, process, output, and storage activities is very often called the
information processing cycle.
The basic stages of information processing include:

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Capturing Data - capturing data from their sources and recording it onto some media e.g.
paper. It includes data preparation (copying, grouping, or arranging data in a more
convenient way for input). Checking and verifying the data collected are often done at this
stage.
Input of Data - entering data or sending data into the processing system.
Checking the accuracy and validity of the input data are often done at this stage.
Processing of Data - calculating or manipulating the input data and even storing the
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results for future use.

Output of Information - giving out the processed results in a readable form e.g. a report.
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
ICT is an acronym for information and communication technology.
It is defined as a “diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate,
and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information.” These technologies include
computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony.
ICT is simply combination of telecommunication and computing technologies to
enhance communication.
Information technology (IT) is the combination of computing and communication
technologies to process data into information.
Reasons for studying ICT
 To promote creative knowledge for problem solving.
 To acquire skills in the use of ICT to improve learning in other subject areas.
 To promote critical and analytical thinking for proactive (hands-on) solutions.
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  To create awareness for a leaner about the developments and emerging issues
concerning computing and society.
 To get best skills required for employment.
AREAS OF APPLICATION OF ICTS
 Business
 Education
 Health
 Security
 Politics and governance
 Entertainment, leisure and arts
 Industry and scientific research, Etc

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Applications of ICTs in education
Applications of ICTs in education include:
 Computer-based training, which includes:
 Computer-assisted instructions (CAI), so that teachers can use computers and
other ICT equipments to present teaching materials in a more interesting way.
 Computer-assisted learning (CAL), so that students can use computers and
appropriate software to learn at their own pace.
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 Computer-assisted assessment (CAA), which may reduce the time and labour
to mark the answer scripts.
 Electronic learning (e-learning) through computer-based training and Web-based
training.
 Simulation of experiments or real-life situations that may be hazardous.
 Electronic library system for searching, borrowing, and returning books.
 School Administration and Management System (SAMS) for keeping records of
students and producing report cards or other related documents.
Advantages of using ICTs in learning and teaching include:
 Computers are widely used in the teaching & learning process. Learning and
teaching using computers is referred to as Computer Aided Learning (CAL)
and Computer Aided Teaching (CAT).
 CAI and CAL packages that usually contain multimedia effects make learning more
interesting and interactive.
 Students can learn by themselves when teacher is not available.
 Students can usually get their results or feedback immediately after they have
answered the question or taken an action.
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  There are rich educational resources on CD-ROMs and the Internet.
 Teachers can present subject matter and explain abstract concepts more clearly
with multimedia.
 Teachers can show experiments that are difficult to perform or dangerous in nature
through simulations software.
 Assists in long distance learning in universities usually referred to as the Open
University Concept.
Disadvantages of using ICTs in teaching and learning include:
 Face to face interaction between students and teachers may be reduced.
 Students can only follow what the CAL packages are predefined to offer.
 Computers are expensive to purchase and maintain.
 Students can access pornography on the internet leading to moral degeneration.

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 Loss of productive hours when surfing, chatting on the net.
Applications of ICTs in business
 Business firms advertise, market, process orders that facilitate buying and selling
of goods and services through their websites and networked computers.
 Electronic commerce/ e-business uses ITC in internet banking, electronic fund
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transfer (EFT), mobile banking, on-line banking, etc.

 Process business documents.
 Track inventory and generate invoices and receipts.
Advantages of e-commerce include:
 Transactions can occur instantaneously and globally, thus save time for
participants on both ends.
 Transactions can occur 24 hours per day.
 Businesses have access to millions of people with Internet connections.
 Information can be changed and be available quickly.
 Customers can compare prices easily.
 Feedback can be immediate.
 Manufacturers can buy and sell directly, avoiding the cost of the middleman.
 Distribution costs for information is reduced or eliminated.
Applications of ICTs in health
 Maintain patient records in hospitals and clinics.
 Monitor patients' vital signs in hospital rooms and at home.
 Computer-assisted medical tests.
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  Research and diagnose medical conditions.
 Implant computerized devices (e.g. pacemakers) that allow patients to live longer.
 Use computer-controlled devices during operations that require great precision
(e.g., laser eye surgery and heart surgery).
 Telemedicine through computers with videoconferencing capabilities.
 Use of computer-aided surgery for training prior to performing surgery on live
humans.
Application of ICT in Security
ICTs are used in military and police departments to carry out criminal investigations and
crime detection by use of biometric analysis devices like finger prints, voice recognition,
iris recognition, etc.
Biometric analysis refers to study, measurement and analysis of human biological

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characteristics. Some devices used are video CCTV (Closed Circuit Television) cameras
and biometric scanners.
Application of ICT in Politics and governance
Politicians use ICT for soliciting of online votes and sending bulk SMS to voters. ICT is
used in governance for financing, planning, and monitoring governments’ activities like
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administrative work.
Applications of ICTs in entertainment
 Play computer games
 Listen to music
 Watch a video or a movie
 Compose and edit a video
 Used by disk jockeys (DJs) to play, store and select music.
Applications of ICTs in industry
 Data sensing and logging.
 Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing.
 For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers.
 Quality control; computers are used to monitor and control industrial processes
by using robots.
A Robot is a machine that works like a human being, but performs tasks that are
unpleasant, dangerous, and tedious to be done by human beings.
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 Robots are best used for jobs that require:
 Repetitive tasks.
 Lifting heavy equipment.
 High degrees of precision (accuracy).
Advantages of using robots
 Can work in hazardous environment that is threat to human life.
 Are used to lift very heavy objects
 Robots do not take break; they can work for 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
 Robots produce the same standard every time
 They do not need to be paid hence reduce cost of production.
 Greater productivity, higher output quality and quantity.
 Greater accuracy, outputs are in most cases error free.

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Disadvantages of using robots
 Expensive startup costs
 Staff has to be trained how to operate robots
 Maintenance and repair costs can be higher
 Computer crash would halt production
 Specialized skills required, robots need programming in order to be adaptable
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 Need to be reprogrammed when there is a small change/ can’t think for themselves
Scientific and Research systems
Computers have a wide variety of applications in science, research and technology. Some
these include:
 Weather forecasting
 Medical research
 Military and space exploration science
Application of ICTs in Transportation system
 Automobile traffic control, e.g. to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town.
 Railway corporations to co-ordinate the movement of their goods & wagons.
 Shipping control. The computers are used for efficient management of fleets &
communication.
 Airports (Airline industry). The computers are used;
 To control the movement of aircrafts, take off & landing through the use of
radar equipment.
 Making reservations (online booking purposes).
 Storing flight information.
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 Application of ICT in communication system
 Facsimile machine (Fax) is a telecommunication device used to send documents
via telephone lines.
 Radio communication used in radio broadcasting stations to record and manage
radio programmes.
 Television sets (TV)
 The Internet provides information transfer and efficient communication
 Telecommuting is a situation where an employee works usually at home using a
computer connected to the workplace network.
 Videoconferencing refers to use of computers, digital video camera, audio
capturing equipment and communication networks to enable people in different
locations to see and talk to one another.
Or videoconferencing is the conduct of videoconference by a set of

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telecommunication technologies which allow people in two or more locations to
communicate by two-way; video and audio transmissions.
Impacts of using ICTs on Society
The era of information and communication technology (ICT) continues to influence our
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lifestyle both positively and negatively as included below:

Effects on employment
The introduction of computers at workplace has resulted in creation of new jobs,
replacement of computer illiterate workers and displacement of jobs that were formerly
manual.
Social/ ethical
The rapid development of information technology does not only provide us with different
ways of working, playing and thinking but also presents challenges to our moral cultural
values. ICT has changed the way we talk, affected our human rights and integrity.
Positive
 Employee has more information available which allows the employee more
decision-making freedom.
 Routine tasks can be done quickly, hence leaving more free time to spend with
close relatives.
 One can work at home and communicates with the office (telecommuting).
 Facilitated communication with relatives, friends and other close persons.
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 Negative
 Possible less face-to-face communication since people prefer chatting rather than
socializing.
 Very fast technology advances might lead to job disruption in order to adopt (or
adapt) to new technologies.
 Employees might feel that constant monitoring can affect their privacy and dignity.
 Constant use of computers can lead to RSI (repetitive strain injury) if the proper
precautions are not adopted.
 Some people write obscene or dirty languages to threaten others.
 Also through the internet, one can view pornographic materials that affect moral
values negatively. The free flow of immoral has both affected the young and old in
the society.
 Some people use computers to forge certificates, passport and other documents

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hence cheating others.
Economical
Positive
 New jobs are created in the computing industry such as the hardware industry,
software industry and web-design industry.
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 Computers increase productivity and overall quality leading to cheaper and better
products.
Negative
 ICT led to replacement of computer illiterate workers and displacement of jobs that
were formerly manual.
Environmental (Green Computing or IT Computing)
Green computing can be defined as: “Green computing or green IT is the practice and
study of environmentally sustainable computing.”
In simple words, green computing is the practice of reducing environmental footprints
of technology by efficiently using the resources.
Positive
 Provide paperless environment, hence conserving the environment.
 Saving energy and resources saves money
 Conserving resources means less energy is required to produce, use, and dispose
of products.
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 Negative
Environmental pollution. For example huge garbage damps of dead computer parts,
printers, ink/ toner cartridges, monitor and other computer accessories are disposed in
landfills hence causing environmental pollution.
Energy consumption and radiation. Initial computers consumed a lot of energy thereby
generating a lot of heat and emitting electromagnetic radiations.
Issues of workers’ health (Effects on health)
If we use a computer for many hours (as people often do at work), there are some health
issues that might affect us. These include:
1. Eye-Strain
Eye-strain (tiredness of the eyes) is caused by looking at a monitor at a constant

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distance. The muscles that focus your eyes do not move, and so get tired and painful.
Eye-strain can also cause headaches.
This problem can be solved by:
 Look away from the monitor at regular intervals – re-focus on distant or close
objects to exercise the muscles in the eye.

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Take regular breaks.

 Use an anti-glare filter in front of the monitor to cut down on screen reflections
that can also tire the eyes.
2. Back and Neck Ache
This is usually due to having a bad sitting posture.
This problem can be solved:
 Use an adjustable, ergonomic chair, and take the time to set it up properly.
 The computer keyboard and monitor should be at the correct height for the
seated person (keyboard lower than the elbow, top of monitor at eye level).
 Take regular breaks: get up, walk around, and stretch your muscles.
An ergonomic chair is one that fits the body well, giving support to areas such as the
lower back (lumbar region).
3. Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) in Wrists and Hands
Any repetitive movement (same movement over and over again) can result in a health
problem called repetitive strain injury (RSI).
In particular, typing and using a mouse for long periods are common causes of RSI in
the wrist (it is often called carpal-tunnel syndrome).
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 This problem can be solved by:
 Use a wrist-rest to support the wrists while typing and when using the mouse.
 Take regular breaks from typing or using the mouse.
Future trends in computer, information and communication technology
(Emerging Technologies)
These will be characterized by:
1. Rapid evolution in computer hardware and software
2. Artificial intelligence (AI)
3. Expanded information superhighway
4. Digital forensics

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Rapid evolution in computer hardware and software: The future trend will see reduction
in size and cost of components but increase in storage capability. Improvements in input,
processing, storage, output and communication devices have led to faster, cheaper and
more reliable data processing devices.
Artificial intelligence (AI): This is the branch of computer science that is concerned with
the development of machines that emulate human-like qualities such as learning,
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reasoning, communicating, seeing and hearing. Computer scientists and engineers are still
working harder and carrying out intensive research with the aim of coming up with smarter
computers which can almost simulate human thinking and learning instead of relying on
static programmed instructions.
Application areas of artificial intelligence:
1. Expert systems: a software designed to make a computer to operate at a level of
human expert in a specific area of specialization.
2. Natural language processing: aimed at coming up with programming languages
that would make computers recognize and understand natural languages such as
English, French, Kiswahili, Lugbara, etc
3. Artificial neural networks: is the use of electronic devices and software to
emulate the cognitive learning process of the human brain and how it recognizes
patterns.
4. Robotics/ perception systems: is a computer controlled device that emulates a
human being in carrying out tasks that would be otherwise dangerous and difficult.
5. Expanded information superhighway: this involves the integration of cabled and
wireless technologies for the purpose of data and information transmission. This
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 has given rise to video conferencing, distant learning and virtual learning centres,
virtual offices, etc.
Digital forensics
Digital forensic refers to the forensic science encompassing the recovery and investigation
of material found in digital devices often in relation to computer crime.
There are four main application areas of digital forensic namely:
1. Legal consideration- use of digital evidence in court
2. Branches- perception of the computer forensic, mobile device forensic, network forensic
3. Application of digital forensic such as electronic discovery, intrusion etc.
4. Forensic process- analysis and reporting

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COMPUTER LABORATORY
Definition:
A computer laboratory (lab) is a special room set aside and prepared specifically for save
installation and use of computers.
Who is a computer lab attendant?
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A person who attends, monitors, administers the safe use of computers in the computer
lab.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS & PRACTICES IN A COMPUTER LABORATORY
After establishing the computer laboratory, a number of safety precautions, rules, and
practices need to be observed in order to avoid accidental injury to the users, damage of
computers or lack of a conducive environment for teaching and learning.
The safety precautions and practices include;
BEHAVIOUR IN THE COMPUTER LABORATORY.
The following rules must be followed in and around a computer laboratory.
a) Entering the computer room.
 Only authorized people should enter the computer room.
 Remove your shoes before entering the computer room to prevent dust.
 Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust. This is because; smoke & dust
contain small abrasive particles that can damage computer components and cause
wearing of the moving parts.
 Do not carry foods such as Toffees, chocolates, chewing gums, &
drinks/beverages to the computer room.
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 Food particles may fall into the moving parts of the computer and damage
them. Liquids may spill into the computer parts causing rusting or electrical faults.
 Collect any waste materials (e.g., paper bits) which might be lying in the computer
room & put them into the dustbin.
 Avoid unnecessary movements, because you may accidentally knock down the
peripheral devices.
 Computer illiterates should not be allowed to operate the computers.
 Shut the door of the computer room properly.
b) Starting and shutting down the computer.
 Always follow the proper procedure for starting & shutting down the computer to
avoid loss of data and damage to computer programs.
 Avoid turning the computer on & off frequently as it is harmful. Every time a PC is

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turned on, the internal components get heated and again cool down when the
computer is turned off. As a result, the circuit boards expand & contract and this
can badly affect the solder-joints of the computer.
 Do not open up the metallic covers of computers or peripheral devices without
permission and particularly when the computer’s power is still on.
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Areas of laboratory security include

 Physical Security
 Electric power security
 Fire prevention and control equipment
 Air conditioning, etc.
PHYSICAL SECURITY
Burglar Proofing
Physical access to the computer room should be restricted to ensure that only authorized
persons get access to the computers.
To prevent unauthorized access to the computer room, the following controls should be
implemented:
 Fit strong metallic grills and locks on the doors, windows & roofs (in case the roofing
is weak).
 Lock the doors, (i.e., keep the computers in a strong room, which should remain
firmly locked when not in use).
 Avoid welcoming strangers into the computer room.
 Use of Personal Identification cards.
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  Install security alarms at strategic access points so as to alert the security
personnel in case of a break in.
 Install CCTV (close circuit television) camera.
 Secure/protect the computers with Passwords to minimize chances of theft of
data/information.
PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE AND ACCIDENTS.
Fire outbreaks in the laboratory can be caused by either:
a) Inflammable chemicals, such as those used for cleaning & servicing the
computer equipment.
b) Electrical faults, such as open wires or cables.
c) Smoking.
 Keep the chemicals away in a store after using them to avoid any accidents.

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 Ensure that all electrical wires are properly insulated. Open wires or cables must
be properly covered with an Insulating tape or replaced with new ones as they can
cause fire leading to damage of equipment.
 The computer room must always have a gaseous fire extinguisher especially those
containing Carbon dioxide in case of any accident.
Note: Water based or powder extinguishers should not be used in the computer
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room because; they can cause damage to computer components.

Water causes rusting of the metallic parts and short circuits, while powder
particles normally settle on storage devices and may scratch them during
read/write operations.
 Any incidence that may result in damage to equipment should be reported to the
person in charge of the laboratory.
 No student should attempt to repair the equipment as this may lead to complete
damage of the equipment.
STABLE POWER SUPPLY.
Computers are delicate devices that require a stable source of power.
Ensure that there is a steady flow of input power to the computer in order to prevent loss
of data or information & also prevent damaging the computer’s secondary storage media.
Note. Power from main supply is not always stable and may sometimes experience power
surges or under voltage (also referred to as Brownout). To protect the computer from being
damaged due to power instabilities especially in areas where power fluctuates, avoid
connecting it directly to the main supply. Instead, it is important to connect the computer
to a special power correction equipment or device such as a Stabilizer or Uninterruptable
power supply /source (UPS), then connect the UPS to the main supply.
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 Functions of the UPS
 It regulates power from an unstable power source to the required clean stable
voltage.
 It prevents power surges and brownouts that might destroy the computer.
 It temporarily provides power to the computer in case of the main power
failure. This allows the user to save his/her work and shutdown the computer using
the correct procedure.
 Alerts the user of any power loss (by beeping).
VENTILATION.
Both computers and human beings emit heat energy into the environment. Therefore, the
computer room must have good circulation of air to avoid overheating and suffocation.
Proper ventilation enables the computers to cool, and therefore, avoids damaging the

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electronic parts.
The following facilities can ensure proper ventilation in a room:
 The room should have large & enough windows & doors
 Installing an air-conditioning system to regulate temperature. It also filters dust
particles entering into the computer room.
 Installing cooling fans.
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 Avoid overcrowding of either machines or people in the room.

DUST CONTROL
 Set up the computer laboratory in a location away from excessive dust.
 Remove your shoes before you enter the computer room to prevent dust.
 The computer room should be fitted with special curtains that would reduce entry
of dust particles.
 The floor should be covered with Carpets in order to absorb dust.
 Cover the computer devices with dust covers when not in use or when cleaning the
computer room.
NB: If the environment is dusty, the computers should be regularly serviced to get rid of
harmful dust.
The service should include; blowing dust from the System unit by using a blower, cleaning
the floppy drives, cleaning the Keyboard, cleaning the Monitor externally, and also cleaning
all peripheral devices such as Printers and Mouse.
DUMP CONTROL.
 Humidity in the computer laboratory must be regulated to remain at an optimum
50%. If the humidity is low, it allows static electricity to build up and causes damage
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 to sensitive electronic components. Similarly, high humidity of over 70% causes
rusting of the metallic parts of the computer system.
 To eliminate low humidity, place humidifiers in the room, while high humidity can
be controlled by installing dehumidifiers in the room.
STANDARD FURNITURE & POSTURE.
 The table/bench on which a computer is placed must be strong and wide enough
to bear the weight and accommodate all the peripheral devices.
 The seat for the user must be comfortable, and have a straight backrest that allows
someone to sit upright. This prevents muscle pains & backaches caused by poor
sitting posture.
 Adjust the furniture to meet your needs for comfort.
For example;

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 Adjust the height of the chair or working surface so that your forearms are
parallel with the floor and your wrists are straight.
 The seat must be high enough relative to the table to enable the user use the
hands on the keyboard comfortably.
 The eyes must be at the same level with the top of the screen when the user
is seated upright.
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 You should be able to maintain your proper arm position and place your feet firmly
flat on the floor.
 Adopt a relaxed, upright working posture. Avoid slouching (bending) forward or
leaning far backwards.
 The Chairs should have low back support & footrest and should also be adjustable.
 Place frequently used work materials within easy reach.
For example;
 The Keyboard, Mouse & other input devices should be positioned such that
your hands are in a relaxed, comfortable position.
 Position the Keyboard directly in front of you. This makes it possible to type
with your shoulders relaxed and your upper arms hanging freely at your sides.
 Position the Mouse at the same level as the keyboard.
LIGHTING & VISION CARE.
 A computer room must be well lit to avoid eyestrain that eventually leads to
headaches, stress, and fatigue. Similarly, when you work at your computer for long
periods of time, your eyes may become irritated. Therefore, special care should
be given to your vision.
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  Tilt the computer so that the display faces away from the windows. This will
minimize glare (or bright reflections) on the screen.
 Position the lighting equipment or sources of light such that glare (or bright
reflections) on the display are minimized. Where necessary, use indirect lighting
to avoid bright spots on the display.
 Use/fit radiation filter screens (anti-glare filters) to reduce the light that reaches the
eye.
 Avoid using a flickering monitor. This causes extreme eyestrain that can damage
your eyesight.
 The wall paints used should not be very bright as they reflect too much light causing
eyestrain.
 Use the brightness & contrast controls on the Monitor to adjust the brightness of
the computer monitor until the eyes feel comfortable, and also to improve image

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quality of your display.
 Turn off the screen when not in use or reduce its brightness in order to prevent
screen burnout.
 If the room has windows, use blinds or shades to control the amount of daylight in
the room.
 Take frequent breaks and rest your eyes.
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 You should have glasses that are specifically suited for working with the computer
display.
 Keep your glasses and the display clean.
 Have your eyes examined regularly by a vision care specialist.
 The distance between the user & screen should be between 450 – 500mm.
Safe use of the laboratory
For the safe use of the laboratory, the measure that protects the user while in the computer
lab.
 All cables should be insulated: to avoid the danger of electric shock to users.
 Cables should be laid away: from user paths to avoid tripping on them.
 Providing standard furniture: to avoid poor posture, this may lead to strain injury
and limb fatigue.
 Providing antiglare screens: to avoid eye strain and fatigue caused by over bright
cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors. However, modern flat panel displays such as
liquid crystal display (LCD) should be used since they do not strain the eye.
 The room should be properly ventilated: to avoid dizziness caused by lack of
enough oxygen and to allow computers to cool.
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  Overcrowding: in the computer room is not allowed. This may cause suffocation
HANDLING OF MATERIALS & EQUIPMENTS
Computer devices must be handled with a lot of care as they are extremely fragile and can
easily get damaged. Dropping or bumping can cause permanent damage on the device,
e.g. to transport the System unit; always handle it on its frame.
 Do not place heavy objects on the computers.
 Protect the computer devices especially the Monitor & the disks away from any
electrostatic discharge (keep them away from strong magnetic fields).
 The computer devices should not be exposed to direct sunlight or warm
objects. This causes the internal components of the computer to get heated, and
as a result, affects the computer’s solder-joints.
 Students should only perform operations on the computer that they are sure of and

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under supervision.
 Computer equipment should be regularly checked and serviced.
Laboratory rules and regulations
For safety, security of computer and data, students using the computer laboratory should
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adhere to the following rules.

1. Do not use any other school administrator computer account (even with the manual
bypass or permission).
2. Do not attempt to discover any other computer user’s password and configure in
your own password.
3. Do not copy, disclose or transfer any of the computer software without permission
of the user or the system administrator.
4. Do not use any school computer facilities to violate the terms of any software
license agreement, or copyright provisions.
5. Do not copy, rename, change, examine or delete files and information belonging
to some other user.
6. Do not deliberately use-computing facilities to harass others, or to interfere with
their work for example to send obscene, abusive, threatening or repetitive
messages to a user(s).
7. Do not attempt to modify system facilities, illegally obtain extra resources, and
degrade the performance of any system.
8. Do not tamper with terminals, microcomputers or any other associated equipment,
all faults should be reported to the system administrator.
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 9. Do not eat or drink around terminals, microcomputers or other computer
equipment.
10. Always cover your computers and its peripherals to protect them from damage
caused especially by dust and moisture.
11. Always close all the tasks running before shutting down the computer and follow
the systematic procedure of shutting down the computer.
SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Servicing and maintenance of computer Systems
It is very important to keep your Computers maintained to avoid downtime and the safety
of your data/information. The following are some of the ways to maintain your computer.
 Cleaning of the computers: physical removal of dirt, dust and debris from the interior

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or exterior parts of computer peripherals such as keyboard, mouse, monitor and system
unit. This can be done by use of a clean soft clothing or compressed air to blow out the
debris from the intake slot and fan.
 Updating of software: Provides bug fixes for features not working properly and minor
software enhancements, and sometimes include new drivers to support printers or DVD
drives. A software update is sometimes called a patch because it is installed over current
software already in use. This helps to improve performance and safeguard against
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malware by updating programs e.g. anti-virus and computer programs.

 Upgrading software: Is a purchase of a newer version of software for current use. This
helps in replacement of older version to the current version which supports various
compatibility.
 Software installation: Installation of a computer program is the act of making the
program ready for execution. Helps in creating more applications for use and improves
the system performance of the computer with various computer programs for use.
 Fine-tuning the system: Fine tuning refers to the circumstance where the parameter
of a model must be adjusted precisely to agree with the observation. Example adjusting
the screen resolution and appearance.
Reasons for Servicing and maintenance of a computer Set:
 To ensure that the computer continuously work.
 To ensure performance and efficiency of a computer.
 To take out dust that can spoil some internal parts.
 In order to upgrade and update the computer.
 In order to ensure that the computer's life is guaranteed.
 To reduce costs of long run replacement and repairs.
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 COMPUTER LITERACY
Computer Literacy; refers to having the knowledge and understanding of computers and
their uses.
Computers like any other discipline, inspire different levels of expertise.
On the least specialized level, computer literacy involves knowing how to turn on a
computer, start and stop simple application programs, and save and print information.
At higher levels, computer literacy becomes more detailed, involving the ability of the
“power users” to manipulate complex applications and, possibly, to program in languages
such as BASIC, C, C++, Java, Oracle, etc.
At the highest levels, computer literacy leads to specialized—and technical— knowledge
of such topics as electronics and assembly language.

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BOOTING/STARTING A COMPUTER
Booting is a process by which a computer is started or restarted.
There are two basic ways of booting a computer and these include.
Cold booting: this is a fresh staring of a computer by pressing on the power supply button.
Warm booting: this is the process of restarting a computer that is already turned on.
When using Windows, a warm boot can also be performed by using the
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 CTRL+ALT+DEL key combinations.

 Restart / reset button.
The process of cold booting a computer
The system unit is switched on from the power button then the monitor. The computer
goes through power on self-test with the help of BIOS (Basic Input-Output system).The
operating system is then loaded.
Situations that may require warm booting
 When a computer freezes or hangs up (programs are not responding).
 During installation of a new hardware.
 During installation of new software.
Booting Process of a Computer System
Booting is the process of starting or restarting a computer, which involves loading an
operating system into memory.
The steps that occur during a cold boot using the Windows operating system are:
34
  The power supply sends an electrical signal to the motherboard and other devices
located in the system unit.
 The CPU resets itself and looks for the ROM that contains the BIOS.
The BIOS executes the Power-On Self-Test (POST) to make sure that the
computer hardware is connected properly and operating correctly.
 If the POST is completed successfully, the BIOS looks for the boot program that
loads the operating system.
 Once located, the boot program is loaded into memory and executed, which then
loads the kernel or core of the operating system into RAM.
 The operating system loads system configuration information, and the remainder
of the operating system is loaded into RAM, and the desktop and the icons display
on the screen.

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Describe briefly the booting process of a personal computer using the Windows
operating system.
1) The power supply sends a signal to the components in the system unit.
2) The processor looks for the BIOS.
3) The BIOS performs the POST.
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4) The results of the POST are compared with the data in the CMOS chip.
5) The BIOS looks for the system files in the boot disk.
6) The boot program loads the kernel of the OS into RAM from storage.
7) The OS loads configuration information and displays the desktop on the screen.
Note:
 ROM contains the basic input/output system (BIOS), which is a sequence of
instructions the computer follows to load the operating system and other files when
the computer is turned on.
 The POST (Power-On Self-Test) checks the various system components such as
the buses, system clock, expansion cards, RAM chips, keyboard, floppy disk drive,
and hard disk.
 The results of the POST are compared with data in a CMOS chip on the
motherboard.
CMOS (Complementary metal-oxide Semiconductor) is used to store configuration
information about the computer, which includes amount of memory, types of disk
drives, keyboard, monitor, current date and time, etc.
 CMOS chips use battery power to retain information even when the computer is
turned off.
35
  Unlike ROM, information stored in CMOS can be changed.
 The CMOS chip is updated whenever new components are installed.
 In Windows, system configuration information is contained in several files called
the registry
After booting a computer, the first screen you see is called a Desktop.
Desktop is large area on the screen, on which Icons, desktop application windows, dialog
box, etc appear.
Desktop Features
In a windows environment, desktop features are usually icons (small graphical images
representing information about something). There are some icons called Short cut icons
which are identified by the small arrows on the lower left corner of the image.

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Major icons on the desktop
1. My Computer: this gives access to additional information about the disk drives,
printers, scanners, removable devices like flash disks, digital camera, etc.
2. My Network place: this allows to access information about folders and files on
other computers, using internet in which you can personalize your settings.
3. Control Panel: provides options for the appearance and functionality of your
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computer, add or remove programs, setup network connections and user accounts.
4. Recycle Bin: allows you to send files you wish to delete from your computer (keeps
temporary deleted files). A file accidentally deleted can be restored from the
Recycle Bin. However, if a file is deleted from the Recycle Bin, you cannot find it
anymore.
5. Taskbar: this where the Start button lies (usually to the extreme left), current time
and date are displayed (usually to the extreme right), displaying active programs
(programs opened).
6. Internet Explorer: a web browser (program) enabling access to internet.
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 FILE MANAGEMENT
A file manager is a program that performs functions related to storage and file
management.
Functions performed by a file manager include:
 Formatting and copying disks.
 Displaying a list of files on a storage medium.
 Checking the amount of used or free space on a storage medium.
 Copying, renaming, deleting, moving, save files and sorting files.
FILES AND FOLDERS
File

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A file is:
 any piece of information saved on a computer storage device e.g. a movie, an audio
track, documents, etc.
 a collection of logically related records i.e. a group of recodes of the same type given
a unique name for ease of access.
Every file has the following details:
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1. File name – a text by which a file is identified.

2. File extension – indicates file type or nature of file. It’s usually separated from the
base filename by a dot (.) e.g. Aringa SS.DOCX. In this case the file name is Aringa
SS and the extension is DOCX.
3. The size, date and time the file was created or modified.
Types of files:
There are three types of files namely system, application and data files.
System files contain information that is critical for the operation of the computer.
Application files hold programs that are executable.
Data files contain user specific data.
Extension File type Description
.doc Data A Microsoft word document file
.txt Data A plain text file created using notepad or DOS editor
.tif Data A graphic file created using applications such as adobe
Photoshop
.exe Application The file that launches a particular application, e.g
file WinWord.exe,
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 .bat System files Files containing series of commands loaded during
booting up
.sys System files System files that perform fundamental operations in a
computer
Other file extensions:-
Program files. These are typical of the following extensions EXE, .Com, .DLL and .DRV
for machine language instruction files.
Data files. Files with some data in them. They are typical of the following extensions; .DOC
for word processor files, DOCX (for word 2007/2013) .DAT/ .DBF/ .MBD for database files,
and .XLS/ .WKS for spreadsheet files.
ASCII files. These are files with text only, no graphics. They are typical of text extension
(.TXT)

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ASCII = American Standard Code for Information Interchange
Image files. These are files with digitized graphics e.g. arts work, photographs, etc.
They are typical of the following extensions; TIF, .EPS, JPG, GIV and .BMP.
Audio files; files with digitized sound data. They have extensions of; .WAV, .MID etc.
Video files. Are files with digitized video images conveying moving clips/ images over the
net. Common extensions are; .AVL and .MPG.
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A file system is used to control how data is stored and retrieved

DIRECTORY
A directory is a file system cataloging structure which contains references to other
computer files, and possibly other directories. On many computers, directories are known
as folders, catalogs.
Folder
 A folder or directory is a virtual container of a computer where files are stored.
 All folders or directories originate from a special directory called the root directory
or folder. The root directory is represented by back slash (\). A folder may be
subdivided into smaller units called subfolders.
Creating a folder on the desktop
 Make sure the pointer is free (pointing on nothing).
 Right-click and choose New – Folder; the press Enter.
 A new folder will be created with a name “New folder”.
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 Creating a File/ Folder on Storage Medium
Open My Computer:
 Select and open the storage medium on which you want to create a file/ folder.
 Right-click on black area “Select a file to preview”.
 Choose New – Folder or select application icon for your file.
DRIVES
The operating system views storage media or devices as drives. Drives may be given
labels such as letters A –Z to identify them.
The table below shows how Microsoft operating systems identify drives.
Storage location Drive Remarks
Floppy drive A and B If a computer has two floppy drives, one will be

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assigned letter A and the other B.
Hard disk C, D, E, F If a computer has four hard drives, they will be
assigned letters C – F
Optical drives D, E, F, G If a computer has one hard disk and three or more
CD/DVD drives, they will take up any letter
between D and Z
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Other removable D, E, ..., Z If a computer does not have an optical dive, any
drives removable drive attached to it can take any letter
between D and Z
Network drive Logical drives In a networked environment, network drives can
D–Z take up letters D to Z depending on the number of
physical drives installed or attached
MANAGING STORAGE DEVICES USING WINDOWS
Microsoft Windows provides the user with storage media management utilities such as disk
formatting, scandisk, compression agent, disk defragmenter and backup utilities.
Formatting drives
Formatting means writing tracks and sectors on a disk to make it ready for data storage.
When a disk is formatted, data in it is lost.
To format a drive:
1. Double click My Computer icon
2. Right click the drive to format
3. On the Shortcut menu, click Format
4. Click start.
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 Scanning a drive for problems
Scan disk is a special utility that enables the user to scan a storage device for physical and
directory storage problems.
To scan and check a drive for errors:
1. Right click the device icon in My Computer window then select Properties
2. In the properties dialog box, select the Tools tab
3. Under the Tools tab, click Check now
4. In dialog box, select a fix disk option then click Start
Defragmenting a disk
A single file may have several pieces (fragments) scattered in several non-contiguous
sectors on a disk. These scattered parts are re-assembled on a contiguous part using the
defragmenter

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To defragment a disk:
1. In My Computer window, right click the drive
2. From Shortcut menu, click Properties
3. In the Properties dialog box, click Tools tab
4. Click Defragment Now
5. Select the volume to defragment
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Scanning for malware

Malicious programs, simply referred to as malware, are harmful programs deliberately
intended to make a computer fail or malfunction. Three common types of malicious
programs are Viruses, Trojan horses and Worms.
A computer must be installed with the latest antivirus program such as Norton,
McAfee, Kaspersky, AVG, Avira, Avast, Panda, Bull Guard, among others.
To scan for malware:
1. In My Computer window, Right click the drive
2. From the Shortcut menu, click Scan with < antivirus name>. The scan process is
then initiated
3. Heal, delete or quarantine the infected files
Disk Compression
Disk compression dramatically increases available free space by compressing files.
However, this result in reduced performance and therefore it is not recommended unless
your computer cannot accommodate a large capacity disk.
40
 To compress a disk:
1. In My Computer window, right click the drive
2. Click Properties, the General tab
3. Click “Compress drive to save disk space”
4. Click OK. Another dialog box is displayed
5. Click OK to apply changes
Backing up data
Backing up data is the process of making copies of the data on separate disk or location.
This prevents complete loss of data in case the current storage location fails, gets lost or
is destroyed.
To back up data from hard disk:
1. In My Computer window, Right click the hard drive.

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2. From the Shortcut menu, click Properties.
3. In the Properties dialog box, click Tools tab.
4. Click Backup Now.
5. The backup wizard guides you through the process.
Recovering/ retrieving deleted files from a Recycle Bin.
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 Select Recycle Bin on the Desktop/ open

 Select required file/ right click and restore the required file.
Using a startup disk
A startup is a diagnostic disk or disks used for minimal boot up in case a computer fails to
load an operating system.
Partitioning a disk
Partitioning a disk means dividing it into several volumes called logical drives.
If you plan to install more than one operating system, each should be installed on its own
partition. Each partition is treated as separate drive and will be assigned a drive letter
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 WORD PROCESSORS
ELECTRONIC WORD PROCESSORS
An electronic word processor is application software that enables the user to create, edit,
format and print text-rich documents.
Editing a document means making changes or modifying an existing document. It
involves deleting text, find and replace spelling and grammar checker, etc.
Formatting a document refers to changing the appearance of a document. You can
format text, paragraph or the entire document.
Examples of word processors include: Microsoft word, Corel WordPerfect, Lotus Word
Pro, Apple Works, WordPad, WordPerfect, etc.
Word processor performs much the same function as a typewriter, but it offers a large
number of very useful additional features.

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Components of MS Word Screen
Title bar: This the topmost bar of the window. It displays the file name when the window
is open.
Minimize button: this minimizes the word window.
Maximize/ Restore button: this is used to minimize or restore the window.
Close button: used to exit or close the word window.
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Menu bar: this contains menu options (File, Edit, Insert, Format, Tools, Table, Help).
Tool bar: this is the bar containing a set of icons to perform different tasks.
Tool bars are of two types; Standard tool bar and Formatting tool bar.
Ruler: this displays the margins, indents, tab positions on a number scale.
Working area: this is where the typing is done.
View bar: this is displayed just below the working area containing four icons in it. They can
be used to display documents in Print layout view, Web layout view, Outline view and
Reading layout view
Scroll bars: Vertical and horizontal scroll bars for scrolling the page up and across the
word window.
Drawing tool bar: it is displayed at the bottom of the word window, just above the scroll
bar containing tools for drawing and inserting auto shapes.
Status bar: it’s displayed at the bottom of word window and it displays the status of the
active window e.g current page number, number of pages, insertion point position, section,
etc.
NB: there are many tool bars to be used. Other tool bars can be made active from View –
Tool bars.
42
 FEATURES OF WORD PROCESSORS
In addition to creating, saving, retrieving and modifying text, word processors offer many
features for making your work more attractive and more efficient. Some of the common
features include:
Delete text: deletes a character, a word or a block of text. Deleting can be done using
delete key or Backspace key.
Note: Delete key erases characters to the right of the cursor while the backspace key
erases characters to the left.
Spelling and grammar checker: automatically locates misspelled words and grammatical
mistakes.
Find/Search and Replace: used to locate a word or a phrase and replace it with another.
Thesaurus: allows the user to automatically find words or phrases with similar meanings

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(synonyms).
Autocorrect and AutoText: are used to automatically correct a commonly misspelled
word and inserts a predefined text when creating a document.
Word-wrap: this automatically starts a new line if there’s insufficient space in the right
hand margin.
Text formatting; Fonts, styles and sizes. E.g. Bold, Italics, Underline, etc.
Cut and Paste: Allows you to remove (cut) a section of text from one place and insert
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(paste) it somewhere else.

Copy and paste: Allows you to duplicate a section of text.
Mail Merge: allows you to merge text from one file into another file. This is particularly
useful for generating many files that have the same format but different data.
Uses of Word Processors
 They can be used to produce letters, books, articles, mailing lists and any type of
textual material.
 They are used to create tables and graphics.
 They are used to create documents and merge identical or similar documents.
 They can also be used to create memos.
Advantages of Word Processors
1. Easier to use due to automated features such as Word-wrap.
2. They have superior editing tools such as spelling checker, the Thesaurus, etc,
hence making editing easier.
3. Can store documents for feature use and editing.
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 4. They have superior formatting features that make a document more appealing to
the reader.
5. The user can produce multiple copies more easily.
6. Copy and move (cut) operation make it easier to manipulate a document.
Mail merge
Mail merge is a word processing feature that allows users to personalise letters with names
and addresses from a database.
The main steps in setting up a mail-merged letter are:
1. Create the main document/primary file; which contains all the information to be
common to all the recipients.
2. Create the data source/secondary file; contains the address of the recipients.

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3. Inert the merge fields.
4. Merge the document; combines the content of the data source and the main
document.
Advantages of mail merge
1. Uniformity of letters produced.
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2. Faster production of letters.

3. Accuracy in the content produced.
4. There is a backup of the letters and the data source in the computer storage
location.
5. Saves one storage space since individual letters does not have to be stored.
Disadvantages of mail merge
1. Letters can lack the personal touch.
2. The database that provides the information for the mail merge letter must be kept
up-to-date if it is going to be useful.
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 ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS
These are application software used to calculate, organize and analyse numerical data.
Examples of spreadsheets include: Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Corel Quarto Pro, etc.
Components of an electronic spreadsheet
The three main components of standard spreadsheets are:
Worksheet: a rectangular grid made up of rows and columns.
Database: enables the user to perform functions such as sort, filter, subtotaling and
consolidating on worksheet data.
Graphs: visual representation of data on a chart.
A spreadsheet usually consists of a series of rows and columns. The figures or numbers
and text are inserted into cells. A cell is an intersection of column and row.
Every cell is referred to or referenced by a column and row title e.g. B5. This is known as

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the cell-address or Cell reference (meaning column “B” and row “5”).
USES OF SPREADSHEETS
a) The introduction of spreadsheet packages make easy calculations and provide proper
storage of business information.
b) They are used to produce payments and credit statements.
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c) They are used to record sales and make invoices (receipts).

d) Teachers can compile students’ marks and produce overall marks / results using
spreadsheets i.e. they are used to produce reports.
e) Secretaries and clerks can easily create tables of figures and manipulate them quickly
as required.
f) Researchers can compile and analyze their data and results by use of charts and
formulae funded in spreadsheets.
Advantages of using electronic spreadsheets
Advantages of using electronic spreadsheets over manual spreadsheets include:
1. Electronic spreadsheets perform mathematical, statistical and financial
calculations quickly and accurately.
2. Electronic spreadsheets have built-in functions which made work easier than
manual spreadsheets.
3. In electronic spreadsheets, calculations are always accurate, provided that data
and formulae entered are correct.
4. Electronic spreadsheets offer different options for data presentations such as
graphs, pie charts, etc.
45
 5. Electronic spreadsheets are very useful for applications that require modeling and
what-if analysis.
6. Easy management of large amount of data using data management of data such
as filtering, sorting, data validation and subtotaling.
7. Electronic spreadsheets provide formatting options such as applying different font
sizes, colours, etc.
8. Electronic spreadsheets have the ability to spell check the whole spreadsheet.
9. Workbooks can be saved in softcopies that can be easily modified and reused in
future.
10. Automatically adjust the result whenever a value is changed in a cell(s) that is
referenced by a formula.
Disadvantages of using electronic spreadsheets

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1. Requires skills in order operate
2. Needs power in order operate
3. Data may be corrupted due hardware and software failures
4. Data may be not be secure due to virus attack
Application of Electronic Spreadsheets
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Spreadsheets can be used in a number of ways:

1. Statistical analysis such as mean, standard deviation, variance, etc.
2. Accounting such as balance sheet preparation, loan repayment, mortgage and
investment analysis. Calculating profits and losses.
3. Forecasting – What-if-analysis, solver, goal seek and scenario in most
spreadsheets evaluate the effect of changing a value to achieve a certain goal for
managerial purpose. Sales forecasting.
4. Mathematical and scientific solution such as arithmetic, trigonometric, rounding
off and multiplication.
Spreadsheet Features
A part from the title bar, menu bar, standard toolbar and status bar discussed in Word
processing, Excel has the following additional features:
A cell: is the intersection of a row and a column.
An active cell is highlighted cell ready for data entry.
Columns are represented by letters A, B, C …. while rows are represented by numbers 1,
2, 3, …. For example, B3 represents a cell in the second column, third row.
NB: Range is a group of cells in a worksheet that have been selected e.g A2:A5
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 Worksheet: is the work area made up of rows and columns.
Workbook: is a collection of worksheets in a single file. A workbook consists of one or
more related worksheets.
Worksheet tabs: are located at the bottom of a spreadsheet. They show the number of
worksheets in the workbook. Note that one worksheet may have several pages.
Name Box: displays cell reference of an active cell. It is located next to formula bar above
the worksheet.
Formula bar: displays data or formula stored in an active cell. It can also be used to enter,
edit data in a worksheet.
Auto fill handle: a feature that helps to automatically fill cells by copying the function or
formula to the other cells.
Entering data into a worksheet:
When data is entered in a cell, it is displayed in the cell and the formula bar.

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SPREADSHEET DATA TYPES
Data entered can be:-
1. Labels – alphanumeric characters or text that describe the content of a row or
column, e.g names.
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2. Values – numeric characters 0-9 and dates that can be manipulated

mathematically.
3. Formula and function – a formula refers to mathematical expression while a
function is a predefined or in-built formula that allows the user to perform complex
calculations.
Performing Calculations in a Worksheet:
Using basic formulae
A formula refers to mathematical expression used to solve problems. A formula must start
with an equal (=) sign and use cell references in the formula e.g. =A2+B3
Arithmetic operators
Arithmetic operators mostly follow the rule similar to mathematical concept of BODMAS.
This means that whatever is in the parenthesis (brackets) is calculated first. Multiplication
and division are evaluated from left to right while addition and subtraction are evaluated
last.
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 The table below shows summary of operator used to create formulae.
Symbol Description Example
/ Division =A2/B2
* Multiplication =A2*B2
+ Addition =A2+B2
- Subtraction =B2-A2
^ Exponentiation =A2^2
Relational operators
A relational operator returns true or false depending on the magnitude of the value being
evaluated.
Table below shows a summary of relational operators.
Symbol Description Example

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= Equal to =A2=B2
> Greater than =A2>B2
< Less than =A2<B2
<> Not equal to =B2<>A2
<= Less than or equals to =A2<=B2
>= Greater than or equal to =A2>=B2
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Excel Cell Addressing or Cell Referencing

There are three types of cell referencing used when creating formulae and manipulating
cell(s) content:
1. Relative cell referencing (addressing)
Relative cell referencing is where the cell references of a formula automatically update to
reflect its location when copied. For example, if C1 contains a formula =A1+B1 is copied
to C2, the reference changes to A2+b2.
2. Absolute referencing (addressing)
Absolute referencing is where the cell reference remains the same, no matter where the
formula is copied. To specify absolute cell reference, you must precede both parts of the
cell reference (row and column) by a dollar ($) sign e.g. $A$2. For example, if the result in
C1 is 170, if absolute reference is used, 170 will be copied to C2.
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 3. Mixed cell reference
This is a combination of relative and absolute reference, e.g. $A3 or A$3.
In $A3, the column reference is absolute while the row is relative.
In A$3, the column reference is relative while the row is absolute
Using in-built functions
A function is a predefined formula used to perform calculations. A function must start with
an equal (=) sign followed by the function name and arguments.
For example, in =SUM (A3:F3), SUM is the function that adds the range A3 to F3 which is
the argument.
In Excel, functions can be categorized into:
 Mathematical
 Statistical

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 Logical
 Date and time
Using Mathematical functions
SUM( ) – adds all the values in the selected range of cells. Eg =SUM(A3:C3) adds up all
the values where A3 is the starting cell and C3 is the end of cell in the range to be added.
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ROUND( ) – rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places.

SUMIF( ) – conditionally adds the specified cells according to the set criteria.
=SUMIF(A3:A10,”>=95”) returns a value if, and only if, the sum is greater than or equal to
95.
PRODUCT( ) – multiplies all the values in the argument. For example, =PRODUCT(40, 3,
2) returns 240.
Using statistical functions
AVERAGE( ) – returns the arithmetic mean of its arguments. For example, if A3, B3, and
C3 contain 20, 50 and 80 respectively, =AVERAGE(A3:C3) returns 75.
COUNT( ) – counts the number of cells that contain numbers within a range. For example,
=COUNT(A3:C3) returns 3.
COUNTIF( ) – conditionally counts the number of cells within a range that meets a given
condition. For example, if A3, B3, D3 and E3 contain 20, 50, 80, 60 and 45 respectively
then =COUNTIF(A3:E3, “>50”) returns 2.
MAX( ) – returns the largest value in a set of values or written in a range. For example,
=MAX(A3:E3) for the values above returns 80.
MIN( ) – returns the smallest value in a set of values or written in a range. For example,
=MIN(A3:E3) for the values above returns 20.
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 VAR( ) – estimates variance based on a sample e.g =VAR(A3:E3)
FREQUENCY( ) – returns how often a value occurs within a range.
e.g = FREQUENCY(A3:E3, A3) returns frequency of A3 in the range of A3:E3.
MODE ( ) – returns the most frequently occurring number, or repetitive value in an array or
range of data.
RANK( ) – ranks a number and returns a position value for a cell in a range. For example
=RANK(A3, A3:E3).
Note: if this result is copied to fill the subsequent cells in the column, there will be data
redundancy/duplication. In order to get rid of this data duplication, a dollar ($) sign must be
used after each column reference or before row deference in the range. For example
=RANK(A3, A$3:E$3)
Using logical functions

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IF( ) returns a value or a label if a condition you specify evaluates to TRUE and another if
it evaluates to FALSE. For example, if A3, B3, C3, D3, and E3 contain a set of marks 35,
50, 80, 60 and 45 and grades are to be awarded as follows:
80 to 100 A
60 to 79 B
40 to 59 C
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Below 40 Fail
To assign a grade use,
=IF(A3>=80, “A”, IF(A3>=60, “B”, IF(A3>=40,”C”,”Fail”)))
Using VLOOKUP function
Syntax: VLOOKUP (Value, Table-array, Index-number, [Not-exact-match])
Parameters or arguments:
 Value: the value to search for in the first column of the table.
 Table-array: two or more columns of data that is sorted in ascending order.
 Index-number: the column in the table from which the matching value must be
returned. The 1st column is 1.
 Not-exact-match: optional. It determines if you are looking for an exact match based
on value. Enter FALSE to find an exact match. Enter TRUE to find and approximate
match. If this parameter is omitted, it will return approximate match.
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 Example
You want to grade students in the following marks they scored.
Marks Grade
0 – 39 Fail
40 – 59 C
60 – 79 B
80 -100 A
Note: when entering this data into spreadsheet, consider the lower class limits for marks
ranges and ignore the upper class limit. Enter this table in another sheet, say sheet2.
= VLOOKUP(B2, Sheet2!$A$2:$B$5, 2)
Where B2 is the value to search, Sheet2! is the sheet where the table-array is, A2:B5 is
the range in the table-array, 2 is the column-index-number in the table-array for which the
matching value must be returned.

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Using date and time functions
TODAY( ) – returns a number that represents today’s date.
For example =TODAY( ) returns the current date.
NOW( ) – returns the current date and time formatted as date and time.
For example =NOW( ) returns the current date and time.
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Revision Questions
Q1. Explain any five features of a spreadsheet application.
Insert text: Allows you to insert text anywhere in the spreadsheet.
Delete text: Allows you to erase characters, words, charts, or worksheets as easily as you
can cross them out on paper.
Cut and Paste: Allows you to remove (cut) a section of text from one place in a
spreadsheet and insert (paste) it somewhere else.
Copy: Allows you to duplicate a section of text.
Page layout: Allows you to define various page sizes and margins.
Search and Replace: Allows you to direct the spreadsheet to search for a particular word
or phrase. You can also direct the spreadsheet application to replace one group of
characters with another everywhere that the first group appears.
Headers, Footers, & Page Numbering: Allows you to specify customized headers and
footers that the spreadsheet file will put at the top and bottom of every worksheet. The
spreadsheet automatically keeps track of page numbers so that the correct number
appears on each page.
Merges: Allows you to merge text from one file into another file. This is particularly useful
for generating many files that have the same format but different data.
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Spell Checker: A utility that allows you to check the spelling of words in a spreadsheet
file.
Print: Allows you to send a spreadsheet file to a printer to get a hardcopy or many
hardcopies as you would like.
Thesaurus: A built-in thesaurus that allows you to search for synonyms (words with similar
meaning) and antonyms (‘opposites”) without leaving the word processor.
Graphics: The spreadsheet application permits the addition of various types of graphics,
such as bar charts, line charts, clip art, and photographs. etc.

Q2. Explain the following terms:

(i) Character map: Is a group of symbols not found on the keyboard.
(ii) Formatting: Changing the appearance/parameters of a text or document.
(iii) Footer: Is any text which is placed in the bottom margin of a page.
(iv) Page break: A parameter that controls the number of lines to a page after which
additional text will be placed onto the next page.

Q3. Mention four uses of word processors in business

 Production of reports and business proposals.
 Making of adverts and posters (a case for word and clip art application).
 Production of business cards.
 Form letters and mailing label
 Publications
 Payroll where tables can be used for simple calculations.

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PRESENTATION SOFTWARE

Presentation software is a computer program used to create a variety of visually appealing

slides that are used to communicate ideas.
A presentation is a collection of slides, handouts, speaker’s notes and outlines in a single
file.
Most presentation software packages allow you to create your multimedia product using a
series of slides. Text, images, video, animations, links and sound can be combined on
each slide to create a sophisticated final product.

Examples of presentation software include

 Microsoft PowerPoint
 OpenOffice Impress,
 ShowLogic,
 KPresenter,
 Screencast,
 Adobe Persuasion,
 AppleWork

Areas where presentations are used

 Education
 Entertainment
 Advertisement of products
 Workshops, meeting, seminars, etc.
Microsoft PowerPoint is software used to perform computer based presentations and slide
shows.

Common features of presentation software

Slide is a single page in the presentation software

Slides can contain any mixture of text, images, video, animations, links and sound.

Slide animations – effects allow the various elements on each slide to appear after a
certain amount of time or when a presenter presses a button. [Putting motion or sound to
various objects on your slides. This allows your text or graphics to appear on the slides
from different directions and in a various ways]

Text placeholder – This is an object on the slide usually a box that serves a place for text.

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Graphics placeholder – space reserved on a slide usually a box for inserting graphics
like charts.

Slide layout - A slide layout uses a specific combination of placeholders to arrange your
information on the slide. For example, if you know you'll have text on the slide and you also
want a picture or graphic of some kind, choose a layout that has both text and content
placeholders. [This is the given design showing divisions/ areas/section of a slide where
work can be done eg title only, blank slide layout]

Design template - A template allows you to establish background, color schemes, style,
and decorative accents.
Slide master – this allows the style (font face, font size, background etc) to be set once
and then used throughout the presentation.

Slide Master – This is a single slide that controls all other slides in a given presentation.
Any changes made to it affect the rest, respectively.
Or Slide master is a slide which helps you to make uniform features inform of background
or objects to every slide in your presentation
[Slide masters allow you to make design decision that will affect each slide in the
presentation]

Types of masters:
Slide masters - This is a single slide that controls all other slides in a given presentation.
Any changes made to it affect the rest, respectively.
Handout masters – This holds for the formatting of the appearance of headers and footers
on handout pages.
Notes masters – This holds for the formatting of your notes page.
Note: To create a master slide, select view – master (select the master)
Slide transitions – this is how the presentation software “moves” the display of one slide
to another. Transitions usually include dissolving from one slide to the next or the current
slide being moved in some way to show the next slide as though it was underneath.
Transition looping – Is a facility which sets up the presentation to run continuously until
it is stopped by the presenter. In Ms. PowerPoint 2003, Go to slide show – setup show –
then loop continuously until Esc.
Slide notes – when these are used the presenter will see the current slide and any notes
associated with it on his/her display and the audience will see just the slide on another
screen or from a projector.
Slide show – a feature that enables to view show setup during presentations, setup the
slides to run continuous until ESC.

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Action Button – an action button is a graphic button in a presentation with hyperlinks to

other slides, documents, media, programs internet addresses, etc
It is used on slides to help you navigate through the presentation
Thumbnail – a thumbnail is the term used to describe a minute version of a slide or picture.
It’s a graphic that gives you the impression of a slide or page.

Functions of presentation software

 It helps to create, organize and present information to audience.

 It enhances your presentation with pictures, charts, sound and video.
 It provides tools that help you to outline your thoughts, build a presentation quickly
using design templates.
Key points to note when creating a presentation.

Presentation Design Tips

1. Use contrasting colours for the text and background so that the text will be easy to
read.
2. Use large font sizes to be seen from the back of the room where the presentation
will be held. A font size of 24 or larger is recommended.
3. Use short phases and sentences to convey your message.
4. Use simple slide transitions; too many different transitions will distract your
audience from the subject of the presentation.

Adding transitional effects

Transitions are the special effects you see when go from one slide to another.
To add transition to a slide:
 Choose slideshow – Slide transition
 Click down arrow besides the effect dropdown list box
 Choose the transition effect you want

Adding animation effects

Choose Slideshow – Animation effects
Running an automatic slideshow
 Choose Slideshow – Slide transition
 Specify the time you want to have between each slide show to run automatic and
click apply.

Viewing a presentation
There are several ways of viewing a presentation, these include:

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 Slide view / Slide outline

 Slide sorter view
 Notes page view
 Slide show view

Slide view: this view shows how the slide will appear when presented or displayed.
Notes page view: allows you to enter text, graphics in a notes placeholder (located bellow
the image of the slide)
Slideshow view: displays computer based slideshow with animation, transition and timing
effects. It enables you to view your slides in a presentation
Handouts: it enables one to print multiple slides on a single page
Slide sorter view: is a view that enables you to view all your slides in a presentation and
organize them as desired.

You can perform the following tasks in slide sorter view.

 Manipulate the order of slides
 Add transition effects
 Hide slide from being displayed
 Set timing option for your presentation

Qn. Give two reasons why a slide show presentation would be better than just
printing out and distributing a newsletter.
(i) Slide show presentations do not waste paper
(ii) Audio, video, text and graphics can be presented while printed outputs cannot
display audio, video data types
(iii) Slide show presentations have entertainment values e.g. slide animations,
transitions.

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COMPUTER SYSTEMS

A system – is a collection of entities that work together to achieve a common goal.

A computer system is:
 a set of apparatus, materials and user to process data.
 a number of interrelated components that work together with the aim of processing,
managing and present information.

A computer system is composed of the following components:

1. Hardware: are physical or tangible components that make up a computer e.g.
keyboard, mouse, CPU, monitor, etc.
2. Software: are set of instructions that direct computer hardware on what to do. They
are the intangible parts of a computer. They are mainly classified into two
categories namely system software and application software.
3. Human ware/liveware: refers to human being. It is the user who designs
instructions, brings the hardware and software into reaction.
4. Firmware – these are manufacturer’s settings though, can be classified under
software i.e. programs in ROM chips

COMPUTER HARDWARE COMPONENTS

COMPUTER HARDWARE

Processing Memory
Input Devices Storage Out Devices
Devices
Devices

Scanning Devices Keying Devices Pointing Devices

Digitizers, Digital Camera, Voice Input, etc.

Computer hardware are the parts of a computer that can be physically touched and felt.
Microcomputer system hardware consists of a System Unit, a Monitor, Keyboard, Mouse,
etc.

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Categories of computer hardware

Computer hardware can be generally categorized as;

 Input devices
 Processing devices
 Memory (Storage devices)
 Output devices
 Communication devices

An input device is any hardware component that allows a user to enter data and
instructions into a computer.
Processing devices convert data into meaningful output form called information.
Processing is usually done in CPU (central processing unit).
An output device is any hardware component that can display information to a user.
A storage device records and retrieves items to and from a storage medium.
Communications devices enable two or more computers to exchange items such as
data, instructions, and information with each other.
The system unit is the rectangular case that houses the electronic components inside the
computer.

Input hardware

INPUT HARDWARE (INPUT DEVICES)

Input is any data or instruction entered into the memory of a computer.
An input device is any hardware component that allows a user to enter data and
instructions into a computer.

Examples of input devices are:

Keyboard, Mouse, Trackball, Touchpad, Joystick, Touch Screen, Light Pen, Stylus and
Graphics Tablet, Digital Camera, Scanner, Optical Character Recognition Reader, Optical
Mark Recognition Reader, Bar Code Reader, Magnetic Ink Character Recognition Reader,
Magnetic Strips Reader, Microphone, Voice Recognition Device, MIDI Device, Digital
Video Camera, PC Camera, Web Cam, Sensor and Remote Sensor and Terminal

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Scanner

Digital camera

Digital video camera

Webcam

Mouse
Trackball
Touchpad

Stylus and
Joystick/joy pad graphics

OMR Scanner OCR Scanner

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Bar codes
Bar cord readers

OMR
Scanner

Chip and Pin Magnetic

Magnetic Ink stripe reader
Reader
Character
Reader

Input devices can be classified as:

 Keying devices/Text readers  Visual devices
 Pointing devices  Biometric device
 Audio devices
Input – Keying devices/Reading Text (Codes):
 Keyboard  Barcode Reader/ Scanner
 Voice Recognition Equipments  MICR Readers
 OMR Scanner / Readers  Magnetic Strip Card Readers, etc
 OCR Scanner/ Readers

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Input – Pointing Devices:

 Mouse  Light Pen
 Trackball/ Tracker Ball  Pen-Based System
 Joystick  Digitizing Tablet
 Touch Screen  Digitizing

Input – Image/ Visual Devices:

 Image Scanner  Digital Video (DV) Camera
 Digital Camera  Webcam, etc.

Input – Audio Devices:

 Microphones  CD/DVD players
 Tape players  MIDI Devices, etc

Input – Biometric Devices

 Fingerprint scanner  Voice recognition system
 Hand geometry system  Signature verification system
 Face recognition system  Iris recognition system
Input – Sensor and Remote Sensor:
 Remote Control
 Sensors, etc.

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Input – Terminal Devices:

 EPOS (Electronic Point of Sale) terminal
 EFTPOS (Electronic Fund Transfer Point of Sale) terminals
 Automatic teller machine (ATM)

Input – Reading Text/ Codes

The Keyboard
A keyboard is:
 simply a set of buttons with assigned symbols.
 a primary input device with a number of special keys which can initiate commands.

Types of keyboards
Keying devices include:
(i) Traditional keyboard – rigid with typing, navigation numerical keypad, function
and special PC keys.
(ii) Flexible keyboard – can be folded
(iii) Ergonomic – designed to provide comfort and alleviate wrist strain
(iv) Braille keyboard – used by the blind
(v) Keypad – miniature keying device (this is a small keyboard used with hand held
devices i.e. cell phones, calculators, notebooks etc)
(vi) Wireless keyboard

Parts of a Keyboard:
A standard keyboard consists of:
a) Function Keys (F1-F12) which are used to perform specific functions depending
on the applications packages being used e.g. most applications use F1 for help
b) The Numeric Keypad (0-9), usually located on the right side of the keyboard.
They are mainly used to enter data (numeric data) very fast into the computer.
c) Alphanumeric Keys/Typewriter Keyboard: these are used for normal
operations such as typing text an entering numeric data.
d) The Toggle/Control keys: these include shift, tab, Caps. Lock, Alt, Ctrl, Esc.
These are used in combination with other keys or on their own to perform
specific tasks. E.g. Shift + any letter → capital of that letter (Shift +a →A, shift + 5
→ %, ctrl +Alt + Del → Restarts computer (warm booting). The escape key is
used by most applications to exit from a program or to; move back one step to
the previous operation. Windows key activates the start-up menu for the
computer user to run, shutdown, search, etc using arrow keys. NUMLOCK key
activates and deactivates the numerical keypad

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e) Navigation Keys/Movement Keys: Used to move the cursor in the four

compass directions on a workspace. They are equivalent to the Page Up and
Page Down keys.
f) END/Home Keys: These move the cursor or pointer to either the end of the last
typed in statement or to beginning point of that statement respectively. On
notebook and many handheld computers, the keyboard is built into the top of the
system unit.
A standard computer keyboard is sometimes called a QWERTY keyboard because
of the layout of its typing area.

Advantages of using keyboards for data input include:

(i) It is not necessary to buy additional equipment because most computer systems
are normally supplied with keyboards.
(ii) Entering data and instructions with keyboards is generally faster than with
pointing devices e.g. mouse.
(iii) Keyboards are more reliable and usually produce fewer errors than other input
methods such as voice input and optical character recognition.

Disadvantages of using keyboards for data input include:

(i) It takes a lot of time to practice in order to type quickly and accurately.
(ii) Typing speeds are still very slow when compared with computer speeds.
(iii) Keyboard can become faulty due to dust
(iv) Some keyboard keys are hard to press, causing fingers to hurt

Voice Recognition System

Voice recognition, or speech recognition, is the computer's capability to distinguish spoken
words (converts spoken words to text).
Voice recognition programs do not actually understand speech; they only recognize a
vocabulary of preprogrammed words.

Advantages of voice recognition include

(i) No typing of data is necessary.
(ii) Dictating text is faster than typing.
(iii) The system can be used remotely by telephone or by people whose hands are
occupied or disabled.
(iv) Voice recognition systems are also ideal for blind or visually impaired users.

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Disadvantages of voice recognition include

(i) Error rate is still high at the moment.
(ii) Recognition of words is slow.
(iii) Words sound that the same (e.g., see and sea) cannot be distinguished.
(iv) The system is not suitable for use in noisy places.
(v) The software must be trained to recognize specialist or technical words.
(vi) Many people find it difficult to speak in a 'writing' style.

Bar code reader

A bar code reader uses laser beams to read bar codes.
A bar code reader reads a bar code by using light patterns that pass through the bar code
lines.
Each item in a shop or store is marked with a Universal Product Code (UPC) which
identifies the item. The code is in terms of bars with coded spacing and thickness. A bar
code reader is moved across the bars by the shopkeeper and the details of the price, date
of manufacture, catalog number etc are read or displayed.
Bar code readers are widely used in supermarkets, department stores, libraries, etc.

Advantages of using bar codes and bar code readers include

(i) The process of data entry is fast and accurate.
(ii) Bar codes can be printed by normal printing methods.
(iii) No need to write down or key in the name of the item or its actual price.

Disadvantages of using bar codes and bar code readers include

(i) Only numbers can be coded.
(ii) Bar codes cannot be read directly by people.
(iii) A bar code reader may misread a bar code if there is any dirt or mark on the
code.

Optical mark recognition (OMR)

Optical mark recognition (OMR) readers can sense hand-drawn marks such as small
circles or rectangles made on pre-printed forms in certain places.

The OMR reader first reads the answer key sheet to record the correct answers
based on the patterns of light, and then reads the remaining documents and
matches their patterns of light against the answer key sheet.

OMR readers are often used for marking multiple choice answer sheets,
capturing data from questionnaires, enrolment forms, and lottery tickets.

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Advantages of OMR readers include

(i) OMR has a better recognition rate than OCR because fewer mistakes are made
by machines to read marks than by reading handwritten characters.
(ii) Large volumes of data can be collected quickly and easily without the need for
specially trained staff.
(iii) The cost of inputting data and the chance of data input errors can be reduced
because it is not necessary to type the details for data entry.

Disadvantages of OMR readers include

(i) Documents for optical mark recognition are complicated to design.
(ii) The OMR reader needs to be reprogrammed for each new document design.
(iii) OMR readers are relatively slow.
(iv) The person putting marks on the documents must follow the instructions
precisely.
(v) Any folding or dirt on a form may prevent the form from being read correctly.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

Most OCR readers include a small optical scanner for reading characters and sophisticated
OCR software for analyzing what is read.

OCR readers are often used for turnaround documents (e.g., electricity bills).

Advantages of OCR readers include

(i) Written data and printed data can be read at the same time.
(ii) Hard copies of documents can be read directly into a computer without
retyping.
(iii) The characters converted can later be edited by word processing software.
Disadvantages of OCR readers include
OCR readers often do not work well with handwritten characters or those in unusual fonts.

Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)

A magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) reader can read text printed with magnetized
ink.
Magnetic ink character recognition is used most exclusively by the banking industry for
processing checks.
The characters represent the check number, the bank number, and the account number of
customers.

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Advantages of MICR readers include

(i) MICR is difficult to forge.
(ii) Documents can still be read when folded or written on.

Disadvantages of MICR readers include

(i) MICR readers and encoders are very expensive.
(ii) The system can only accept a few different character sets.

Magnetic strips readers

Magnetic strip readers are used to read information contained in the magnetic strips on
cards (e.g., credit cards).
A magnetic strip reader detects the pattern of magnetization and convert it to numeric data.

Advantages of magnetic strips readers include

Reading is accurate and fast.

Disadvantages of magnetic strips readers include

 The amount of data that can be stored on a strip is limited.
 The magnetic strips can be damaged easily by exposure to a strong magnetic field.

POINTING DEVICES
A pointing device is an input device that allows a user to control a pointer. A pointer is a
small symbol, on the screen.
Pointing devices include: Mouse, trackball, joystick, touch screen, touchpad, light pen,
graphics tablet, etc.

Mouse – Mice (Plural)

A mouse is the most widely used pointing device on personal computers.

Mouse is used to:

 control position of the cursor/pointer on the screen.
 select objects.
 move objects on the screen.
 initiate actions to be carried out by the computer.

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Basic operations of a mouse are:

(i) Point – This means to move the mouse until the mouse pointer on the screen is
over an area or object.
(ii) Click (by default left click): to select something.
(iii) Right Click: to display the shortcut menu.
(iv) Double click: means clicking the left mouse button in a rapid session to execute
a command.
(v) Scroll – for navigation; up and down, and across the window using the mouse.
(vi) Drag and drop – This means to press and hold down the left mouse button while
moving the mouse with a selected object. Release the mouse button once you
reach the destination where the object is to be placed.
Note: Dragging is holding down the left mouse button and move the mouse with
a selected object.

Advantages of using a mouse include

(i) A mouse is user-friendly for computer beginners.
(ii) A mouse is easy and convenient to use with a graphical user interface.
(iii) Using a mouse to select items or move to a particular position on the screen is
faster than using a keyboard.

Disadvantages of using a mouse include

(i) It is not easy and convenient to input text with a mouse.
(ii) Issuing commands by using a mouse is slower than by using a keyboard.
(iii) It needs some practice in order to control a mouse properly.
(iv) A mouse is not accurate enough for drawings that require high degree of
precision.
(v) A mouse usually requires a flat surface to operate.
(vi) A mouse needs more desk space to operate when compared with a trackball or a
touchpad.

Touchpad
A pointing device found on most laptops. The user moves a finger across the touchpad
that can send data to the computer.

Trackball
A trackball is a stationary pointing device with a ball mechanism on its top.

Advantages of a trackball include

 A trackball is good for limited desk space because the user does not have to move
the entire device.

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 They are easier to use than mouse, hence are often used by people with limited
movement (disabled) or by very young people.

Disadvantages of trackball include

 A trackball is usually not as accurate as a mouse.
 The ball mechanism of trackballs also requires more frequent cleaning than a
mouse.

Touch screen
A touch screen is a touch-sensitive display. The user selects items on the screen by
touching the surface of the screen.
Touch screens are often used for information kiosks located in department stores, hotels,
airports, and museums.
A kiosk is a freestanding computer, usually with a touch screen that serves as an input
device to provide information to the public.

Advantages of a touch screen include

 No extra peripherals are need except the monitor.
 A touch screen allows easy access to commands, which are usually identified by
words or symbols on the screen.

Disadvantages of a touch screen include

 Touch screens are not suitable for inputting a large amount of data because they
require a lot of arm movements.
 Only items already on the screen can be selected.

Joystick
A joystick is a pointing device with a vertical lever mounted on a base.
The lever usually includes buttons called triggers, which activate certain events when
pressed.
Joysticks are mainly used for computer games and ultrasound scanners in hospitals.

Advantages of using a joystick include

 A joystick allows fast interactions required in most games.

Disadvantages of using a joystick include

 It is difficult to use a joystick to select objects accurately on the screen.

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Light pen
A light pen is a pointing device that can detect the presence of light. Light pens are used
to write on the screen of the computer.
Light pens are used by health care professionals (such as doctors and dentists) and design
work.

Advantages of light pens include

 Using a light pen is more direct and precise than using a mouse.
 Light pen is also convenient for applications with limited desktop space.

Disadvantage of light pens includes

 Light pens normally require a specially designed monitor to work with.

Stylus / graphics tablet

A stylus is a pen-like pointing device, which uses pressure to write text and draw lines.
A graphics tablet is a flat, rectangular, electronic plastic board, on which a stylus writes or
draws.
 A graphics tablet can be used to digitize drawing with great accuracy.
 Stylus and graphics tablet are mainly used for computer-aided design and drafting
by architects, mapmakers, artists, and designers.

Advantages of stylus and graphics tablet include

A stylus can be pointed to different positions on the tablet quickly.

Disadvantages of stylus and graphics tablet include

A stylus and a graphics tablet normally have to work together, and cannot work separately.

Input – Image/ Visual Devices

 Image Scanner
 Digital Camera
 Digital Video (DV) Camera
 Web Cam, etc.

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Scanner
A scanner is a light-sensing input device that converts printed text and graphics into a
digital form that can be further processed by the computer.
Scanners are mainly used for image processing, which consists of capturing, storing,
analyzing, displaying, printing, and manipulating images.

Many scanners also include optical character recognition (OCR) software, which can
convert an image of text into a text file that can be edited.
Optical character recognition (OCR) is a technology that involves reading typewritten,
computer-printed, or handwritten characters from source documents and translating the
images into an editable form.

Advantages of a scanner include

 A scanner with appropriate OCR software can work as an OCR system.

Disadvantages of a scanner include

 A scanner is best for two-dimensional objects only.
 Scanned images usually take up a lot of storage space.

Digital camera
A digital camera takes pictures and stores the images digitally, rather than on traditional
film.
Digital cameras use different media to store images, which include flash memory card,
floppy disk, compact disc, and micro drive.
The quality of a digital camera is determined by its resolution and color depth.
Optical resolution is the actual photographed resolution.
Enhanced resolution or interpolated resolution uses a special formula to add pixels
between those generated by the optical resolution.

Advantages of a digital camera include

(i) Save money for buying films and developing costs in the long term.
(ii) Images taken can be reviewed and even edited in the camera.
(iii) Unwanted images can be deleted immediately after the preview.
(iv) Photographic images can be digitized directly without using a scanner.
(v) Digital cameras are best for three-dimensional objects while scanners are only
best for two-dimensional objects.

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Disadvantages of a digital camera include

(i) Digital cameras are normally more expensive than ordinary film cameras with
similar functions.
(ii) Photo printing cost for digital cameras is generally higher than that for ordinary
film cameras.

Digital Video (DV) camera

A digital video camera records video as digital signals instead of analog signals. Digital
video camera is connected to the computer through ports on the system unit for recording
the images to the computer. After saving the video on the computer, you can play it, edit it
or burn it on DVD using software system on the computer.
A PC camera is a kind of DV camera that allows the home user to record, edit, and capture
video and still images, and to make video phone calls on the Internet.
PC cameras can be set to take digital photographs at preset time intervals or whenever it
detects motion.

Webcam
A Webcam is a video camera whose output displays on a Webpage.
A webcam is also called a PC video camera which usually sits on top of monitor. Some
laptops have built-in webcams.

Webcam enables users to:

 capture video and still images.
 send e-mail messages with video attachments.
 add live images to instant messaging.
 broadcast live images over the internet.
 make video telephone calls.

Input – Audio Devices:

Sound Card
A device that can be slotted into a computer to allow the use of audio components for
multimedia applications. Without sound card, audio input and output is not possible.

Microphone
A microphone is an input device that allows a user to speak to the computer to enter data
and instructions into the computer. It converts sound into a signal that can be fed into a
computer.

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MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)

MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is the electronic music industry's standard that
defines how sounds are represented electronically by digital musical devices.
MIDI devices are connected to the sound card of the computer.

Examples of MIDI devices include: electronic piano keyboard, synthesizer, or drum

machine. They allow user to record and edit music. For example, you can set the beat
speed and add notes to produce sound.

Input – Biometric Devices:

Biometric Device
A Biometric Device is:

a device which authenticates a person's identity by verifying personal

characteristics (e.g., fingerprints).

a device that translates a personal characteristic into a digital code that is

compared with a digital code stored in the computer.

Examples of biometric devices include:

A fingerprint scanner, which captures curves and indentations of a fingerprint.
A hand geometry system, which can measure the shape and size of a person's hand.
A face recognition system, which captures a live face image and compares it with a
stored image.
A voice recognition system, which compares a person's live speech with their stored
voice pattern.
A signature verification system, which recognizes the shape of handwritten signature of
a person.
An iris recognition system, which reads patterns in the tiny blood vessels in the back of
the eye, which are as unique as a fingerprint.

Advantages of biometric devices include

Personal characteristics are unique and cannot be forgotten or misplaced. Thus biometric
devices are as means of security measures.

Disadvantages of biometric devices include

 Most of the biometric devices are expensive.
 A fingerprint scanner might reject a legitimate user if the user cuts his or her finger.
 Hand geometry readers can transmit germs.
 A signature might not match the one on file when the person is nervous.

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 A voice recognition system might reject a legitimate user with a sore throat.

Input – Sensor and Remote Sensor

 Remote Control
 Sensors, etc.
A sensor is an input device that can detect external changes in an environment.
When the sensors are located at some distance from the computer system, they are known
as remote sensors.

Remote Control
Remote control devices emit a beam of infrared light, which carries data signals.
Remote control is commonly used with TVs but some laptop computers being produced
come with remotes and a form of input device, which allow you to operate the laptop from
a distance.

Input - Sensors
A sensor is a device that converts a real-world property (e.g. temperature) into data
that a computer can process.

Examples of sensors and the properties they detect are:

A sensor measures a specific property data and sends a signal to the computer. Usually
this is an analogue signal so it needs to be converted into digital data for the computer to
process. This is done by using an Analogue-to-Digital Converter (ADC).
Sensors are used extensively in monitoring / measuring / data logging systems, and also
in computer control systems.

Examples of Control Devices

Computers can be used to control a range of devices through the use of sensors. Some of
these devices include:
 Security Lights
 Burglar Alarms
 Central Heating Controllers
 Computer Controlled Greenhouses
 Automatic Cookers
 Automatic Washing Machines
 Microwave Oven

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Advantages of using a computer to control devices rather than people

Computers have certain advantages over people when it comes to controlling devices.
For example:
Cheaper If a computer is monitoring and controlling applications, you do not
need to employ people.
Higher Work Computers can control applications all day, every day without
Rate getting tired or bored.
Safer Computers can work in conditions that would be too dangerous for
people. Examples include chemical plants, radioactive sites and
extremely cold areas (Antarctic).
Accuracy Computers will respond to inputs from sensors accurately every
time. E.g. a heater will be switched on as soon as the temperature
falls below 10°C.
Speed Computers will respond to data received from sensors very quickly.
E.g. as soon as an infrared sensor detects an intruder the alarm will
sound.

Input – Terminal Devices

A terminal is a device with a monitor and a keyboard.
The term “terminal” can also refer to any device that sends and receives computer data.

Different kinds of terminals include:

 EPOS (Electronic Point of Sale) terminal
 EFTPOS (Electronic Fund Transfer Point of Sale) terminals
 Automatic teller machine (ATM)

An EPOS (Electronic Point of Sale) terminal is used to record purchases at the

point where the consumer purchases the product or services.
EPOS terminals are commonly found in retail outlets.
The EPOS terminal is very often a combination of an electronic cash register and
bar code reader.
Data about goods being sold is fed into the terminals via barcode readers touch
screens, or keyboards.
Bills with items printed on them are then given to the consumers.
EPOS terminals can also generate useful information for management purposes.

EFTPOS (Electronic Fund Transfer Point of Sale) terminals are able to transfer
funds from a customer's bank account directly to a retail outlet's account after
reading the customer's debit card.

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EFTPOS terminals are similar to EPOS terminals but are also able to transfer funds
from a customer's bank account direct to a retail outlet's account after reading the
customer's debit card.

Advantages of EFTPOS terminals include:

EFTPOS terminals provide a much faster method of payment than checks and credit cards.

Disadvantages of EFTPOS terminals include

 There is a risk that debit cards can be stolen or forged.
 Some people believe that debit cards also encourage people to spend more.

An automatic teller machine (ATM) is a self-service banking machine attached to

a host computer through a telephone network.

Services available through an ATM include:

 Make deposits of cash and checks
 Withdraw cash
 Transfer money between accounts
 Application for a check book
 Obtain account balances

OUTPUT DEVICE
Output is data that has been processed into a used form, called information.
An output device is any hardware component that can display information to a user.
Examples of output devices include:
 Monitor
 Printer
 Audio Output Device
 Data Projector
 Facsimile Machine
 Multifunction Machine
 Terminal

Display devices
Display devices /Visual Display Unit (VDU)/ Monitor
Two main types of monitor display devices are:
 CRT monitor as for most desktop computers.

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 LCD monitor as for Laptops, Notebook computers and other flat panels.
A display device is an output device that conveys text, graphics, and video information to
a user.
The monitor is sometimes called the Visual Display Unit.
 Information on a display device is called a soft copy because it exists
electronically and displays only for a temporary period.
 A video card is required to display color on a monitor.
 The quality of a display device depends on its resolution, dot pitch, and refresh
rate.

Factors that affect display devices

Factors that affect display devices include:

(i) Pixels (picture elements): these are tiny dots of phosphor material that glow
when electrically charged to produce an image.
(ii) Resolution: describes the sharpness and clearness of image created on the
screen determined by number of pixels a monitor can display.
(iii) Dot pitch: a measure of image clarity, in terms of distance between each pixel on
a display. The smaller the distance between pixels (dot pitch), the sharper the
image.
(iv) Refresh rate: is the speed that a monitor redraws images on the screen
(v) Type of the monitor i.e. CRT or LCD.

Advantages of display devices include:

(i) The time to display the image is fast.
(ii) Screen displays can include text, graphics, and colors.
(iii) Display devices are usually quiet.
(iv) No paper is wasted for obtaining the output.

Disadvantages of display devices include:

(i) Information produced on the screen is only temporary, and will be lost when the
power of the display device is turned off.
(ii) Unsuitable for users with visual problems.
(iii) Needs a separate device to produce the hard copy.

CRT monitors
A Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitor works like a standard television because it also
contains a cathode ray tube (CRT).
The front of the CRT is the screen, which is coated with tiny dots of phosphor material.

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Each dot consists of a red, a green, and a blue phosphor and the three dots combine to
make up each pixel.

A pixel (short for picture element, using the common abbreviation "pix" for “pictures") is a
single point in a graphic image. The more pixels used to represent an image, the closer
the result can resemble the original. The number of pixels in an image is sometimes called
the resolution.

Advantages of CRT monitors include:

(i) Can produce fast and rich color output.
(ii) Can be viewed from a very wide angle.
(iii) Cheaper than LCD monitors in general.

Disadvantages of CRT monitors include:

(i) Emit higher electromagnetic radiation (EMR) than LCD monitors.
(ii) Consume more energy than LCD monitors.
(iii) Requires more desk space than LCD.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitors

A LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) monitor uses liquid crystal rather than a cathode ray tube,
to create images on the screen.

Advantages of LCD monitors include:

(i) LCD monitors require less power than CRT monitors.
(ii) LCD monitors take up less desk space than traditional CRT monitors.
(iii) Radiation emitted by LCD monitors is negligible.

Disadvantages of LCD monitors include:

(i) LCD monitors are usually more expensive than CRT monitors.
(ii) LCD monitors can only be viewed from a very narrow angle.

PRINTERS

A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical media such as
paper.
Printed information is often called hard copy because the information exists physically
and is a more permanent form of output than that presented on a display device.

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Three common types of printers include:

Dot-matrix printer

Ink-jet printer

Laser printer

Less common types of printers include

Line printer, Daisywheel printer, Ball printer, Thermal printer, Plotter,
Large-format printer, Portable printer, Photo printer, Label printer, Braille printer

The printing speed of a printer is usually expressed in pages per minute (ppm).
Printer resolution is often expressed in dpi (dots per inch). The larger the number, the
higher the resolution.

Advantages of printers include:

Information produced is permanent.
Disadvantages of printers include:
 The time to get the printout is slow compared with display devices.
 Paper is wasted for obtaining the output.
 Printers are generally noisier than display devices.

Printers can be grouped into impact and non-impact printers.

Impact printers
Impact printers are printers whose print head strike the printing media directly in order to
form characters, examples include
 Dot Matrix printer
 Daisy –Wheel printer
 Thermal Printers
 Line Printers

Characteristics of Impact Printers

 They make noise while printing.
 They have low character resolutions.
 They are cheaper than the non-impact printers.
 Rarely suffer paper jams.
 They are slow especially those that use the line printing and character printing
methods.

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Dot-matrix printer
A dot-matrix printer is an impact printer that produces printed images with a print head
striking mechanism.
Most dot-matrix printers use continuous-form paper.

Advantages of dot-matrix printers:

 Dot-matrix printers can print multipart forms.
 Dot-matrix printers can withstand dusty environment, vibrations, and extreme
temperature.

Disadvantages of dot-matrix printers:

 Dot-matrix printers are generally noisy because of the striking mechanism.
 Print quality of dot-matrix printers is not as good as those from ink-jet printers and
laser printers.

A daisywheel printer is an impact printer that uses a wheel as a print head.

As the wheel rotates, a hammer strikes the back side of the spoke and presses it against
the paper to print a character.

Advantages of a daisywheel printer

 Can print letter quality characters.
 Disadvantages of a daisywheel printer
 Printing speed is very slow.
 Cannot print graphics.

Line printer
A line printer is a high-speed impact printer that prints an entire line at a time.
The speed of a line printer is measured by the number of lines per minute (lpm) it can print.
Line printers are often used with mainframes, minicomputers, or with a network in
applications such as manufacturing, distribution, or shipping.

Non-impact printers
These are printers whose print heads do not directly touch the print media but instead they
form characters by use of strings or jet of ink heated up within.

They are less noisy compared to the impact printers and they are commercially fast hence
they are expensive.
Examples include, the LaserJet, Inkjet, Bubble Jet

Ink-jet printer
An ink-jet printer in a non-impact printer that forms characters and graphics by spraying
tiny drops of liquid ink onto a piece of paper.

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Ink-jet printers can produce letter-quality (LQ) text and graphics in both black-and-white
and colors.
Some ink-jet printers can print photo-quality images on any type of paper.
Printer resolution is measured in dots per inch (dpi).
The speed of an ink-jet printer is measured in pages per minute (ppm).

Advantages of inkjet printers include:

 Inkjet printers are generally quiet.
 Inkjet printers can produce high quality color output.

Disadvantages of inkjet printers include:

 Specialized papers are required to produce high quality color output.
 The ink cartridges and specialized papers are expensive.
 The ink may smear when printed on ordinary paper.

Laser printer
Laser printer in a non-impact printer
The mechanism of how a laser printer works is similar to a photocopier.
Advantages of laser printers include:
 Laser printers are generally quiet and fast.
 Laser printers can produce high quality output on ordinary papers.
 The cost of operation is low since it uses toner.

Disadvantages of laser printers include:

 The initial cost of laser printers can be high.
 Laser printers are more expensive than dot-matrix printers and ink-jet printers.

AUDIO OUTPUT DEVICES

Audio output devices are the components of a computer that produce music, speech, or
other sounds.
Two commonly used audio output devices are speakers and headsets.

Advantages of audio output devices include:

Audio output devices are ideal for visually impaired people.

Disadvantages of audio output devices include:

 Audio output devices are not suitable for use in noisy environment.
 They are also not suitable for use in very quiet environment where other people
are working (e.g., libraries).

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 No permanent copy is produced.

 A computer can only repeat the same message exactly the same way. If the
message is not understood the first time, it may not be understood the second time.

Data projector
A data projector takes the image that displays on a computer screen and projects it onto a
larger screen so that people can see the image clearly.
An LCD projector, which uses liquid crystal display technology, can produce lower-quality
images only.
A DLP (digital light processing) projector, which uses tiny mirrors to reflect light, can
produce much better images even in a well-lit room.

Facsimile (fax) machine

A facsimile (fax) machine is a device that transmits and receives documents over
telephone lines.
Documents sent or received via a fax machine are known as faxes.
Fax capability can also be added to the computer using a fax modem.

Advantages of Fax
Hard copies are available.
Disadvantages of Fax
 Sending a big document can be slow.
 Wasteful of paper when junk faxes are sent.

Multifunction devices:
A multifunction device is a single piece of equipment that provides the functionality of a
printer, scanner, copy machine, and a facsimile machine.

Advantages of a multifunction device include

 A multifunction device takes up less space than having a separate printer, scanner,
copy machine, and fax machine.
 It is also significantly less expensive than purchasing each device separately.

Disadvantages of a multifunction device include

If a multifunction machine breaks down, the user loses all its functions.

Plotters
Plotters are mainly used for printing large engineering and architectural drawings. The
largest paper size that can be used to print on is A1’s size paper. Plotters use pens to plot.

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OUTPUT DIVES:
Softcopy Output Devices

CRT Monitor TFT/LCD Monitor

Multimedia Projector Speakers

Printers (Hardcopy Output Devices)

Laser Printer Inkjet Printer

Dot Matrix Printer Plotter

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STORAGE DEVICES
When we talk about storage, we refer to memory.
Memory is a temporary area for holding data, instructions, and information.
Or it is the ability of a computer to store and remember data or information given to it.
A computer usually loads the data and instructions from storage into memory and then
executes them.

There are two main types of memory, namely;

 Primary memory
 Secondary memory

Primary memory/ Main memory

There are two main types of primary memory:

 Read Only Memory (ROM)
 Random Access Memory (RAM)

ROM, Read Only Memory

1. It’s a nonvolatile memory, a memory which does not lose its contents when power
is switched off.
2. It can only be read but not written to.
3. It holds the startup/ boot up programs of the computer. The boot ups are run by
software called BIOS (Basic Input/ Output System).
4. It holds information which was put in the computer at the time of manufacturing.

ROM Chips
Chip or microchip is a small piece of semi conducting material containing electric circuit.

Types of ROM Chips

 Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM).
 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM).
 Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM).

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) is memory which can only be programmed
once after it has been manufactured (written once). It can never be altered eg compact
disk writable (CD-R).

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) is a memory which allows

instructions to be erased once and then programmed after wards. They can never be
altered e.g. compact disk rewritable (CD-RW).

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Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) is a memory which

allows the user to put instructions many times he/she likes. The instructions remain in the
memory until when one may wish to alter (change) them. A typical application of this
memory is in mobile phones for storage of phone numbers and names. These numbers
and names can be erased and new once entered (programmed) again. This is all done
electrically.

Random Access Memory (RAM)/ Main Memory

1. RAM is volatile memory (memory that loses its contents when power is switched
off)
2. RAM is a part of memory that stores temporary instructions, information when
computer is running i.e. RAM is used to hold data or programs that the user is
currently working on.
3. Data can be read and written to RAM.
4. When a computer is in use, its RAM will contain;
a. The operating system software.
b. The application software currently being used.
c. Any data that is being processed.
5. The more RAM a computer has, the more instructions/data it will manipulate
(process).
Differences between RAM and ROM
RAM ROM
RAM is volatile (loses its contents when ROM is non-volatile (does not lose its
power goes off) contents when power goes off)
RAM size or capacity can be increased on ROM capability cannot be increased on
a computer the motherboard
Stores current instructions and data being Stores BIOS and firmware programs to be
worked upon by CPU read by CPU
Data access is faster on RAM Data access is slow compared to RAM
RAM can both be read and write ROM can only be read but not written to

Uses of Primary Memory in a Computer

1. It stores system information files for a computer.

2. It is necessary at a time of booting up a computer.
3. It improves efficiency of a computer by providing extra space for swapping files in
and out of the hard drive to create more space on RAM at a time of data processing.

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4. It establishes initial or basic communication between a computer and its basic

hardware components at a time of booting up.
5. It keeps a log of frequently visited files to enable quicker loading of these files when
accessed.
6. It stores data temporarily at a time of data processing.

Secondary memory/ Auxiliary/ Backup storage units

Secondary storage relates to either removable or non-removable (fixed) data storage
devices which provide information for reference purposes.
Secondary storage is not directly accessed by the CPU. Contents of secondary memories
are first transferred into main memory (RAM) and thereafter, CPU can access them.
Secondary memory supplement RAM which is volatile (does not lose its data when the
device is powered off). Examples include: Floppy disks (Diskettes), Hard disk, CD/DVD,
Magnetic tape, Zip drives, Memory cards, Flash memory, etc.

Secondary storage devices can be categorized into:

- Magnetic storage devices e.g. hard disk drives, magnetic tapes, floppy disk drives
- Optical storage devices e.g. CD drives, DVD drives, Blue Rays
- Solid state storage devices e.g. smart cards, flash disks/memory sticks, memory cards

Magnetic Storage Devices / Media

Magnetic storage media and devices store data in the form of tiny magnetized dots. These
dots are created, read and erased using magnetic fields created by very tiny
electromagnets.
A storage medium (media plural) is the physical material on which a computer keeps
data, instructions, and information for future use.
Capacity is the number of bytes (i.e. characters) a storage medium can hold.

Four common types of storage media are:

 Floppy disks
 Hard disks
 Compact discs
 Magnetic tapes

Other types of storage media include

PC card, Smart card, Microfilm and microfiche, Online storage

A storage device records and retrieves items to and from a storage medium.
Storage devices act as input devices when they read and act as output devices when they
write.

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Reading is the process of transferring data, instructions, and information from a storage
medium into memory.
Writing is the process of transferring these items from memory to a storage medium.
The speed of a storage device is defined by its access time, which is the amount of time it
takes to locate an item on a medium.

Common types of storage devices include:

 Floppy disk drive
 Hard disk drive
 Compact disc drive
 Tape drive
 Zip drive

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A floppy disk drive (FDD) is a device that can read from and write to a floppy disk.
If a computer has only one floppy disk drive, the drive is usually designated drive A
(i.e. A :).
If the computer has two floppy disk drives, the second one is usually designated drive B (i.e.
B :).

Compact disc drive

A compact disc drive is an optical drive that uses laser technology to access a compact disc.

Common types of compact disc drives used by personal computers include:

CD-ROM drive
CD-R drive
CD-RW drive

A tape drive is used to read from and write data and information onto a tape. Three common
types of tape drives are QIC (Quarter-inch cartridge), DAT (Digital audio tape), and DLT
(Digital linear tape).

Hard disk
A hard disk is also known as a hard disk drive.
A hard disk usually consists of several inflexible, circular disks, called platters, on which items
are stored electronically.
The hard disk in most desktop and laptop computers is housed inside the system unit, and is
considered fixed disks because being not portable.

Hard disks are sealed tightly to keep out of contaminants (e.g., dust and smoke particles),
which may result in head crash.
Head crash is a hard-disk failure in which a read/write head collides with the surface of the
platter on which information is stored.
Data is stored inside a hard-drive on rotating metal or glass discs (called ‘platters’).

Advantages of hard disks over floppy disk include:

 Hard disks provide larger storage capacities than floppy disks.
 Hard disks provide much faster access times than floppy disks.
 Hard disk is usually more reliable than floppy disk (a better protection against dust and
dirt).
 Have long data life than floppy disks.

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Disadvantages of hard disk when compared with floppy disk include:

 Hard disk is not portable (except removable hard disk).
 Hard disk is usually more expensive than floppy disk.
 Data becomes less secure if left on the hard disk.
 Head crash may occur due to extreme shock or contaminants.

Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a magnetically coated ribbon of plastic capable of storing large amounts of
data and information at a low cost.
It is one of the first storage media used with mainframe computers.
Tape storage requires sequential access, which refers to reading or writing data
consecutively.
Floppy disks, hard disks, and compact discs all use direct access, or random access, which
means that a particular data item or file can be located immediately, without having to move
consecutively through items stored in front of it.
Tapes are used most often for long-term storage and backup.
Tapes are also used and in some batch-processing applications (e.g. to hold the list of data
that will be processed).

Advantages of magnetic tapes include:

 Magnetic tape is light and portable.
 The storage capacity of a magnetic tape is very much larger than a floppy disk or a
compact disc.

Disadvantages of magnetic tapes include:

 Magnetic tape can be sequentially accessed only.
 Tape has a limited shelf life of about 2 years for reliable results.

Removable Media Magnetic Discs

Floppy disk
A floppy disk is a thin, circular, flexible plastic disk with a magnetic coating enclosed in a
square-shaped plastic shell.
The most widely used floppy disk today is 3.5 inches wide.

To care for a floppy disk, it should not be exposed to heat, cold, magnetic fields, and
contaminants such as dust, smoke, or salt air.

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Advantages of floppy disks include:

1. Floppy disk is portable and inexpensive.
2. Data on a floppy disk can be accessed randomly.
3. Data on a floppy disk can be write-protected from being changed accidentally. Write-
protected means to prevent the writing (recording) of information on a disk.
4. Floppy disk can be used to transfer data from one computer to another.

Disadvantages of floppy disks include:

1. Floppy disk is not durable (due to dust and dirt).
2. Floppy disk can be destroyed by magnetic field.
3. Access time of floppy disk is slow (about 84 ms).
4. Storage capacity of floppy disk is limited.

Optical Storage Devices / Media

Optical storage devices save data as patterns of dots that can be read using light. A laser
beam is the usual light source which ‘burns’ data onto a disc.

Compact disc (CD)

A compact disc stores items in a single track, which is also divided into evenly sized
sectors, that spirals from the center of the disc to the edge of the disc.

Variations of compact discs designed for use with computers include:

 CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)
 CD-R (Compact Disk Recordable)
 CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable)
 DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disc Read Only Memory)
 DVD-RAM (Digital Versatile Disc Random Access Memory)
 DVD-R (Digital Versatile Disc Recordable)
 DVD+RW (Digital Versatile Disc Rewritable)
Most manufacturers guarantee that a properly cared compact disc will last up to 50 years.

Advantages of compact disc over hard disk include

 A compact disc is more portable than a hard disk.
 It’s less expensive than hard disk.

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Advantages of compact disc over floppy disk include

 Compact disc has larger storage capacity than that of a floppy disk.
 The data access of a compact disc is faster than that of a floppy disk.

Disadvantages of compact disc include

 Some kinds of compact discs are read only (CD-ROM and DVD-ROM).
 The average access time of a compact disc is slower than that of a hard disk.
 Any scratch on the disc will render it useless

CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory)

A CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory) is a compact disc that uses the same laser
technology as audio CDs for recording music.
A CD-ROM, however, can contain text, graphics, video, and sound.
The contents of standard CD-ROMs are written, or recorded, by the manufacturer, and cannot
be modified by the user.
A CD-ROM drive or CD-ROM player is required to read items on a CD-ROM.

CD-R (Compact Disc-Recordable)

CD-R (Compact Disc-Recordable) is a technology that allows a user to write on a compact
disc using his or her own computer.
CD-R is a “write once, read many” technology.
CD-R software and a CD-R drive are required in order to write on a CD-R.

CD-RW (Compact Disc-Rewritable)

A CD-RW (Compact Disc-Rewritable) is an erasable compact disc that can be written on
multiple times.
CD-RW acts like a floppy disk or hard disk, allowing data, instructions, and information to be
written and rewritten onto it multiple times.
CD-RW software and a CD-RW drive are required in order to write and rewrite on a CD-RW.
One problem with CD-RW is that they cannot be read by all CD-ROM drives.

DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disc-ROM)

A DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disc-ROM) is an extremely high capacity compact disc.
A DVD-ROM drive or DVD player is required to read a DVD-ROM.

DVD-RAM is the recordable and rewritable versions of DVD-ROM, which allows items to be
erased and recorded on it multiple times.

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DVD-R is the recordable and rewritable versions of DVD-ROM, which can be written once and
read (play) for many times.
DVD+RW is the recordable and rewritable versions of DVD-ROM, which can be written and
read (play) for many times.
A DVD+RW is similar to a CD-RW, except it has higher storage capacity than CD-RW.

Pay attention to the following points for taking care of compact discs.
1. Always store the compact disc in a disc container or box when not in use.
2. Always hold a compact disc by its edges.
3. Never touch the underside (shinny surface) of the compact disc.
4. Never stack discs on top of each other.
5. Never expose the disc to excessive heat or sunlight.

Solid-State Storage Devices

The term ‘solid-state’ essentially means ‘no moving parts’.
Solid-state storage devices are based on electronic circuits with no moving parts (no
reels of tape, no spinning discs, no laser beams, etc.)

Solid-state storage devices store data using a special type of memory called flash memory.

USB Memory Sticks/ Flash disks/ Pen drives

Memory sticks are non-volatile, random-access storage devices.

Memory Cards
Many of our digital devices (cameras, mobile phones, MP3 players, etc.) require compact,
non-volatile data storage. Flash memory cards provide this and come in a variety of shapes
and sizes.
Mobile phones contain a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card that contains the phone’s
number, the phonebook numbers, text messages, etc.

Smart Cards
Many credit cards, door entry cards, satellite TV cards, etc. have replaced the very limited
storage of the magnetic strip with flash memory.

Formatting and Portioning a Disk

Before anything can be written on a new disk e.g. floppy disk, it must be formatted.
To format (or initialize) a new disk means to prepare the disk for use.
If a used disk is formatted, any information stored is usually lost.

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Disk portioning means dividing a disk into two or more regions or portions. The regions
appear as separate disks on the operating system.

Note: Disk formatting should not be confused with text formatting.

To format text (or the contents of a cell in a spreadsheet) means to change the appearance
of the selected material.

Other Memory Types (Special Memories)

(i) Flash Memory
Flash memory is a type of Electronically-Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
(EEPROM). Flash memory is non-volatile (like ROM) but the data stored in it can also be
erased or changed (like RAM).

Flash memory can be found in many data storage devices; used to store programs and data
on personal computers, cellular phones, printers, digital cameras, pagers, and personal
digital assistants (PDA).

(ii) Buffers
Are special memories that are found in input/output devices. Input data is held in input buffer
while processed data is held in output buffer. For example, data in computer printers is placed
in the buffer before being sent to the printer.
(iii) Registers
Registers are special types of memory inside the CPU for temporary storage.

(iv) Cache Memory

A type of memory that stores frequently used instructions and data. This helps to speed the
process of computing.

(vi) Virtual Memory (VM)

With virtual memory (VM), the operating system allocates a portion of a storage medium,
usually the hard disk, to function as additional RAM.
The area of the hard disk used for virtual memory is called a swap file.
The amount of data and program instructions swapped or exchanged at a given time is called
a page.

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BACKINGUP DATA
What is a Backup?
A backup simply means making one or more copies of your data.
Why Backup Your Data?
 When you delete a file by accident
 Your computer breaks
 Your laptop is stolen
 Your business burns to the ground;
 Having a backup copy means that you have not lost your precious data.
 You can recover your lost files and continue working.

How Are Backups Created?

Personal backups of the data on your hard-drive can be made by.
 Burning files to a CD-R
 Copying files to an external hard-drive
 Copying the files to another computer on a network

Businesses backup essential data by.

 Making copies of data very regularly
 Using large-capacity media such as magnetic tape
 Keeping old copies of backups, just in case
 Automating the system so that nobody forgets to do it!
 Keeping backup media off-site (in case of fire or theft)

Data Representation in Memory

In a digital computer, data is represented in discrete units of zeros (0s) and ones (1s) – binary
digits.
Since many 0s and 1s combine to form a character or an image, coding systems were
developed which include:
BCD – Binary Coded Decimal
ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange, which uses seven binary digits
to represent a character.
EBCDIC – Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code, which uses eight binary digits
to represent a character. This is what most computers are using today.

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Measurement of memory
Data storage capacity is measured in bytes (B) although the data is actually stored in binary
digits (bits).
A bit (Binary digit) is the smallest unit of computer measurement (0 or 1). It represents
(On) and (Off) states of a component in an electric circuit.
Nibble is a group of four (4) bits.
A byte is a group/set of 8bits. Is a unit which represents a character.
To store the word EXAM, 4bytes are required because there are four characters in the word
EXAM. Since a byte is a group of 8bits, therefore 4x8bits = 32bits are required.

Other higher storage units

Unit Exact description Approximate description
Kilobyte (KB) 1kB = 1,024 Bytes 1KB = 1,000Bytes (103B)
Megabyte (MB) 1MB = 1,024KB 1MB = 1,000KB (103 KB)
Gigabyte (GB) 1GB = 1,024MB 1GB = 1,000MB (103 MB)
Terabyte (TB) 1TB = 1,024GB 1TB = 1,000GB (103 GB)

Modern hard drives can store a terabyte of data or more - that's more words than you could
type even if you started now, and typed until your old age!

Factors to consider when choosing a storage device

 Storage capacity (size) – which determines the amount of data it can store. The
higher the value, the better.
 Access time – the time taken to retrieve data from the device or write data to the
device. The shorter the access, the better.
 Durability – for how long can you safely use the device.
 Portability – easy of movement of the device.
 Cost – cash at hand determines the type of storage device to buy.

Accessing Stored Data

Storage devices - devices that can store and retrieve data. Data access can be serial/
sequential or Direct/Random.

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(i) Serial / Sequential Access

A serial (or sequential) access storage device is one that stores files one-by-one in a
sequence e.g. Tape (non-computer access).
Note: Systems that store things on tape (video, music, computer data, etc.) are always serial
access

(ii) Direct / Random Access

A direct (or random) access storage device is one that stores files so that they can be
instantly accessed - there is no need to search through other files to get to the one you
want.
An example of a direct access device would be a DVD movie. You can jump to any scene
on a DVD.
All parts of the DVD are directly accessible. This type of file storage is called direct access.

Data Storage Capacity

Some storage media can only store a very limited amount of data, whilst others can store vast
amounts.

Data Access Speeds

Some storage devices can access data very quickly, whilst others are extremely slow.

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Note: Tapes are very slow if you want to read files out of order, since the tape has to be
rewound and fast-forwarded.

Access speeds are measured in bytes per second (Bps).

Slow devices have speeds measured in thousands of Bps (kBps). E.g. a floppy disc can
save/read data at a speed of 60kBps

Central processing unit (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic device that interprets and carries out the
instructions that tell the computer how to work.
On a personal computer, the CPU is usually contained on a single chip and is often called a
microprocessor.

Components/ parts of a microprocessor (CPU) are:

 control unit,
 arithmetic and logic unit,
 registers,
 system clock.

Control unit
The control unit directs and coordinates most of the operations in the computer.
For every instruction, the control unit repeats a set of four basic operations called the machine
cycle or instruction cycle.
Most processors used by personal computers today support pipelining.
Pipelining means that the CPU begins executing a second instruction before the first
instruction is completed, and the result is faster processing.

The four basic operations of the machine cycle are:

1. Fetching is the process of obtaining a program instruction or data item from
memory.
The time taken to fetch is called instruction time, or I-time.
2. Decoding is the process of translating the instruction into commands that the
computer understands.
3. Executing is the process of carrying out the commands.
The time taken to decode and execute is called execution time, or E-time.
4. Storing is the process of writing the result to the memory.

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Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs the execution part of a machine cycle.
Specifically, the ALU performs the arithmetic, comparison, and logical operations.

Registers
Registers are high-speed temporary storage locations used to hold data and instructions.
A microprocessor contains many different types of registers, and each performs a specific
function.

Common types of registers include:

1. Program counter, which holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched
from the memory.
2. Instruction register, which holds the current instruction fetched from the
memory.
3. Instruction decoder, which interprets, or decode, the instruction currently held in
the instruction register.
4. Accumulator, which holds the data item to be processed and the results of
arithmetic and logical operations.
5. Status register, which holds a collection of condition flags, which describe the
status of the most recent operation carried out by the ALU.

System clock
The system clock controls how fast all the operations within a computer take place.
The system clock generates regular electronic pulses, or ticks, that set the operating pace of
components in the system unit.
The faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU can execute in a second.
The speed at which a processor executes instructions is called clock speed, or clock rate.

Revision questions
1. Describe briefly the functions of the control unit and the arithmetic/logic unit inside
the CPU.
 The control unit directs and coordinates most of the operations in the computer.
 The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic, comparison, and logical
operations.
2. Describe briefly the four basic operations of the machine cycle in the control unit.
The four basic operations of the machine cycle are:

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1) Fetching—the process of obtaining a program instruction or data item

from memory.
2) Decoding—the process of translating the instruction into commands that
the computer understands.
3) Executing—the process of carrying out the commands.
4) Storing—the process of writing the result to memory.
3. What are the three operations carried out in the arithmetic and logic unit?
Describe briefly about these three kinds of operations.
The three operations carried out in the ALU are:
1) Arithmetic operations, which include addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division.
2) Comparison operations, which involve comparing one data item to
another, and determine if the first item is greater than, equal to, or less
than the other item.
3) Logical operations, which work with conditions and logical operators such
as AND, OR, and NOT.
4. What are registers? Describe briefly about two kinds of registers in the CPU.
Registers are high-speed temporary storage locations used to hold data and
instructions.

Examples:
1) Program counter, which holds the address of the next instruction to be
fetched from the memory.
2) Accumulator, which holds the data item to be processed and the results
of arithmetic and logic operations.
5. Name four home appliances that contain a microcontroller.
1) Washing machine
2) Microwave oven
3) Refrigerator
4) Video Cassette Recorder
6. How is parallel processing different from pipelining?
Parallel processing speeds up processing time by using multiple processors
simultaneously to execute a program.
Pipelining means that the CPU begins executing a second instruction before the first
instruction is completed, and the result is faster processing.
7. State three factors that determine the processing speed of a computer.

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 Memory capacity
 Processor
 Bus width
8. Explain five types of registers located in the CPU.
Program counter – holds the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched
Instruction register – holds the instructions currently being processed
Accumulator – holds results of last processing step in the ALM
Address register – holds address of the next piece of data to be processed
Storage register – holds data to the process or information processed result onward
to the main memory
9. State three factors you would consider before replacing or upgrading a
computer memory.
 Type of processor package
 Available memory banks
 Capacity per module
 Maximum capacity
 Architecture of the system board

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING COMPUTER HARDWARE

There are a number of factors needed to put into consideration before acquiring computer
hardware and accessories. These factors include:
1. Processor types and speed: the price of a computer is determined by
microprocessor installed and its clock speed. Current processor models on
microcomputers include the Pentium, Celeron, AMD Athlon and Cyrix. Consider
its speed of not lower than 800MHz.
2. Memory capacity: this determines the operating system and the application that
can run efficiently on the computer.
3. Warranty: the hardware bought must have a warranty cover and must be
guaranteed for a specific period of time. The longer the warranty, the better the
hardware.
4. Cost: the cost of the component must be considered.
5. Compatibility and upgradability: the hardware bought must be compatible across
platforms and easily upgradable
6. System unit form factors: availability of ports

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7. Others include portability, special needs for users who are physically challenged
etc.
Qn. (a) Study the sample advert below and explain the specifications in details.

HP NOTEBOOK PC Sale!
Intel Duo, 2.0GHz, 1GB RAM, 80GB
HDP, TrueBrite TFT, DVD-Writer at

Shs. 750,000

 The computer type is a branded HP Compaq laptop.

 It has an Intel Duo core processor of clock speed 2.0GHz
 Its memory capacity is 512MB (1GB) and hard disk size is 80GB
 It has an LCD TFT display and a DVD rewriter
 The cost of the notebook is Shs. 750,000

(b) The table below shows two computers A and B

Computer specifications Computer A Computer B
Brand Dell Celeron
RAM size 1028MB 1.95GB
Storage capacity 4.49GB 4500MB
Monitor size 14 17
Computer speed Anthron 3.30MHz Duo core 3.31GHz
Price 600,000Ugx 700,000Ugx

(i) Which computer would you recommend to buy basing on the above details?
Computer B
(ii) Give two reasons to support your answer
 Higher processor speed
 Higher amount of RAM
(iii) What is the most important computer specification one would base his/her final
decision of which computer to buy?
Processor speed

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COMPUTER SOFTWARE
 Software is the series of instructions that tell the hardware how to work.
 Software is often called a computer program.
 A program is a set of instructions that command a computer to perform a specific task
 The preparation of such instructions is called programming/coding, and is done by
programmers.
Most software needs to be installed onto the hard disk before it can be used, but some can be
loaded into memory directly from the storage media.

Characteristics of computer software

(i) Reliability, the software product should not fail to execute.

(ii) Occupy small space in the hard disk.
(iii) Free from bugs, a good software should not generate unnecessary errors.
(iv) Security, the software should keep data secure from external threats.
(v) Easy to install, the installation procedures should be simple.
(vi) Upgradable, the software program should be readily upgradable.
(vii) Well documented, Software documentation includes user manuals,
troubleshooting and installation guidelines as well as on-line help. A good software
product must be accompanied with these documentations.
(viii) User guide, explaining how to use it.
(ix) Integrity, quality software should not affect the working of other applications.
(x) Usability/ learn ability, the amount of time or efforts required to learn how to use
the software should be less. This makes the software user-friendly even for IT-
illiterates.
(xi) Compatibility, a software product must be compatible with the existing hardware,
operating system or application programs.

Software Categories
Computer software is broadly categorized into two:
 System software
 Application software

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COMPUTER SOFTWARE CLASSIFICATION

SOFTWARE

System Application

Operating Programming Utility Custom made Off-shelf software

System languages programs software packages

Low level High level

languages languages

System software:
Assembly Machine Pascal BASIC C++,...
 is a set of programs that control operations of a computer and its devices.
Code Code
 is a set of programs that control the operations of a computer and other types of
software that run it.

UNIX Linux Network operating system Windows operating system

DOS
System software also serves as theNetware,
e.g Novell interfaceApple
between the user, the application
(2000, software
XP, 7, 8, etc) and
hardware. Talk

System software programs are usually provided by the Manufacturer of the computer.

System Software
System software consists of:
 Operating system (OS).
 Programming Languages.
 Utility Programs/ System Utilities/ Services.

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OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)

An operating system is:

 a software that controls the execution of computer programs.
 a software program that manages computer resources.
 a set of programs containing instructions that coordinate all the activities among
computer hardware devices.
When a computer is turned on it searches for instructions in its memory which tell the computer
how to start up. Usually, one of the first set of these instructions is a program called the
operating system.

Examples of operating systems include:-

Disk Operating System (DOS), Windows (2000, XP, Vista 7, 8, etc), UNIX, Linux, Macintosh
(Mac OS), Network operating system, PDA operating system. Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
designed for handled computers.

Functions of an operating system include:

 Booting/ Staring a Computer
 Memory Management
 Spooling Print Job
 Configuring Devices
 Monitoring System Performance
 Administering Security
 Managing Storage Media and Files
Memory Management
Organises the use of memory between programs.
Partitioning – dividing memory into portions.
The purpose of memory management is to optimize the use of RAM.

Spooling Print Job

Print jobs are placed in a buffer instead of being sent immediately to the printer.
A buffer is an area of memory or storage in which data and information is placed while waiting
to be transferred to or from an input or output device.
Multiple print jobs are queued, or lineup, in the buffer and the program that manages and
intercepts print jobs and places them in the queue is called the print spooler.

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Configuring Devices

Recognizes peripheral devices such as external hard disks, pen/flash disk drives, webcam
etc and makes sure that software needed for the hardware to run is installed.
Most of the operating systems today support Plug and Play and can configure devices
automatically.
Plug and Play is the computer's capability of recognizing any new device and assisting in the
installation of the device by loading the necessary drivers automatically and checking for
conflicts with other devices.

Booting /Staring a computer

Loads and runs software applications.
Monitoring System Performance
Deals with errors and user instructions
A performance monitor is a program that accesses and reports information about various
system resources and devices.
The information in such reports can help a user identify problems with resources.

Administering Security
Maintains security and access rights of users. For example - allows passwords to be added /
changed.

Managing Storage Media and Files

Manages files and folders in the system (Naming, Creating, Moving, Finding and Deleting
folders etc).
Most operating systems include a file manager program that performs functions related to
storage and file management.

The kernel, or core, of an operating system is responsible for:

 Managing memory, files, and devices;
 Maintaining the computer's clock;
 Starting applications; and
 Assigning the computer's resources.
The operating system relies on device drivers to communicate with each device in the
computer.

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A device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is attached to
computer.
Or a device driver is a small program that tells the operating system how to communicate
with a device.

Uses of device drivers to a computer user are;

(i) It improves performance of devices connected to a computer.
(ii) It controls use of a device.
(iii) It reports errors to users.
(iv) It interprets data and correctly assists the device to use it.
(v) It contributes to stability of device performance.
(vi) It enables installation of multiple devices at the same time.
(vii) Creates communication between the device, user and the computer.

USER INTERFACE
The user interface controls how users enter data and instructions into the computer, and how
information is displayed on the screen.

Types of user interface

 Command Line Interface (CLI)
 Graphical User Interface (GUI)
 Menu driven interface

Command-line interface
Command-line interface allows a user to type keywords or press special keys on the keyboard
to enter data and instructions.
The set of commands a user uses to interact with the computer is called the command
language.
Operating systems that use command-line interface are Disk Operating System e.g. IBM DOS,
UNIX.

Microsoft Disk Operating System (Ms-DOS) is a single user and a single tasking operating
system. DOS is used for starting the microcomputer and managing computer resources such
as I/O device, the hard disk (HDD), files and Memory.

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Advantages of a command-line interface include:

1. A command-line interface takes up little memory and normally does not require a very
fast processor.
2. Operation is fast because commands can be entered directly through the keyboard
(user directly communicates with the computer).
3. Many commands can be grouped together as a batch file so that repetitive tasks can
be automated.

Disadvantages of a command-line interface include

1. A command language has to be learnt and memorized.
2. Lots of typing needed for quite simple tasks

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

A graphical user interface (GUI) allows a user to use menus and visual images such as icons,
buttons, and other graphical objects to issue commands.

FEATURES OF A GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI)

Main features of a GUI are known as WIMP (WINDOWS, ICONS, MENUS, POINTERS)

Windows
A window is a separate viewing area on a computer display screen in a system that allows
multiple viewing areas as part of a graphical user interface ( GUI ). Windows are managed
by a windows manager. They can be resized
These windows can be anything from folders to software applications.
Windows allow you to work on several tasks at the same time.
Icons
Icons are 'symbols' or small images / graphics that are used to represent files and
commands. Icons can be clicked to carry out a function or open a file, etc.
Menus
These allow users to select functions from a list. Each item in the list will perform a
different function.
Menus are usually either 'pop-up' or 'drop-down' used to select an option from the list.
Pointers
Pointers are little arrows that you move across the screen by directing your mouse.
Pointers can be used to:
 Select and use Icons
 Select options found in Menus
 Reposition folders and icons on your screen

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Operating systems that use Graphical User Interface (GUI) include LINUX, Windows
(Windows XP, Windows7, Windows 8, etc)

Advantages of a graphical user interface include:

1. A graphical user interface is user-friendly because it is easy to learn and work with.
(Easier and quicker to enter commands).
2. Less chance of user input errors (just clicking icons).
3. There is no need to type and memorize any command language.
4. The interface is similar for any application.

Disadvantages of a graphical user interface include:

1. A graphical user interface normally requires more memory.
2. Graphical user interface needs more computer power (a faster processor).
3. It also occupies more disk space to hold all the files for different functions.
4. It is difficult to automate functions for expert users.

Good User Interface

A good user interface should:

 be attractive and pleasing to the eye.
 allow the user to try out different options easily.
 be easy to use.
 use suitable colours for key areas.
 use words that are easy to understand aimed at the type of user.
 have help documentation.
 It should also consider the needs of the users. For example, young children are likely
to prefer pictures to words and people with disabilities may benefit from particular input
or output devices.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. Single User Operating system: this is a kind of operating system which can act as
an interface for only one user. These are kinds of machines that stand alone i.e. they
are not connected to any of the computers next to them. An example of a single-user
system is a Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS).
2. Multi User Operating Systems: this is a computer system which acts as an interface
for more than one user.

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3. Multitasking operating system allows a single user to work on two or more

applications that reside in memory at the same time.
4. Multiprocessing operating system can support two or more CPUs running programs
at the same time.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING OPERATING SYSTEM

There are a number of factors needed to put into consideration before acquiring an operating
system. These factors include:
1. Basic designs of the computer.
2. Reliability: the OS must be reliable and secure.
3. Applications indented to be used by the computer
4. User-friendly: graphical user-interface (GUI) has made modern software more user-
friendly.
5. Cost: the cost of acquiring an OS must be carefully considered before
acquiring it.
6. Availability in the market.
7. Hardware configuration requirement.

SYSTEM UTILITY
(UTILITY PROGRAMS/SERVICE PROGRAMS)
A utility program is:
 a type of system software that performs a specific task, usually related to managing a
computer, its devices, or its programs.
 a computer program designed for general support of the processes of a computer.

Popular types of utility programs include:

File Viewer, File Compression Utility , Diagnostic Utility, Disk Scanner,
Disk Defragmenter , Uninstaller, Backup Utility, Antivirus Utility, Screen Saver

1. Antivirus utility
An antivirus utility is a program that scans storage media to detect, prevent and remove
viruses from a computer’s memory or storage devices e.g. Norton Antivirus.
2. Disk defragmenter utility
It organizes files and unused space on computer’s hard disk so that data can be accessed
more easily and programs can run faster.

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Defragmentation is the process of reorganizing the disk so the files are stored in contiguous
sectors.
3. File compression utility
It compresses or reduces the size of a file. A compressed file takes up less storage space on
the hard disk or floppy disk and improves system performance.
Compressed files sometimes are called zipped files because they usually have a .ZIP
extension.
Two popular file compression utilities are PKZIP and WinZip
4. Backup utility
Allows the user to copy or backup selected files or the entire hard disk onto another disk for
reference in case the original copy is destroyed.
5. Data recovery utility
Used to recover a file or information that has been accidentally deleted eg Recycle bin for
Windows.
6. File viewer
A file viewer is a utility that displays and copies the contents of a file.
An operating system's file manager often includes a file viewer.
7. Diagnostic utility
A diagnostic utility compiles technical information about a computer's hardware and certain
system software programs and then prepares a report outlining any identified problems.
Windows XP includes Dr. Watson as a diagnostic utility.
8. Disk scanner
A disk scanner is a utility that detects and corrects both physical and logical problems on a
hard disk or floppy disk, and searches for and removes unwanted files.
A physical problem is one with the media, such as a scratch on the surface of the disk.
A logical problem is one with the data, such as a corrupted file allocation table (FAT).
Two disk scanner utilities included with Windows are Scandisk and Disk Cleanup.
9. Uninstaller
An uninstaller is a utility that removes an application, as well as any associated entries in the
system files.
One of the popular stand-alone uninstallers is McAfee's Uninstaller.
10. Screen saver
A screen saver is a utility that causes the monitor's screen to display a moving image or
blank screen if no keyboard or mouse activity occurs for a specified time period.

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Practical uses of a screen saver to a computer user:

Entertainment - The most common reason we use screensavers is for the fun of it.
Security - By setting up a screensaver with password protection
Uniform look - Many companies require all employees to use a particular screensaver.
Advertisement - Companies, particularly retail businesses, that have computer in areas
accessible to customers will often have a screensaver that promotes their business or product.
Information - A lot of screensavers provide either static or real-time information.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Terminologies:-
A program: Is a set of instructions that allow a computer to process data into information.
Programming: Is a multi-steps process for creating computer instructions.
Programming language: Is a set of commands or instructions used to write computer
software.
Syntax: Is the spelling and grammar of a programming language.
A computer programmer: Is a computer specialist who writes codes and instruction using
programming languages to develop new software and controlling computers.
Code generation/coding: This is the process of making a program or designing instructions.
Execution: The process of carrying out instructions given to the CPU to turn data into
meaningful format.
Source code (code) is the program instructions written in a computer programming language
to specify the actions to be performed by a computer.
The program that you run is called the object code.

An error in a program is known as a bugs and the process of finding bugs is known as
debugging

A software license (copyright) is a legal instrument governing the usage or redistribution of

software to protect the interests of the program designer.

There are basically two categories of programming languages and these include low level
and high level languages.

a) Low Level Language

These are called Low Level Language because they are more / best understood by the
processor / machine than the user i.e. Low Level Language is machine friendly.
Low Level Languages are divided into two i.e. machine language and Assembler language

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Advantages of assemble language

 It has closure control of the computer hardware and executes officially
 It’s useful for writing operating systems and game programs which require the fast and
efficient use of the central processing unit (CPU).

Disadvantages of assemble language

 Execution may be too slow since the language has to be translated into machine code
which easily be understood by the computer.
 It is designed for a specific machine and specific processor thus not easily compatible
with every machine.
 It’s not user friendly.

b) High Level Language

These are languages which are closely associated with the user than the machine hence they
are known as user friendly languages. Examples include BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, HTML,
C+, and C++, Java, etc.

Language Translators / Language Processors

Language translators / processors are used to change/decode or translate a high level
language into a low level language that can be understood by the processor.
These language processors include:

a) Compliers (executes later)

Is a language translator that converts the entire program of a high level language into machine
language before the computer executes the program.
This is a computer’s program that translates / changes a program written in high level language
into machine codes.
It can also be defined as a computer program that translates a series of instructions written in
one computer language known as a source language into an output computer language known
as the object or target language.
NB. The complier program changes the whole program at once into the target language.

b) Assemblers
Assemblers are programs that change Assembly programs / instruction into binary codes that
can be understood by the processor. Assembler normally begins from where compliers stop.

c) Interpreters (execute immediately)

This translates line by line of a program from high level language to low level language and
executes immediately.

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d) Linkers
These are programs which combine complied programs and determine where the programs
will be located in the memory.

Characteristics/features of programming language

 Can be used directly by the computer without interpretation.
 They are machine/ computer dependent.
 Less user friendly – not very easy to learn, write, correct
 They typical of first generation computers.
 They are time consuming during programming.
 More technical – allows the programmer to pay more attention to problem.

Advantages of programming
 Helps in making of customized programs.
 Leads to solving of day to day problems.
 Ensures that application programs are readily available.

Disadvantages of programming
 Requires a lot of time in making programs.
 Some programming languages consume a lot of space.
 Less user friendly.
 A lot of skilled labour is required.

Application software:
 is a program that is written to meet the end user’s problems.
 is software that allows end users to accomplish one or more specific tasks.

Typical application software includes:

 Business software, applications for accounting, customer relationship management,
database management, spreadsheets, word processing and presentation software.
 Entertainment software, applications for games e.g. Solitaire, applications for media,
and DVD and CD burners, video games software packages,
 Telecommunications software/ Collaborative software (i.e., the Internet and everything
that flows on it); applications for blogging, instant messaging, e-mail communication.
Example: Microsoft Outlook, Windows Live Messenger, AIM, etc.

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 Database software (Database Management Systems): Database software allows

users to store and retrieve data from databases. Examples include Oracle, MS Access,
etc.
 Educational software, used in teaching and self-learning, evaluates (tests), track
progress through materials and has capabilities of collaborative software. Examples
include Dictionaries like Britannica and Encarta, mathematical software like
MATLAB and others like Google Earth and NASA World Wind.
 Photo management software, applications for photo organizing, photo editing and
photo sharing. Example: Adobe Photoshop.
 Multimedia software, software that allows users to create and play audio and video
files. Examples are real player and media player (audio players, audio coverts,
burners, video encoders and decoders).
 Spreadsheets, a grid of rows and columns that allow users to perform calculation and
plot graphs. Examples include MS Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, etc.
 Simulation software, eg flight simulator software
 Word processing (Word processors): software that enables users to create, edit, and
print documents. Examples include MS Word, WordPad, WordPerfect, Abi Word, etc.
 Web browsers, are programs used to access the information on the Internet. Examples
include Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, Opera, Safari, etc.
 Presentation software, software that helps to display information in the form of slides.
The information on the slides helps to enhance speaker’s presentation to audience.
Examples include MS PowerPoint, Adobe Freelance, etc.
 Graphics software, applications used to design graphics such as desktop publishing
software,
 etc.

Application packages are either specialized applications or generalized applications

Application package/ software are divided into;

 Custom or Tailor Made Software
 Packaged / Off-Shelf Software / Commercially Developed Packages

1. Custom/ Tailor-Made software/ (User Developed/ In-house) software

Special Purpose Application Program (customized Packages).
Are application software which are designed and developed for a specific customer to perform
specific function.

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Or Custom software is tailor-made software, which is developed at a user's request to

perform specific functions.

Examples include of tailor-made software include:

 Report making software in schools,
 School management information system (SMIS), used in the office of the bursar to
manage fees payment,
 Hot potato used for self-assessment in multiple choice questions,
 Stock taking packages/ inventory management system,
 Payroll management systems,
 Library management system, etc.

Advantages of Custom/ Tailor-Made software (Special Purpose Application Program)

 A custom-made application directly addresses the user’s needs because it is written
to the user’s requirements and fits in with his/her work.
 The software developer delivers and installs the software and trains the end users in
the use of the new software.
 The software also performs tasks that the general purpose software cannot perform.
 This kind of software can be quickly changed when the needs of the organization
change, since the source code belongs to the company.

Disadvantages of Custom/ Tailor-Made software

 They are very expensive to design and develop. High costs of developing the software,
on-site installation, support and training.
 They are very rigid since they can only be used by one customer/organization.
 They are time consuming to develop. It takes time to acquire because of the need to
get information necessary and to write the code of the new software.
 They need a lot of specialized skills which require expensive special training.
 There is high possibility of undetected errors/bugs in the software.

2. Packaged or Off-Shelf Software/ Standard Software

General Purpose packages (Off-shelf Programs): These are application software
developed for sale to the general public to solve routine organizational problems.
Or Packaged software is commercial software, which is copyrighted and designed to meet
the needs of a wide variety of users.

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They are very important for Non- specialists, homes or businesses.

Examples of off-shelf software packages:

 MS office suite (Word processor, Spreadsheets, Databases, Graphical Packages such
us power point and desktop publisher).
 Computer games packages
 Education software packages
 Etc.

Advantages of Packaged/ Off-Shelf Software

 They are readily available from software/computer vendors
 They are relatively cheap. The cost of production can be spread over a large number
of users.
 They offer a wide range of applications, performs several functions.
 They are usually provided with a documentation explaining how to use them
 They are easy to learn and use (user friendly).
 They are well documented with a user guide.
 They are thoroughly tested so there are no serious errors/problems (bugs).
 Multipurpose compared to customized which perform specific tasks.
 Off-shelf can be customized to the user’s needs.
 They have a lot of user support that is; books, user guides, online help and discussion
forums on the Internet.
 The off-shelf programs are easy to install.

Disadvantages of Packaged/ Off-Shelf Software

 They may require the user to change its processes and hardware for compatibility
which may in turn be expensive.
 They may have some features not needed by the user which may take extra storage
capacity.
 May not handle some problems with ease.
 They only give a general solution to a task at hand.
 It is easy to forget the commands to use with the package if it is not frequently used.
 Off-shelf software does not address needs of specific users.
 It takes a long time to learn properly. This is because this software tends to be large
and complicated.

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Other software types:

(i) Software suite
(ii) Freeware
(iii) Open source
(iv) Shareware
(v) Public Domain software.

Software suite
A software suite, also known as application suite or productivity suite, is a software package
that has several applications that work together because they have related functions, features
and user interfaces, and are able to interact with each other.

Business applications often come in suites, e.g. Microsoft Office, OpenOffice.org, and iWork,
which bundle together a word processor application, a spreadsheet application, presentation
graphics, database and e-mail applications, etc.

Advantages of software suites

(i) It is easy to transfer data from one component of the application to another.
(ii) The user can move much faster from one application to the next.
(iii) It is usually easier to learn how to use the applications in a software suite
because the user interface for choosing commands is similar for all applications.
(iv) A software suite tends to be more powerful and versatile than individual
applications.
(v) A software suite is less likely to crash and contains fewer errors (bugs), since it
has been widely tried and tested.
(vi) The producers of software suites often offer after-sales services (e.g. online help
facilities); users can also get support from user groups and magazines.
(vii) Software suites are usually cheaper to buy than purchasing the packages
individually.

Disadvantages of software suites

 Not all the features of a single application are included.

Open source software (OSS)

Open source software (OSS) is copyrighted software for which the software plus the source
code are freely distributed.

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The OSS free software license/copyright permits users to use, change, and improve the
software, and to redistribute it in modified or unmodified forms.
It is very often developed in a public, collaborative manner.

Freeware
Freeware is copyrighted software that is offered at no cost but whose source code is not
provided.
Software that is not freeware is referred to as commercial software or payware.

Proprietary software (closed source software)

Proprietary software is copyrighted software obtained at a cost where the software publisher
grants a license to use one or more copies of the software, but the ownership of those copies
remains with the software publisher such that all rights regarding the software are reserved by
the software publisher.

Shareware
Shareware is copyrighted software that is distributed free for a trial period, and payment is
required for using the software beyond that trial period.

Public Domain Software

Public domain software is the software which is not copyrighted because it has been formally
released to the public domain such that there is no copyright restriction on it.

Software Piracy
Software Piracy is unauthorized/illegal duplication and use of computer software/programs.

How to prevent software piracy

 Use of product key/serial key.
 Sensitizing users on the dangers of using acquiring and using software illegally.
 Use of holograms, a component which comes with the original and cannot be
duplicated.
 Require software authentication and activation.
 Incorporate flexible licensing.
 Prosecute the software pirates.
 Institute and enforce a copyright law.

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Installing and uninstalling application and utility software

Program installation is the process of setting up of a program on a computer to be able to use
it.
Once the program has been installed, it can be executed any time without the need to reinstall
until this program is uninstalled.

Reasons for installation of a program

 In case of a new application package that must be installed in order to run on a
computer.
 In case of a plug-in. A plug-in is a set of software components that adds specific
capabilities to a larger software application.
 Installation of a device driver, in case a new device is attached to the computer.
 If there is need to update an old version of a program by installing an update of it.
 When the program previously installed is corrupted and you need to reinstall it to be
able to use it.

Program installer
A program installer is a specialized program which automates most of the work required for a
program installation.
Operating systems are normally supplied with program installers that run when a new
installation is required. Many programs are supplied with a dedicated installer that must be run
in order to set up the program because the installation process requirements vary for each
application.
Installation may include unpacking of files supplied in a compressed form, copying them to
suitable locations, tailoring the software to suit the hardware and the user's preferences,
providing information about the program to the operating system, and so on. The installer also
tests for system suitability and available mass storage space, such tests are necessary to
determine the compatibility of the computer in relation to the program being installed.

The installation process

The installation process begins when the setup file (setup.exe) or install execution file is
started, this file is generally supplied with the program it helps to install, it updates and activates
the program installer.
There are two set up options; the automatic installation process and the manual installation
process.

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The automatic installation process offers the user minimal interaction with the system; to
choose the location on the drive where you wish to install the program, and changing the
installation language and choosing whether to install additional licensed programs.

Manual (customized) installation

A manual (customized) installation offers a more interactive environment, enabling you to
make as many choices as possible regarding the installation options. For example, making
choice of the language for the installer to use, the location where to install the program, the
amount of disk space to use, the parts of the program to install, whether to place program
shortcuts on the desk top or not etc.
 The installer then checks whether the computer system has the minimum system
resources needed to run the program before it can proceed. Usually the installer may
require additional information such as personal identification, and the product key, or
code for the wizard to proceed. You may also need to check the “agree” button of the
end user license agreement before installation can proceed.
 When you install or upgrade software on the computer system, the installer program
writes new files to the system, creating new registry entries, and new folders, links and
shortcuts, and in some cases, it will even download new files from the Internet during
the installation process.

Remember the following before and when installing a program

 To read the manuals for the program or the readme file located in the same directory
as the install commonly contain exact instructions on how to install a program.
 To make sure your computer meets the requirements of the program, game, or utility
you are attempting to install.
 After installing or during the installation, a program may need to install other programs,
files, or utilities before it is able to run. If this is the case, the program will commonly
prompt you to install the program or you may need to run a separate installation before
the program can be fully used.
 When installing a program, utility, or game, it is always a good idea first to close or
disable any other programs that are running.
It usually requires the computer system to restart after installing a new program for it to work
well, the computer may prompt you to reboot the system for the installed program to work.

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Installing Device drivers

 The device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is attached
to a computer system. Modern operating systems are designed with many device
drivers. The operating system will automatically detect any new hardware attached to
it and install an appropriate driver and it will be able to work. However, if you buy a
new type of device that the operating system whose driver was not included in the
operating system, you'll have to manually install the new device driver.

Steps to follow In order to Install a new device

Open Windows Device Manager (Start>control panel> systems> hardware tab> device
manager. In the Windows 7 Control Panel, Device Manager is under the System group. You
can also right-click “My Computer”, then click "Manage" and then click on "Device Driver."). In
the Device Manager make sure the device you're attempting to install is not already listed from
past install attempts. If the device is found, highlight it and remove it from Device Manager to
prevent any conflicts during the install. Find the device that you want to install a driver for.
 You may need to choose "View" and "Show hidden devices" to find it, or it may be
represented by a yellow question mark if there is no driver for it yet and the computer
doesn't recognize it. The categories may help you find it if Windows knows in general
what type of device it is. For example, if you have plugged in a new keyboard and
there's a yellow question mark under the "Keyboards" category, then you may need to
reinstall the keyboard drivers for it to work.
 Once you have verified the Device Manager, reboot the computer.
 As the computer is rebooting an “install new hardware” wizard should appear if
Windows detects the new hardware. Using this wizard you should be able to point the
operating system (Windows) to the folder containing your drivers either on the CD,
diskette, or the folder containing the files you downloaded;
 Select install for a list or specific location this time and click next. Uncheck "search
removable media" and check includes this location in search. Click the browse button
and go to the directory where you saved your new driver. (If it is on CD simply search
removable media and it will find it).
 Click next and it will attempt to install the driver. Once done click next and your new
driver is install. A reboot might be required for the device to work properly.
 If Windows does not detect any new hardware, open Control Panel and double-click
the Add hardware (or Add a device) icon to run the hardware detection wizard. During
the steps you will have an option to tell Windows whether you have a disk containing

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the drivers for your new hardware device, at this point direct Windows to the directory
containing the drivers for your device.
 Once drivers have been installed reboot.

Executable driver files

Many computer and hardware manufacturers today pre-package their drivers into executable
files(usually in compressed form) or have the drivers installed through the setup file, which
means you only have to double-clicking the setup file to install the drivers to the computer.

Upgrading drivers for already installed devices

It may be necessary to update a device driver for the device to worker better; ensure that the
latest device driver for each of the devices is loaded onto the computer system. Manufacturers
frequently update their drivers to fix problems of earlier versions and take advantage of
upgraded operating system features. These drivers are usually available from the
manufacturer's Web site for downloading. In the Hardware Update Wizard, click to select the
Have Disk option or any other disk where the downloaded file is located, and then click the
Browse button to locate the driver files.
Or
Open Windows Device Manager. In the Device Manager locate the device you wish to update
the drivers for.
 Right-click the device and click Properties.
 In the Properties window click the Driver tab.
 Click the Update Driver button.
 In the Hardware Update Wizard point Windows to the location of the updated drivers
on your hard disk drive
 Once drivers have been installed reboot.

Install through the .inf file

The installation instructions for drivers and hardware devices are always contained in an .inf
file (has .inf extension) this file is located within the drivers. This is a Setup Information file
which is a plain text file used by an operating system for installation of software and drivers, it
tells the operating system on how to go about with the installation process. For example,
Autorun.inf is the primary instruction file associated with the Autorun function.
 Autorun.inf itself is a simple text-based configuration file that tells the operating system
which executable file to start, which icon to use, and which additional menu commands
to make available.

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Locate the .inf for the progam you want to install then right-click that file and choose the option
for install. Once you have right-clicked and installed the driver, reboot the computer.
 Many software programs, games, and utilities have an AutoPlay feature that will
automatically start the setup screen for the software program when the software
CD/DVD is placed in the computer. If this is the case, run the installation through the
screen that appears after inserting the disk in the CD/DVD ROM drive.
 Otherwise you need to open the folder where the setup executable file resides to be
able to select and run it.
For example;
 Open My Computer.
 Within My Computer window, open the drive that contains the installation files. It may
be on a CD or DVD, in that case, open the D: drive or the letter of the disk drive.
 Within the drive that contains the files, locate either a setup or install file. The setup
executable file must have the .exe extension. Double-clicking on this file should start
the installation for the program, game, or utility.
 The alternative method of starting an installation in Windows is the following;
 Click Start then Run. In case of windows 7, find run in accessories
 In the Run Window, type x:\setup or x:\install where x is the letter of the drive you wish
to start the installation from. For example, if you want to install a program from a CD
would type D:\setup or D:\install.if your CD drive is designated with the letter D

In case you fail to install a software program

You may fail to install software for a number of reasons;
 The software source CD may not be readable. Verify the disk is readable by reading
the files on the drive. For example, Microsoft Windows users can explore the drive in
Windows explorer. If the CD attempts to AutoPlay, you may need to right-click the drive
and click Explore to browse the drive.
 The computer system may not have the system requirements for the software to run,
verify that your computer meets the minimum requirements of the software program.
If your computer does not have enough disk drive space or does not meet the
requirements, the program will not install.
 The software may not be compatible with the computer system. Make sure the
program or utility you are installing is compatible with the version of operating system
you have on your computer.

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 Most proprietary software requires that a registration code or serial number is entered
before the software is entered. If you are getting stopped at the CD-KEY or Serial
Number verification, verify you are entering your correct number. If you lost your
number or key or it does not work, you will need to contact the developer of the
program

Uninstalling software
Software uninstallation is the process of removing part or all of a given software from the
computer. There are several reasons why one may wish to uninstall software from the
computer;
 The software may not be working properly due to corrupt files, or improper installation,
hence the need for a clean reinstallation of the program which requires that the
program must be uninstalled first.
 It could be that the software is no longer being used and is unnecessarily taking up
valuable disk space.
 The software may be conflicting with other programs installed on the computer.
 The software may not be meeting your expectations, that is, it's not functioning as
expected.
 You may be running out of disk space, therefore you just want to free up some space
on your computer's hard drive.
 It is always necessary to carry out a proper uninstallation through proper program
uninstall procedure instead of merely deleting the program folder and shortcuts
 If you are using windows, get to Programs and Features control panel, then choose
uninstall program to properly uninstall the program;
 Go to the Control Panel and double-click on the "Add or Remove Programs" icon.
Scroll down the list until you find the software you wish to uninstall, then click the
program icon and hit the "Remove" button. This should begin the uninstall process.

The uninstaller
 An uninstaller, also called a de-installer, is utility software which is designed to remove
all or parts of a specific other application software. It is always recommended to use
an uninstaller to uninstall a program.
 It is recommended to run the disk defragmenter when you have finished uninstalling a
program because, removing software leaves gaps in the hard drive where the software
files used to be which may slow the system's performance. The defragmenter

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eliminates these gaps, which helps to improve the computer's performance. The
defragmenter can be found in the "System Tools" folder within the "Start" menu.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING COMPUTER SOFTWARE

There are a number of factors needed to put into consideration before acquiring computer
system or application software. These factors include:

1. Authenticity: this is considered to avoid purchasing pirated software. Software piracy

is illegal downloading of software from the internet or making copies of the software
without the permission of the owner. Authenticity is established by having the
manufacturer’s certificate of authenticity.
2. Documentation: Software documentation includes user manuals, troubleshooting
and installation guidelines as well as on-line help. A good software product must
be accompanied with these documentations.
3. User needs: Users’ needs must be considered before purchasing a software
product.
4. Reliability: good software must be reliable and secure.
5. User-friendly: graphical user-interface (GUI) has made modern software more
user-friendly.
6. Cost: the cost of acquiring software must be carefully considered before
acquiring it. It’s not also advisable to go for products which are freely available on
the internet because some of them may be malicious programs.
7. Compatibility and upgradability: a software product must be compatible with
the existing hardware, operating system or application programs and should be
readily upgradable.
8. Easy to load: the time for software product to load should not be long.

Revision questions:
1. (a) Explain five factors one needs to consider before acquiring a computer system.
 Processor type and speed  Compatibility
 Memory capacity  Display type
 Portability  Interoperability
 Warranty  Colour
 Storage capacity  and design

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(b) Highlight four factors one needs to consider before acquiring computer software
 Documentation  User-friendliness
 Warranty  Portability
 Reliability  Authenticity

2. Distinguish between the following:

(a) a warranty and a guarantee
Warranty is a written commitment that specifies what will be done in case a device fails
while a guarantee is an agreement assuming responsibility to platform, execute or
complete something.
(b) Compatibility and inter-operability in relation to computer software and hardware.
Compatibility means something is made for a particular platform while interoperability
means operation across platforms.

DATA COMMUNICATION

Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information between two devices over
a transmission medium through a network. Data communication is usually regarded as
computer communication.

Terms used in Data communication

Some of the terms used in data communication include: data signal, signal modulation and
demodulation, multiplexing, bandwidth, baseband, broadband transmission and attenuation.

Data signal: is the voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data. Data signal
can be either analog or digital in nature.
 Analog signals are continuous signals that vary in strength. Sound is an example of
an analog signal.
 Digital signals are discrete/discontinuous. Either there is a signal or there isn't a
signal. Discrete signals are represented by on (1) and off (0) pulses

Signal modulation and demodulation: this is the process of converting data signals to and
from a form that is suitable for transmission over a transmission medium e.g modem.

Multiplexing: is the process of sending multiple data signals over the same medium e.g a
wire conductor can be made to carry several data signals either simultaneously or at different
times.

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De-multiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed signals at the receiving end.

Bandwidth: is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can carry at one
time. Or bandwidth is the amount of signals that can travel over a communications channel.
The higher the bandwidth, the more data and information the channel can transmit.

Baseband: is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the transmission medium directly
without modulation. The signal takes the form of voltages of different magnitudes as applied
to the medium.

Broadband transmission: this is where an analog signal is sent over the transmission
medium using a particular frequency. This means that several data signals can be sent
simultaneously through the same medium but at different frequencies. Frequency bands
between these data signals prevent them from overlapping.

Attenuation: this is the decrease in amplitude and energy as signal progressively moves
along the way and may never reach the destination. Attenuation or signal loss is usually
corrected by placing signal amplifiers and also called repeaters stations along the medium at
appropriate distances in order to receive the weak signals, clean it, amplify it then retransmit
it.
Components of Data Communication system

1. Message: Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the

receiver.
2. A sending device (Sender): The sender is any device that is capable of sending the
data (message).
3. Transmission medium (plural media): It is the path by which the message travels
from sender to receiver. It can be wired or wireless and sometimes in both.
4. A receiving device (Receiver): The receiver is a device that accepts the transmission
of data, information, instructions (message).
5. Protocol:

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 Set of rules used by the sender and receiver to communicate data.

 A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication.
A Protocol is a necessity in data communications without which the communicating
entities are like two persons trying to talk to each other in a different language without
knowing the other language.
6. Communications software, which controls and manages the activities and functions
of the communications network.

Types (Modes) of Data Transmission

1. Serial transmission
Serial transmission is the sequential transmission of one bit of signal at a time sent over a
single wire. Low data transfer rates are possible, but can be used to transfer data over longer
distances.

2. Parallel transmission
Parallel transmission is the simultaneous transmission of the signal elements of a character
or other entity of data over two or more separate paths. Multiple electrical wires are used
which can transmit multiple bits simultaneously, which allows for higher data transfer rates
than can be achieved with serial transmission

3. Asynchronous Data transmission

Transmission where each group of digital or analog signals making up the code for one
character is separated and individually wrapped with a start BIT and a stop BIT and an error
check BIT.
Asynchronous transmission is relatively slow because of the extra bits that must be sent with
the data bits for each character.

4. Synchronous Data transmission

This is the transmission where characters are sent as blocks of signals with header and
trailer bytes at the beginning and end of the block.
Synchronous transmission is faster because characters are sent as blocks; it is therefore
used to transmit large volume of data at high speed.

5. Full-Duplex (FDX) transmission

A full-duplex (FDX) system is a mode of data transmission where data signals can flow in
both directions at the same time. Example Telephone communication since they allow both
callers to speak and be heard at the same time.

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6. Half-Duplex (HDX) transmission: A half-duplex (HDX) system is a mode of data

transmission where data signals can flow in both directions but not at the same time.
Example Walkie-talkie communication well known as radio calls.
7. Simplex transmission
Simplex transmission is a mode of transmission where data flows in only one direction
between the two communicating devices. Examples include broadcast on radio, TV,
transmission between keyboard and monitor.

8. Point to point transmission

A point-to-point connection refers to a communications connection between two nodes or
endpoints.

Data Communication Tools

Data communication tool is a device that allows the user to communicate messages. Examples
include computers, mobile phones, fax machines, internet, etc.

Types of Data Communication Tools:

 Manual data communication tools (manual drums, bells and messengers).
 Electronic data communication tools (computers, internet, mobile phones, fax, etc).

Comparison between manual and electronic data communication

Manual data communication Electronic data communication
Does not use power and is slow Quick and fastest especially over network
Quick for short distance Covers a wide geographical area (distance)
It does not support information digitally Supports information digitally
Does not support information sharing and is Supports information sharing and is
expensive collaborative
It does not require any skill to operate the It requires skills to use it
drum

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Uses of data communications

Uses/ services of data communications include:

voice mail, fax, e-mail, BBS, instant messaging, chat rooms, newsgroups, Internet
telephony, videoconferencing, groupware, telecommuting, and global positioning system.

Voice mail
Voice mail functions like an answering machine and allows a caller to leave a voice message,
which is stored in a voice mailbox, for the called party.
A called party can listen to the message, add comments to a message, and reply or forward a
message to another voice mailbox in the voice mail system.
E-mail
E-mail, or electronic mail, is the transmission of messages via a computer network such as
a local area network or the Internet.
The message can be simple text, or can include an attachment such as a word processing
document, a graphical image, an audio clip, or a video clip.
E-mail software creates, sends, receives, forwards, stores, prints, and deletes e-mail
messages.
An e-mail address is a combination of a user name and a domain name that identifies a user
who sends or receives e-mail. (e.g., For the e-mail address [email protected], tswong is
the user name, and wong-sir.com is the domain name.)
Most e-mail programs allow users to create an address book, which contains a list of names
and e-mail addresses. Most ISPs provide their users with a mailbox, which stores their e-
mails, on a special server called a mail server.
When an e-mail arrives at the recipient's mail server, the e-mail transfers to a POP or
POP3 server, until the recipient retrieves it with his or her e-mail software.
Popular e-mail software includes Microsoft Outlook Express and Endora.
Some Web sites provide e-mail services called Webmail, which can be accessed by a Web
browser.

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A Comparison of E-mail Vs Ordinary Post

E-mail Ordinary Post
Very quick and cheap delivery. It does not require any special
Advantages

equipment.
Can be picked up anywhere in the world. Packets and parcels can be sent
Computer files can be attached to an email.
Records and copies is kept automatically.
Can be sent at any time to suit the sender.
A computer and other hardware (e.g., a It can be expensive.
Disadvantages

modem) is required.
It is not secure. It is slow.
It is easy to get on junk mail lists.
There is always a risk of virus.
.
Instant messaging (IM) is a real-time communications service that notifies a user when one or
more people are online and then allows the user to exchange messages or files with them.
An instant messenger program from an instant messaging service must be installed in order
to use instant messaging.
No standards exist currently for instant messaging. All those individuals involved need to use
the same instant messenger to guarantee successful communications.

Chat room

A chat room is a location on an Internet server that permits users to chat with each other by
typing lines of text on the computer.
Some chat rooms support voice chats and video chats.
To start a chat session, a user must connect to a chat server through a chat client program
on his or her computer.
Most Web browsers also include a chat client.

Internet telephony

Internet telephony, sometimes called Voice over IP (VoIP), is a Web-based telephone

service that allows a user to talk to others for just the cost of the Internet connection.
Internet telephony uses the Internet rather than the public switched telephone network to
connect a calling party to one or more parties.

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A microphone, a sound card, and special Internet telephony software are required for
conducting Internet telephony.

Videoconferencing

A videoconference is a meeting between two or more geographically separated people who

use a network or the Internet to transmit audio and video data.

Equipment for videoconferencing

The following is needed to take part in a videoconference call:
 a computer
 a web cam
 a microphone (most webcams have a microphone built-in)
 speakers
 broadband (high speed) Internet access
 video conferencing software
 a digital video camera

Videoconferencing

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Advantages of videoconferencing
 Do not have to pay for conference room/hall; less expensive than hiring larger
accommodation.
 No time wasted in travelling to a venue
 Do not have to pay for employee travelling expenses
 Do not have to pay for hotel rooms/ overnight stays
 Conference can be called at a short notice
 Can ensure safety of employees (no travelling accidents)
 Several people can take part in the conference regardless of their localities
 People who speak can be hard/seen by all other people on the conference
 Backup data can be stored for future reference

Disadvantages of videoconferencing

1. Lack of personal interaction: Some meetings require a personal touch to be successful.

Video conferencing can be less personal than meeting face to face, and it can be possible
to miss out on vital body language when you’re struggling with a pixelated image or
stuttering video.
2. Technical problems: This could result from software, hardware or network failure.
3. International time zones: Depending on where you are in the world, it may be difficult
to get everyone on the same page when scheduling a session.
4. High cost of setup: purchasing and maintaining of equipment can be expensive.
5. Extra Training - If you have special equipment or are using a special program, you have
to make sure those involved are properly trained on how to use the equipment.
6. Stability of your connections. You may be disconnected at any given time and have to
wait to be reconnected. Thus not a suitable way for very important discussions.
7. Video Clarity - Videoconferencing uses more bandwidth than audio conferencing,
therefore there are chances of video being of less quality than audio.
8. Confidential documents may not be signed in person.

Groupware
Groupware is a software application that helps groups of people work together and share
information over a network.
Groupware enables members of a workgroup to communicate, manage projects, schedule
meetings, and make group decisions.

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Telecommuting
Telecommuting is a work arrangement so that employees may work away from the standard
workplace of a company, but communicate with the office using some kinds of communications
technology.

Advantages of telecommuting include

 Reduces the time and expenses for traveling to and from work.
 Eliminates traveling during unsafe weather conditions.
 Allows a flexible work schedule for employees.
 Provide a convenient, comfortable work environment for disabled employees or those
recovering from injury or illness.
 Reduces air pollution caused by vehicles driven to and from work.
 Employers reduce costs due to less office space and furniture is required.

Disadvantages of telecommuting include

 Reduced human face-to-face interactions among working staff.
 Work has to stop if any component of the communications system fails to work.
 Leisure time at home may be replaced by work.
 Data security may be jeopardized.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

A global positioning system (GPS) consists of one or more earth-based receivers that
accept and analyze signals sent by satellites in order to determine the receiver's geographic
location.

Uses of GPS include:

To locate a person or an object

Ascertain the best route between two points

Monitor the movement of a person or object

Create a map

Many cars and ships also use GPS to provide directions to a destination and weather
information.

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Functions of computer communications system

Functions/ importance of computer communications system include:
1. Computer communication transmits data, information and instructions.
2. Linking up computer devices and computers (computer networks)
3. Establishes the interface between the sender and the receiver
4. Performs elementary processing of information to ensure that the right message gets
to the right receiver
5. Controls the flow of messages
6. Routes the messages along the most efficient communications paths
7. Converts the messages from one speed into the speed of a communications line or
from one format to another (analog/ digital).
Note: Computer communications are accomplished through computer networks.

Factors Affecting Communication among Devices

1. Transmission medium capacity or size which affects frequency, bandwidth and bit
per second; high frequency, wider bandwidth means more data or bit per second.
2. Type of material one is trying to access. Pictures and other complex graphics take
long to load because of large files
3. Speed of your modem and the modem at the other end
4. Amount of other traffic on the network
5. Type of transmission media i.e. fiber optic, twisted pair or coaxial cables
6. Packet switching: Technology that breaks blocks of text data into small fixed bundles
which can be transmitted in the most economical way through any available
communications channel
7. Multiplexing i.e. combining several low strength channels into one high speed
channel
8. Protocol – set of convention governing the exchange of data amongst devices.
Protocols are built into the hardware and software one is using. Protocol defines
the ability of a network device to locate and interpret other devices in the
communications path.

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COMPUTER NETWORKS
A computer network is:
 a connection of two or more computers together to share resources such as hardware,
software and data.
 a connection of two or more computers together so that they can exchange data.

Functions of Computer Networks (Why computer networks?)

1. Facilitate communications. Using network, people can communicate easily via e-

mail, instant messaging, chartrooms, telephony, video conferencing, etc.
2. Share hardware. Each computer on a network can access and use hardware e.g
printers
3. Sharing files, data and information. Authorized users can access data and
information stored on other computers on the network.
4. Sharing software. Users connected to network can access application programs on
the network.
5. To ensure security of data by putting in place administrative controls over the
network.
6. To share databases

A computer that is not connected to a network is known as a standalone computer.

Network Connection Methods (Common Transmission Media)

Network connection methods can be:

 Physical; Guided (Wired) Media
 Wireless; Unguided (Wireless) Media
Physical connection involves use of cables (wires)
Wireless connection involves use of radio signal, satellite links, telephone lines (modem),
Bluetooth

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PHYSICAL MEDIA

Physical connections media; cables (wires) include:

a. Coaxial cables

These are metallic connecting wires. They are typical of the following characteristics;

 They are shielded

 They have a lot of data signal noise
 Provide minimum data signal strength
 Used in Network antennas

Advantages Coaxial cables

1. It has a high bandwidth
2. It is highly resistant to signal interference
3. It is used for long distance (300-600 meters)
4. It is quite bulky and sometimes difficult to install

Disadvantages Coaxial cables

1. It has higher installation costs
2. Coaxial is prone to lightning strikes which damage the cables or equipment on which
it is connected.
3. It is more expensive than twisted pair cables
4. It is not flexible

b. Fiber optic cables

These are nonmetallic transmission media carrying signals in form of light beams. They
provide very fast transmission, not easily disturbed by weather but relatively more expensive.

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Advantages of fiber-optic cables over cables carrying wire include;

(1) Capable of carrying more signals;
(2) Faster data transmission;
(3) Less susceptible to noise from other devices;
(4) Better security for signals during transmission; and
(5) Smaller size.
(6) It has immunity to environmental interference
(7) It can be used over greater distances due to the low loss, high bandwidth properties.
(8) They are poor conductors of electricity which eliminates the possibility of electrical
shocks.

Disadvantages of fiber-optic cable are;

(1) Higher costs. It is much more costly than other cables to install
(2) Difficulty to install and modify.
(3) Fiber optics is expensive compared to the other types of cables.
(4) They are difficult to install and modify, therefore require skilled installers
(5) It is difficult to add additional nodes on the network.

c. Twisted pair cables

They are of two types;

(i) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable
(ii) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable

They are typical of the following characteristics;

 Two more twisted wires
 Twisting conceal out or eliminates signal noise
 Usually shielded but unshielded at times.

Services offered by data communication tools are E-mail, News groups and instant messaging.

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Advantages of twisted pair cables

1. They are relatively cheap to use because its cost per unit length is low.
2. They are convenient to use because they are small in size.
3. They are easy to install because of their flexibility it is easily strung around the room
or wall.
4. Shielded twisted pair has a foil shielding to help provide a more reliable data
communication.
5. Because UTP is small, it does not quickly fill up wiring ducts
6. TP is easy to terminate

Disadvantages of twisted pair cables

1. Used over a short distance, usually less than 100 meters
2. Twisted pair’s susceptibility (prone) to the electromagnetic interference which leads to
signal loss.
3. They are easily damaged. Especial the UTP.
4. They are low frequency cables. So they are not suitable for transmission of very high
frequency signals like cable TV, TV antenna and radio antenna signals

WIRELESS MEDIA
Wireless communication technology, is one where the transfer of information over a distance
is done without the use of cables (wires) as a medium.
Wireless technology is applied in Local area networks (WLANs), extended local area network,
and connecting a network to another network.

 Wireless technology overcomes the inconvenience of using too many wires for
communication.
 Wireless is appropriate to use in places where cabling is practically impossible.

Types of wireless media

 Radio
 Microwave
 Infrared
 Blue tooth

Microwave transmission
 Microwave transmission refers to the technology of conveying information or energy
by the use of radio waves whose wavelengths between one metre and one millimeter.

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 Microwave must be transmitted in a straight line (with no obstacles such as buildings

or hills in the line of sight between the microwave stations).
 The distance covered by microwave signals is based upon the height of the antenna.
 Microwave communication can take two forms: terrestrial (ground) links and satellite
links.
 Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitters and receivers, sending data from
one microwave station to another.

Limitations of Microwave
 Microwave signals are highly subjected to atmospheric interference.
 Microwave can be exposed to electronic eavesdropping.

Communications Satellites
 Satellites are communication devices stationed in space and use microwave radio as
their telecommunications medium to communicate with the earth based
communication facilities.
 Satellites are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals to and from
earth based communication facilities (earth stations) that use parabolic antennas
(satellite dishes) to communicate with the satellites.
 Satellite microwave communication is flexible and possible with most remote sites and
with mobile devices, because no cables are required, which enables transmission with
ships at sea and motor vehicles.

Radio transmission
 Radio is the transmission of signals, by converting them into electromagnetic waves.
 The electromagnetic waves are transmitted in space towards the destination.
 Electromagnetic waves are intercepted by the receiving Antenna. The signal power is
collected at the receiving antenna.
 Radio waves are not a line of sight transmission, therefore not affected by presence of
objects between the transmitter and receiver.

Infrared transmission
 Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of
visible light.
 Infrared signal is usually transmitted across relatively short distances to transmit data
between personal devices for example, between a computer and a cell phone.

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 Infrared can be either beamed between two points or broadcast from one point to many
receivers.

Bluetooth: Bluetooth is an open wireless technology/protocol for data exchange over short
distances.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
Local Area Network (LAN)
This is an inter-connection of computers which are in a relatively very close proximity. E.g. a
network on a building

Wide Area Networks (WAN)

Is a network connecting LANS across geographical distances e.g. a network shared by states,
or continents. Thus the ultimate WAN is the Internet.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Is a network connecting computers within a geographical or regional area e.g. network
connecting local administrative centres in a district, or specific tertiary institutions in a country.

Types of LANs or Network Models

Peer-to-peer LAN
Is a LAN configuration where no particular computer is assigned the responsibility of
administering other computers on the network. Computers on the network communicate
directly with one another without a server.

Advantages of Peer-to-peer network

 Cheap since it does not require a server
 No network administrator required
 Does not rely on other computers for its operation
 Easy to setup

Disadvantages of Peer-to-peer network

 Cannot handle many network connections as servers handle.
 Lack of central organization makes it hard to find required information or data
 No central point of storage for file archiving
 Weak and intrusive security
 Lack of central management

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Server-Based / Client LAN

Is a LAN configuration with client computers serviced by a main computer called a server.
A server is a big and very fast processor computer allocated the task of servicing other
computers with applications, data, and other utilities on the network.

Advantages of Client/ Server-Based network

 Strong central security through access controls installed on the server.
 Central file storage, which allows all user to work from the same set of data and
provides easy backup of critical data.
 Ability to share expensive equipment such as laser printers.
 Easy management of large number of users.
 Central organization which keeps data from getting lost among computers.

Disadvantages of Client/ Server-Based network

 It’s expensive to setup.
 Extra expenses on buying a server computer.
 Extra expenses on hiring a network administrator.
 In case the server fails to work, the whole network comes to a standstill.

TYPES OF NETWORK SERVERS

 File server: One that stores various files and making them available to network
users.
 Application servers: stores application software packages run directly on it and
made for users on the network.
 Printer server: a central computer that manages a networked printer from a single
location.
 Web server: It allows users to access outside networks, also providing web
content/web pages to users.
 Mail server: Manages mail by receiving, moving and storing mail on the network.
 Proxy server: A computer placed between a LAN and an external server or
networks (Internet), to filter requests and restrict access to data.
A proxy server receives a request for an Internet service from a user. If the request
passes filtering requirements, looks in its local cache of previously downloaded Web
pages. If it finds the page, it returns it to the user without needing to forward the
request to the Internet.

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If the page is not in the cache, the proxy server, acting as a client on behalf of the
user, uses its own IP addresses to request the page from the server out on the
Internet. When the page is returned, the proxy server forwards it on to the user.

NETWORK REQUIREMENTS
Basic hardware and software for a Network facility include;
1. Network Operating System
Master control program/ instructions that manage basic network operations like data
and file transmissions, etc. e.g.
 Windows (2000, NT, XP …)
 Novell Netware
 Apple Talk
 IBM’s LAN, etc

2. Network Adaptor/ Network Interface Card (NIC)

Hardware devices that make all computers on the network to communicate with others
on the network.
3. A Bridge; is a device used to link two similar networks to communicate to one another
e.g. Bus-2-Bus or Star-2-Star, etc. Usually the two networks have the same protocol
such as Ethernet.
4. A Gateway; is a device (interface) used to link more than two different networks to
communicate with one another e.g. Bus to Star, LAN to MAN, etc. they use different
network protocols.
5. Router; A router is an intelligent communications device that sends (routes)
communications traffic to the appropriate network using the fastest available path.
6. Hubs or switch is a device that provides a central point for cables in a network. That
is, the hub receives data from many directions and then forwards it to one or more
destinations
7. MODEM (Modulator/Demodulator)
A hardware device that transforms digital signals into wave form (analog modulation)
to facilitate their transmission into air space, and vice versa (demodulation). The
purpose of a modem is to convert data from digital to analog at sending computer
and from analog to digital at the receiving computer.
8. Repeaters; Are devices that accept transmitted signals, amplify them, and retransmit
them over the network media.

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As a signal travels over a long distance, the signal undergoes a reduction in strength, an
occurrence called attenuation.

Note:
A network can either be stand alone or be connected to other different network configurations
which can be either similar or not, hence need to have bridge, gateway, router.
The most common network faults necessitating hubs and repeaters include;
Distortion – where information is confused at the source
Attenuation i.e. loss of signal strength
Shared peripherals e.g. Network printers, scanners, fax machine, etc
Client computers – computers sharing resources and capable for sending and receiving
data signals to and from the server.
Server – very fast processor computer dedicated to providing specific services for other
computers connected on the network i.e. a computer which services and administers other
computers (Clients) on a network.

Prerequisites of a server
 Very strong processor e.g. Motorola G4 and Pentium V, IV, etc
 High RAM capacity – DIMMs for RAM 500+MBs
 Very powerful storage abilities
 Enhanced Network through-put
 Expansion abilities

Functions of a server
 Administration of client computers
 security of files and applications
 Managing printer jobs
 Data bank
 Software and applications handling

MODEM (Modulator/Demodulator)
A hardware device that transforms digital signals into wave form (analog modulation) to
facilitate their transmission into air space, and vice versa (demodulation).

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Factors to consider for a network choice:

1. Size of the organization, a peer-to-peer network configuration is ideal for less than ten
users
2. Needs of the network e.g. network administrators, hardware and software, etc
3. Level of data security needed. A peer-to-peer network configuration is not very secure
4. Amount of network traffic expected (bandwidth)
5. Network budget for the whole network system development and servicing
6. Maintenance requirements
7. Level of administrative support available
8. Types of business or organization

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. It facilitates easy communications e.g. through Electronic mail

2. They facilitate sharing of peripheral devices like printers.
3. it allows for tight control over who has access to data in the system
4. It enables sharing of data and information stored on any other computer on the
network.
5. It enables online learning, communication and collaborative research

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6. Better access to databases and files for sharing through uploading and downloading/
receipt of files from host computer.
7. Software is easily upgraded on the network since it is done at ago on the server.
8. Computer networks enable centralized administration, control and monitoring of
individual users on the network.
9. Computer networks enable workgroup Computing. Workgroup software allows many
users to work on a document or project concurrently.
10. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files instead of using
a time consuming method of using movable disks to transfer data from one computer
to the other.
11. It enables flexible access. Users can log on and access their work from any workstation
on the network.

DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Access to Breakdown of
pornography server leads
leading to network failure
immorali

Greater risks of Initial costs

virus attack Disadvantages

of Computer

Networks

Exposure to hackers Administrative costs

Risks of data Wastage of time on

corruption social networks

1. Initial cost of installing a network on Cables, network cards, and software are
expensive, and the installation may require the services of a technician.
2. Networks require administrative time and expertise for proper maintenance of a
network which leads to additional cost.
3. Time can be wasted on social networks instead of doing meaningful work.

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4. The entire network fails if the server crashes, when this happens, the entire
organization loses access to necessary programs and files.
5. There is increased risk of data corruption, since many users will be using the system
to access the same documents, some of whom may be careless or deliberately tamper
with it.
6. Increased exposure to hackers which puts private data at risk
7. There is a greater risk from viruses, because they are easily spread between the
computers that are part of the LAN.
8. A break in the communication channel can stop the entire network.
9. Information theft refers to someone stealing personal or confidential information from
others.
10. Access to pornography through networks leads to immorality.
11. Phishing, is a mail where a user is tricked into entering his/her username and password
to a fake website.
12. Pharming, is the term where hackers redirect Internet traffic from one website to
different identical-looking site in order to trick you into entering your username and
password into their database of their fake site.
13. E-mail spam, unsolicited e-mails (ones sent without being asked for).

Factors /Parameters of a good network:

1. Consistence/ reliability parameter: this describes the predictability of the network
2. Flexibility: this defines networks ability to grow or change with minimal disturbances
to the users and applications
3. Recovery parameter: it should be very easy to restore the network to its operational
level following any failure
4. Performance: this is measured in terms of network through-put and response time.
Through-put is equivalent to workload per unit of time, whereas response time is the
rate at which the CPU interprets commands to the user
5. Security parameter: this describes restrictions to access information from the
network, and limitation to the network spasm and hackers/ crackers.

Wireless local area network (WLAN)

 A WLAN is a network that provides wireless network communication in a small
geographical area using high frequency radio signals or infrared light beams or
microwave or Bluetooth to communicate between the workstations and other
devices.

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 Clients communicate with the access point using a wireless network adapter similar
in function to a traditional Ethernet adapter.
 A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices using a wireless
distribution method (spread-spectrum).
 The wireless LAN network devices include; Wireless network adaptors, wireless
access points, wireless bridges, wireless routers, and antennae.

Advantages of a wireless network

1. Cost reduces because there is no need to buy and lay cables.
2. Work is reduced for setting up the network because there are no cables involved.
3. It enables usage of a variety of devices on network such as personal digital
assistants (PDA), blackberry devices, and other cell phones.
4. It enhances mobility and flexibility of a network due to ability to move devices without
the restriction of cables for example, mobile phones and laptops.
5. Fast data transfer rates are possible where there are no environmental obstacles.
6. It also allows an organisation to offer visitors wireless internet access or hot-desk or
hotspot facilities.
7. Wireless technology makes it easy to set up temporary network installations. These
situations include any temporary department set up for a specific purpose that soon
will be torn down or relocated.
8. Wireless technology is becoming cheaper and affordable over time

Disadvantages of a wireless network

1. Poor security of data on a wireless network, outsiders can easily log on an
unsecured wireless network.
2. They are slower than LANs using cabling
3. They are prone to electrical interference from lights and radios
4. They are Subject to obstructions such as walls.
5. Wireless access points and WI-FI technology in general have a limited
spectrum/range. Signal strength decreases as the range increases.

Wi-Fi or WiFi (Wireless Fidelity) is a technology that allows electronic devices to connect to a
wireless LAN (WLAN) network. You can use WiFi to access the internet on your phone, tablet
or laptop, rather than your 4G or mobile connection.
The term hotspot is used to define an area where WiFi access is available.

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Revision Questions
Qn. What are differences between WAN and LAN, WLAN and LAN
Differences between WAN and LAN
LAN stands for Local Area Network and WAN stands for Wide Area Network
LAN covers a small area while WAN covers a significantly larger area
LAN speeds are also significantly faster than WAN.
LAN is more secure than WAN due to fear of viruses or hacking.
WAN is much more expensive to implement than a LAN.
A WAN consists of more than one LANs.

Differences between WLAN (Wireless Local Area Networks) and LAN

LAN is commonly used in fixed networks while WLAN is common in areas where computers
are moved quite often.
WLAN is more convenient to users as compared to LAN as you can easily get connected to it
if you are within range.
LAN has much faster data transfer speed as compared to WLAN.
LAN is more secure as compared to WLAN as it is less vulnerable to hackers.
LAN is a wired network whereas WLAN is a wireless network and you do not need to buy
expensive cables for it.

Qn. State any three tasks carried out by a network administrator.

 Installation of new hardware and software on the network
 Managing network traffic
 Testing new network hardware and software
 Advises the organization on items to buy for the network
 Configures the network and provides network usernames and passwords
Qn. I downloaded MP3s of my favourite pop group from the internet. What
software is used to play it on my Pc?
(i) Windows media player (ii) Power DVD
(iii) VCL player (iv) GOM player
Qn. State any two factors that influence the speed access to the network Bandwidth
 Number of computers connected to the network
 Type of network media used
 Network topology
 Location of your computers on the network.

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NETWORK TOPOLOGY
 Topology is the physical and logical arrangement of a local area network.
 The physical topology of a network refers to the physical arrangement of cables,
computers, and other peripheral devices in relation to each other on a network.
 Logical topology is the method used to pass information between workstations on a
network.

Types of physical Network topologies

 Bus network topology
 Ring network topology
 Star network topology
 Mesh network topology
 Hybrid topology

Bus topology or linear bus topology

Bus network topology is one that consists of a main, central cable known as the backbone
with a terminator at each end of it, and all devices on the network are connected to the
main/central cable.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 It is less expensive than a star topology due to less cabling, only needs one main
cable and no network hubs.
 It is good for smaller networks not requiring higher speeds.
 It has a high transmission speed if coaxial cable is used.
 It is easy to add new workstations on the network.

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 Multiple servers can be used.

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a bus.

Disadvantages of Bus network

 It is Limited in size and speed.
 The entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Difficult to troubleshoot. It is difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts
down.
 It is less secure since all data is transmitted down one main cable.
 Transmission slows down as more work stations are added.
 If the main cable fails, then all workstations are affected.

Ring topology
 This is a topology where all devices on the network are connected to one another in
the shape of a closed loop, so that each device is connected directly to two other
devices, one on either side of it to form a ring. Each data packet is sent around the
ring until it reaches its final destination.

Advantages of ring topology

 It is a Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit.
A Token is a special packet that contains data and acts as a messenger/carrier
between each computer and device on a ring topology.

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Each computer must wait for the token to stop at its node before it can send data
over the network so as to avoid collision of data packets on the network.
 It performs better than a star topology under heavy network load.
 Can create much larger network using Token Ring.
 It is Cheaper to install than star network as there is only one cable between each
workstation.
 High speed can be achieved as each workstation can boast the signal.

Disadvantages of a Ring network

 One malfunctioning workstation or bad port in the central hub can create problems
for the entire network
 Moves, additions and changes of devices affects the entire network.
 Network adapter cards are expensive.
 It is much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load
 Less secure than star network as data pass through a number of workstations before
reaching its destination.

Star topology
A star topology is designed with each device/node (file server, workstations, and peripherals)
connected directly to a central network hub or switch.
Data on a star network passes through the hub or switch before continuing to its destination.
The hub or switch manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a
repeater for the data flow.

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Advantages of Star topology

 It is suited for large networks.
 It is easy to expand the network without negatively affecting it.
 If one cable or station fails, the entire network is not affected.
 It is easy to install, maintain and troubleshoot because the problem usually isolates
itself. That is, it’s easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
 Cabling types can be mixed to maximize efficiency.
 Greater security as connection from one station to server is unique.
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 High speed transmission is possible since each station has a dedicated cable.

Disadvantages of Star topology

 Breakdown of the switch/Hub becomes a single point of network failure.
 It’s expensive to set up due to increased cabling costs and the need for a switch or
hub.
 Mass of cables around in case of a large network.
 If the cable fails the workstation cannot receive data via any other route.
 The server can get congested as all communication must pass through it.
 Requires more cable length than a bus topology.
 If the hub or switch fails, nodes attached are disabled.

Hybrid Topology
 Hybrid Topology is a network that has two or more different types of physical
topologies connected to each other to form a complete network. There are many
different combinations that can be created such as bus plus Star.
 A hybrid topology is easier to connect to other computers than some other
topologies.
 Also the hybrid topology has a faster connection.

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Mesh topology
 This is a network where each device has its own connections to all other devices on
the network. It provides each device with a point-to-point connection to every other
device in the network.

Advantages of mesh topology

 No traffic problem as there are dedicated links.
 Robust as failure of one link does not affect the entire system.
 Better Security as data travels along a dedicated line.
 Points to point links make fault identification easy.

Disadvantages of mesh topology

 It is the most expensive and difficult to maintain topology because each device has a
point-to-point connection to every other device.
 Installation is complex as each node is connected to every node

Summary chart
Physical Topology Common Cable Common Protocol

Linear Bus Twisted pair, Coaxial, fiber Ethernet, LocalTalk

Star Twisted pair, Fiber Ethernet, LocalTalk

Star-Wired Ring Token Ring, Ethernet

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THE INTERNET & WORLD WIDE WEB

Internet is:
 a global connection of computers and Local Area Networks (LAN) sharing resources,
data and information.
 a network of computers connected by telephone lines, cables, or satellite radio links,
sharing resources and data globally
 a worldwide system of interconnected computer network.

Intranet
An intranet is:
 a network that works like the Internet but is only available within a particular
organisation, not to the public.
 a network within an organization used to share company resources and information
amongst employees and departments.
An intranet may have web pages used to share company’s specific data within that company,
such as internal telephone numbers or details of employee benefits.

Extranet
An extranet is a private network that uses internet protocols to share data of a particular
organisation with selected outside users such as the clients of the company or subsidiaries of
a company.

Differences between an Intranet and Internet

1. Intranet is private while Internet is public.
2. Intranet has geographical boundaries while internet has no boundaries.
3. Intranet only shares company information while Internet has all sorts of information
4. Intranet is single source information while Internet is multisource information.
5. Intranet is controlled by an organisation while there is no control over the Internet.
NB: The three terms Internet, Intranet and Extranet refer to collection of computer networks
but differ in terms of characteristics and restriction of access.

Different Internet Communication Software

 Microsoft Outlook
 Lotus notes for e-mail
 Web mail
 Eudora light

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Basic Internet Connection requirements

To connect to the Internet, the following are needed:
 A computer; (high memory/ processor, client and host computer to receive, edit, keep,
maintain and distribute data at any time).
 Telephone line (cable being the exception) or satellite facility
 Modem and/or router
 An ISP (Internet Service Provider)
 Communication software (web browser), eg Internet Explorer, Firefox, Google
Chrome, Safari, Opera, etc.

Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

ISPs is an organization which provide access to the Internet. Commonly used ISPs include
Sky, Virgin and BT but there are many more. In Uganda, ISPs include MTN, UTL, Orange
(Aricell) Airtel, etc.

The services an ISP can provide include:

1) Internet access- internet connectivity.
2) Domain name registration
3) Web hosting
4) Provide network security
5) Network servicing and maintenance
6) Electronic mail services
7) Offer system analysis and consultancy

Factors to consider when choosing ISP

1. Speed of the modem/internet
2. Customer service support
3. Cost for different packages
4. Offer of spam blocking features
5. Experience for both ISP and client
6. Auxiliary services offered by the ISP e.g. E-mail/ telephone SMS facility
7. Availability of online help
8. Compatibility of ISP ware with your operating system e.g. windows Vs Linux Vs Wang

Internet connectivity can be through;

Dial-up Internet connectivity (requires a telephone line)
Wireless connectivity

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There are three types of public Internet access points;

Hot spots,
Mobile wireless networks,
Cybercafes.

A hot spot is a wireless network that provides Internet connections to mobile computers and
other devices e.g. Bluetooth. Bluetooth is a communications technology that uses radio waves
to transmit data between two devices. Many devices such as phones are Bluetooth-enabled,
which means they contain a small chip that allow them to communicate with other Bluetooth-
enabled computers and devices.
Mobile wireless networks provide users with high-speed wireless Internet connections as long
as they are in the network's range and have built-in wireless capabilities.
A cybercafe, or Internet cafe, is a building or room that provides personal computers with
Internet access to its customers.

Implications of using Internet

Advantages
1. Offers personal connectivity for friends and fanciers through E-mails, E-collaboration
and chat-rooms, online telephone calls, voice mails, video phones etc.
2. It is a tool for entertainment; online games, clubs, online chats refreshing video clips
(movies), animals’ zoos etc
3. It is a source of important electronic programs/ applications through downloading of
freeware, shareware and other programs
4. Offer travel services like E-Booking and reservations for aviation firms and hotels, to
business travelers and holiday makers
5. Offers education and research facilities for either academic or knowledge enrichment;
E-publishing and E-learning have greatly improved distance learning
6. Multimedia; offers audio and video services
7. Offers Banking services for online banking institutions, and electronic funds transfers
(EFT) e.g Western Union, Cyber cash, ATMs, and Credit Card facilities are in this
category
8. Offers news updates (Information retrieval) for politics, social events, climate and
weather, and sports
9. Online employment for job seekers through online employment agencies and firms
advertising jobs online
10. E-medicine where disease diagnosis and drug prescriptions are done online

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11. Telecommunication; through Internet connectivity and interactivity, one can now work
from home and communicate with the office through networked computers and
telephone facilities
12. A tool for transacting business though E-commerce or E-business where products can
be marketed (procured or shopped)
NB: E-Business needs a very secure, efficient and effective banking system.

Disadvantages (Flow Hazards or Security threats) of using Internet

1. Privacy violation of information interceptions
2. Agents of viruses/ malicious programs can destroy sensitive files/ folders
3. High cost implications for initial and maintenance costs
4. Pornography; it is a source of dangerous information on grounds of health and
morality.
5. Internet scams; where people are conned property and loss of life at times.
6. Spamming (unsolicited mails); sending unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no
purpose and obstruct the entire system.
7. Plagiarism; this is manifested in sites offering academic papers for either free or at a
cost and students just change the authors name to their own and present.

Advantages of using internet to do business

 Online shopping
 Facilitates communication
 Online advertising
 Online customer inquiry
 Electronic money transfer

Uses of Internet to do online shopping:

Advantages of online shopping
a) Saves the business man from the risks of accident that may arise out of movement
b) Saves the user from theft due holding large sums of money
c) It avails the buyer with a variety of goods
d) It is convenient since it operates 24/7
e) It eliminates the middlemen hence reduces charges

Disadvantages of online shopping

a) Exposes user credit details to hackers
b) Possibility of purchasing poor quality goods

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c) Sometimes goods may delay to reach the owner

d) Requires computer with internet connectivity
e) Requires elementary knowledge about use of computers and internet which is not
common to everyone

Uses of Internet as means of communication

 Companies use the Internet for electronic commerce, also called e-commerce,
including advertising, selling, buying, distributing products, and providing customer
service.
 Businesses and institutions use the Internet for voice and video conferencing and other
forms of communication that enable people to telecommute (work away from the office
using a computer).
 Media and entertainment companies run online news and weather services over the
Internet, distribute music and movies, and actually broadcast audio and video,
including live radio and television programs. File sharing services let individuals swap
music, movies, photos, and applications, provided they do not violate copyright
protections.
 Online chart allows people to carry on discussions using written text.
 Instant messaging enables people to exchange text messages; share digital photo,
video, and audio files; and play games in real-time.
 Scientists and scholars use the Internet to communicate with colleagues, perform
research, distribute lecture notes and course materials to students, and publish papers
and articles.
 Individuals use the Internet for communication, entertainment, finding information, and
buying and selling goods and services.
 The use of e-mail speeds communication between companies, among coworkers, and
among other individuals.

Use of the Internet as a learning tool

 Used to search for information using search engines and directories
 E-mail system is used in collaborative learning.
 Enables distance learning for those who are unable to attend collage/school physically.
 Discussions over educational chat rooms.
 Enables downloading of relevant documents.

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 Using computer assisted assessments (CAA) for online exams.

 Use of electronic libraries and textbooks.
 Development of skills of research and communication by the students.
 Assignment are received, done and sent across the network by the students.
 Video conferencing is used to share views and ideas among students and teachers.

Advantages of the internet in schools

1. A lot of information is obtained which is not available in a single textbook.
2. Updated or current information is obtained since internet is dynamic.
3. Learning is fun and easy as internet is exciting due to the multimedia content used.
4. It offers different sources of information hence a variety of opinions on a topic.
5. It is a quick way of getting information where internet connection is good.
6. It encourages group work through collaboration therefore sharing of information and
experience among students and teachers.
7. Related topics are easily accessed through hyperlinks.
8. Students are able to attend virtual classes.
9. Different skills such as typing, use of web browsers, problem solving, e-mail are
developed through the use of the Internet.
10. Instant or timely communication is done by use of the E-mail system.
11. Shopping for item such as books is made easy and less expensive.

Disadvantages of the Internet in schools

1. No Information control over the Internet such that all sorts of bad information is
accessed.
2. There is no privacy of information and information piracy is common.
3. Indecent (offensive, unsuitable) material is published on the Internet.
4. It’s not readily available to most people.
5. It is expensive to access, drains school resources.
6. Time is lost where Internet speed is low due to poor links, hardware and congestion.
7. Some sites give outdated therefore misleading information because they are not
regularly updated.
8. Time wasting occurs when students easily stray (lose their way) into non-essential
materials.
9. Many Internet sites have been commercialized therefore emphasize adverts and
selling such that less free academic content is given.

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10. Computer viruses are easily spread over the Internet.

11. Difficult to obtain information relevant to a particular level of a student.
12. It is possible to obtain contradictory information.
13. Many students and teachers do not have adequate skills of accessing the Internet.

Possible solutions to Internet issues

1. Use of firewalls against illegal access to networks
2. Use of updated antivirus software against viruses
3. Use of anti-spyware against hackers.
4. Carefully choosing an ISP who will provide the best service within your means.
5. Installing filters against pornographic and other undesirable content.
6. Use of encryption software to protect sensitive information and prevent fraud.
7. Use of complicated passwords to restrict access to.
8. Use of digital certificates. This is a means of authenticating that an organisation is
genuine and that any transaction undertaken with it will be honoured. The certificate
contains the name of the organisation and a serial number registered with a
Certification authority who issues the certificate.

INTERNET COMMUNICATION SERVICES

Internet communication services include:
 E-mail  VoIP
 Mailing Lists  News groups
 Instant Messaging  Message boards
 Chat rooms  WWW

E-mail
Electronic mail (email) is the transmission of messages and files via computer networks.
Companies, individuals and institutions use it to facilitate communication among them.
An email program (software) is used to create, send, receive, forward, reply, print, delete and
store messages.

Advantages of electronic mails as means of communication

1. Reduces paper costs and irritation
2. Provides immediate delivery feedback
3. They offer provision for attachments

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4. Secured by passwords
5. E-mails can be conveniently sent to multiple recipients
6. By providing a list of senders and subjects one can prioritize on which messages to
read first
7. Sending is cheaper
8. There is a possibility of multimedia mails where they can be received as voice mails
and read aloud

Disadvantages of electronic mails as means of communication

1. Involves time consuming, sorting through lots of messages everyday
2. E-mails are not very private through tapings
3. System overloads can cause unnecessary delays.
4. Can attach a file containing a computer virus.
5. Sometimes, it takes time to upload and download.
6. It has a limited amount of data it can send.
7. Attachments are not good for certain types of data for example very large videos.
8. Recipients need relevant software to download it well and open e.g. Winrar, WinZip,

Disadvantages of attaching documents to an e-mail

1. Can attach a file containing a computer virus.
2. Sometimes, it takes time to upload and download.
3. It has a limited amount of data it can send.
4. Attachments are not good for certain types of data for example very large videos.
5. Attaching files takes very many steps to attach and download.
6. Recipients need relevant software to download it well and open e.g. Winrar, Winzip.

Mailing lists
List of names and addresses; also called distribution list, is a typically computerized list of
names and addresses to which advertising material or information can be mailed.

When a message is sent to a mailing list, every member on the list receives a copy of the
message in his/her mailbox.

Instant messaging
Internet text Messaging (IM): Instant messaging enables people to exchange text messages;
share digital photo, video, and audio files; and play games in real time.

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Chat Rooms: a chat is a real-time typed conversation that takes place on a computer. Real-
time means that you and the people with whom you are conversing are online at the same
time.

Internet Relay Chatting (IRC), is a virtual meeting place where people from all over the world
can meet and talk; you will find the diversity of human interests, ideas, etc and you will be able
to participate in group discussions on IRC channels.

VoIP
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), also called Internet telephony is a method for making
telephone calls over the Internet by sending voice data in separate packets, just as e-mail is
sent. To place an Internet telephone call, you need a high-speed Internet connection (e.g., via
DSL or cable modem); Internet telephone service; a microphone or telephone, depending on
the Internet telephone service; and Internet telephone software.

Newsgroups
Internet discussion group; also called Usenet, Newsgroups are ongoing discussion groups
among people on the Internet who share information and ideas on a defined topic through
electronic bulletin boards.

Message boards
Bulletin Board System is an electronic message centre, an online service that enables users
to post and read messages, converse, play games with one another, and copy, or download,
programs to their personal computers. Most bulletin boards serve specific interest groups.

Rights and responsibilities while using the Internet; Netiquette

Netiquette, which is short for Internet etiquette, is the code of acceptable behaviors users
should follow while communicating on the Internet. This includes respecting others, limiting
the use of capital letters (the online equivalent of shouting), keeping messages concise,
observing customs in newsgroups. People who do not behave properly may receive angry
messages called flames.

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Some of the Rules of Netiquette

IT CODE OF CONDUCT
1. Computers may not be used to harm other people
2. Employees may not interfere with others’ computer work
3. Employees may not meddle (interfere) in others’ computer files
4. Computers may not be used to steal
5. Computers may not be used to bear false witness
6. Employees may not copy or use software illegally
7. Employees may not use others’ computer resources without authorization
8. Employees may not use others’ intellectual property as their own
9. Employees shall consider the social impact of programs and systems they design
10. Employees always should use computers in a way that demonstrates consideration
and respect for fellow humans

The World Wide Web

Web publishing is the process involved in making information available on the World-Wide
Web.

Terminologies
1) Webpage
A web page is a unit of information often called a document that is available over the World
Wide Web. Web pages are created using HTML language. A web page can contain text,
hypertext link, images, video, audio, animation and sound.
2) Website
This is a collection of related documents or hyperlinked WebPages. e.g. Yahoo.com,
Bbc.com, Manu.com, Google.com etc.
The first page on a website is called homepage

Characteristics of a good web site

 It should be easy to navigate with well arranged, easy to see navigation buttons.
 Simple and clear layout of sections and content which makes it user friendly ie find
content easily.

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 It must be pleasing to the eye to encourage visitors to the site.

 It should load quickly to avoid disappointing potential visitors to the site.
 It should have readable font web safe eye pleasing colours so that visitors can
read the content easily.
 It should be interactive with contact information, possibility of e-mail, online
communication forum and chats. Message boards etc.
 Should have active links which enable visitors to access other references.
 Should be frequently updated and must have a dated of last update.
 The web pages must have web page titles and brief summaries about the page or
site

Functions of a website:
- Sharing of knowledge or information globally
- Presentation of information of interest
- Enhance communication and collaboration
- Skills building e.g. writing, editing, designing etc
- Trade purposes
- Pride of ownership/ improved corporate image
- Used for secure data and information storage
- Tool for research
- A source for great entertainment and leisure

Relevance of websites to schools in Uganda

1. It is used for communication purposes. The school can reach out to a wider audience
worldwide, for example, in school recruitment.
2. Used for mobilization of resources. The website can be used for resource mobilization as
it can reach out to a wide supporting audience.
3. For advertising purposes. The website can provide general information about the school.
4. The website can provide a forum for discussion of issues concerning the school using
blogs.
5. It can be used for teaching and learning in the following ways:
 The website can provide subject content notes to students.
 The website can present an opportunity for developing web designing technology skills
for students directly involved.
6. The school community can collaborate with other students worldwide for project based
learning.

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7. The website can provide a forum for students and teachers to collaborate with others
elsewhere.
8. The site can provide a forum for parents and alumni feedback.
9. It can work as a depository (store) where students’ achievement data is posted for easy
access by the stakeholders.
10. It can help teachers to collaborate with other teachers worldwide.
11. The site can be used to publish students and teachers work.

Types of websites:
The following are some of the types of websites:
a. Web portal: A portal is a web site which brings information together from various sources
in a uniform way. Usually, each information source gets its dedicated area on the page for
displaying information; it also offers different services like search, e-mail, online shopping
and others. Examples Yahoo, MSN, AOL etc.
b. Blog: A blog is a website that contains personal information which can easily be uploaded.
The word 'blog' is an abbreviation of 'web log'. A 'log' is a place where a list of information
is written down. Some blogs act as resumes, diary and may be used for business,
advocacy and campaigning purposes

c. Wiki: A wiki is a website that allows users to collaborate (work together) to create the
content. The pages of a wiki can be edited by everyone (or those who have the
password).
d. Multimedia sites e.g YouTube
Websites that allow users to create, upload and share photos, movies, videos, music, web
TV and internet radio. They are meant for entertainment
e. Social websites e.g Facebook, Twitter, Skype, Google Plus, etc
A social network website is a site that allows user to connect with other users who are
friends / relatives, or who share similar interests. Connected users can then share
information / pictures / files with each other, send messages, chat, etc.

Disadvantages of social networking websites

 They are addictive.
 They are not regarded as formal
 In case one forgets his/her password, signing in is not possible and this can lead to
loss of information.
 Social Networks may violate privacy in case someone else gets to know your user
password.

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 Misinterpretation: One has to be careful while posting any kind of information on social
networks. If typed in a hurry, the matter could be misinterpreted.
 Junk Messages: Social Networks are used to send a lot of unsolicited messages and
unwanted advertisements.

Content aggregator is an individual or organization that gathers web contents (and/or

sometimes applications) from different online sources for reuse or resale.

3) Web Server: Is a high speed and storage computer whose primary purpose is to provide
required information to computers on the World Wide Web.
4) Web Browser or Browser
A program (software) which makes it possible for computers to share resources or data
globally. To browse is also referred to as surfing the net (to explore or surf from one website
to another)

Examples of web browsers include:

- Netscape navigator - Ms Internet explorer - Mozilla Firefox
- Web surfer - Opera - Google Chrome
etc.
The browser sends request for information and displays information for the user.

5) Downloading and Uploading

Downloading is a process of copying files from one computer system to another, or to
secondary storage device.
Uploading is a process of transferring files from a computer system or secondary
storage device to another computer
6) Web Master Is a person who creates and manages the information and content, organizes
and maintains a website.
WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) implies a user interface that allows the user
to view something very similar to the end result while the document is being created.
7) HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) is a programming language/ program used to
design web pages and web sites.
As a standard tagging language or program, it helps in the creation and formation of links,
and other special handling of text, images, and objects in a web page so that a browser
can know how to display them.
8) TAG is an embedded HTML code that specifies formatting for text and graphics for their
proper display in a web browser e.g.
<Head> </Head>

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<Body> </Body> etc

9) Hyperlink is a text or graphic designed to provide links in a website or document. Once a

hyperlink is clicked, it takes you to a related document, graphic or file.
10) Gopher is a menu driven program that links many internet data banks (websites) into a
unified information service
11) Protocol refers to a set of rules (programs) that control the way communication is handled
across the internet (data exchange between the hardware and software)
Protocols include;
IP = Internet protocol: Are sets of rules which provide connection information delivery
between computer systems
TCP = Transmission Control Protocol: Are sets of rules that provide connection oriented
communications.
Protocols that suite TCP/IP include:
1. HTTP = Hypertext Transfer Protocol: used for sending and receiving web pages to and
from the sever.
2. HTTPS = Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure: used for encrypting/ securing any data
you send or receive from the web server.
3. FTP = File Transfer Protocol: used for transferring any kind of file to and from the web
server (or is a protocol used to download files from an Internet site to a user’s
computer).
4. SMTP = Simple Mail Transfer Protocol: used for transferring mail messages

Other protocols include;

SLIP = Serial Line Internet Protocol both are used for controlling network

12) PPP = Point-to-Point

TELNET: This is a Protocol trafficthat
terminal emulation protocol over a dial-up
allows you connection
to connect to remote
computers. Enables one to logon to a remote computer/ machine and use it.
13) Search engine: Is a program which allows web user to look for specific information or
document of interest on the WWW e.g. Alta vista, Google, Yahoo, Info-seek, Dog pile etc.
14) URL (Uniform Resource Locator) or Web Address
Is the address used to connect a particular website.
The URL usually has the following parts:
(a) Protocols – standards used to connect to the resources e.g hypertext transfer protocol
(http://) and file transfer protocol (ftp://)
(b) Domain name – name of the web server where the resource is located

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(c) Top-level domain (TLD) – designation for the site, usually separated by “dot” e.g
.com, .org, etc.
E.g. for URL: http://www.yahoo.com

http:// is mode of accessing the site (protocol)

www.yahoo.com is the domain name. It contains the server name to be accessed.
.com is the Top-level domain. Indicates a kind or company or organization being
accessed.

Top-level domains include:

.com for business companies / commercial companies
.net for internet service providers
.org for non-profit making organizations
.mil for military institutions
.gov for government agencies
.edu for education institutions such as Universities
.tv for mass-media broadcasting
.ug/.ca/.ke/.de/.au./.tz for country initials

Note: all URLs must be entered on a single line without spaces. This is entered in the
Address Text Box labeled Address on the location bar of the web Browser being used

15) Electronic Mail (E-Mail)

Is a simple message sent and received over the Internet/ WWW.
To create, receive and send an e-mail, a special e-mail software/ program is required such
as Microsoft Outlook express, Yahoo mail, GMail and Eudora.

In order for one to send and receive E-mail, he/she must have an E-mail account or
address.
Domain Name System (DNS)
Domain Name System (DNS) is a method of translating Internet addresses so that
computers connected in the Internet can find each other. A DNS name is written in
lowercase letters with words separated by periods, (e.g. [email protected]).
majid: is the Username or account number used to logon.
gmail: is the hostname (domain address) which is the name of the web server/computer
or Internet provider; it may consist of several parts.
@ (means at) sign: separates the username and hostname

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.com: (Top Level Domain) separated by a period “.” and indicates the type of
organization. For this case is a commercial organization

Therefore elements of an e-mail account include:

 Username which identifies your e-mail account
 Domain address/ name of the web server where the resource is located
 Top level domains; usually separated by “dot” e.g. .com, .net, .org, .edu, etc.
 @ (means at)sign between the user name and domain address
 Password, a secrete personal pin-code to avoid unauthorized access

Basic E-mail features

a) Inbox = lists the messages received
b) Outbox = lists the messages you have composed but not sent.
c) Sent = lists copies of all sent copies for reference purposes
d) Send = sends the message you have composed
e) Compose = activates the screen onto which a message to be sent is typeset
f) Attachment = helps you to attach other files and folders to accompany the composed
message
g) To = its where you typeset the E-mail address of the receiver
h) Subject = subject of the message
i) Carbon copy (Cc) = enables copies of the E-mail to be sent to a third party while
acknowledging other recipients. The recipient’s addresses do appear in the respective
header lines.
j) Blind carbon copy (Bcc) = enables copies of the E-mail to be sent to a third party
without acknowledging any other recipients.
Or BCC is a copy of an email message sent to a recipient whose email address does
not appear in the message.

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CLOUD COMPUTING

Cloud computing is:

 the delivery of hosted services over the Internet.
 the practice of storing regularly used computer data on remote servers that can be
accessed via the internet for easy update and retrieval.
The practice of cloud computing is based on using drawings of clouds to denote networks in
diagrams of computing and communications systems.

Why Cloud Computing?

 Reduction of costs – unlike on-site hosting the price of deploying applications in the cloud
can be less due to lower hardware costs from more effective use of physical resources.
 Universal access - cloud computing can allow remotely located employees to access
applications and work via the internet.
 Up to date software - a cloud provider will also be able to upgrade software keeping in
mind feedback from previous software releases.
 Choice of applications - This allows flexibility for cloud users to experiment and choose
the best option for their needs. Cloud computing also allows a business to use, access
and pay only for what they use, with a fast implementation time
 Potential to be greener and more economical - the average amount of energy needed
for a computational action carried out in the cloud is far less than the average amount for
an on-site deployment. This is because different organizations can share the same
physical resources securely, leading to more efficient use of the shared resources.
 Disaster recovery: Cloud computing provides data recovery in case of disaster for an
organization.
 Flexibility – cloud computing allows users to switch applications easily and rapidly, using
the one that suits their needs best. However, migrating data between applications can be
an issue.

The concept of cloud computing is to provide easy, scalable access to computing resources
and IT services.
It involves the sharing of resources, services and infrastructure and can often be very cost
effective.

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Relevance/advantages of cloud computing

1. It provides free storage space
2. It avails information where you are provided you have internet
3. It safeguards data from getting lost due to disk crash
4. It provides a backup storage
5. Reduces cost in terms of hardware requirements for storage

Characteristics of cloud computing

Characteristics of cloud services that differentiate them from traditional hosting include:
 They are sold on demand, typically by the minute or the hour;
 They are elastic — a user can have as much or as little of a service as they want at
any given time;
 services are fully managed by the provider , so the consumer only needs a personal
computer and Internet access

COMPUTER SYSTEM SECURITY

A computer security risk is any event or action that could cause a loss or damage to computer
hardware, software, data, or information.
Any illegal act involving a computer is generally referred to as a computer crime.
Cybercrime refers to online or Internet-based illegal acts.

Common computer risks

Some of the more common computer security risks include
 Computer viruses
 Unauthorized access and use of computer systems
 Hardware theft and software theft
 Information theft and information privacy
 System failure

Computer viruses
A virus is a program that copies itself into other programs and spreads through multiple
computers.
Viruses are often designed to affect, or infect, a computer negatively by altering the way it
normally works without the knowledge or permission of the owner.

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The spread of computer viruses is accelerated by the increased use of networks, Internet, and
e-mail.

Viruses are activated in three basic ways:

 Opening an infected file
 Running an infected program
 Starting up the computer with an infected floppy disk

Precautions to prevent virus infection include

1. Ensure that the e-mail is from a trusted source before opening or executing any e-mail
attachment.
2. Install an antivirus utility and update its virus definitions frequently for detecting and
removing viruses.
3. Never start up a computer with a floppy disk in the floppy drive.
4. Scan all floppy disks and files for possible virus infection before opening them.
5. Set the security level for macros in an application so that the user can choose whether
or not to run potentially unsafe macros.
6. Write-protect the recovery disk before using it.
7. Back up important files regularly.

Symptoms of a virus attack

1. The computer runs slower than usual.
2. The computer stops responding, or it locks up frequently.
3. The computer restarts on its own.
4. Applications on the computer do not work correctly.
5. Disks or disk drives are inaccessible.
6. You see unusual or strange error messages.
7. New icons appear on the desktop that you did not put there, or the icons are not
associated with any recently installed programs.
8. Strange sounds or music plays from the speakers unexpectedly.
9. A program disappears from the computer even though you did not intentionally
uninstall it
10. It shuts down unexpectedly or crashes frequently.
11. It experiences memory problems or runs out of disc space.
12. Unusual files or directories appear on your system.

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Computer worms
A computer worm is a self-replicating computer program. It uses a network to send copies of
itself to other nodes (computer terminals on the network) without any user intervention.
Unlike a virus, it does not need to attach itself to an existing program. Worms always cause
harm to the network by consuming bandwidth and memory.

Unauthorized access

 Unauthorized access is the use of a computer or network without permission.

 A cracker, or hacker, is someone who tries to access a computer or network illegally.
 Some hackers break into a computer for the challenge. However, others use or steal
computer resources or corrupt a computer's data.
 Unauthorized use is the use of a computer or its data for unapproved or possibly illegal
activities.
Examples of unauthorized use of computers include
 An employee using a company computer to send personal e-mail.
 Someone gaining access to a bank computer and performing an unauthorized transfer.
 One way to prevent unauthorized access and unauthorized use of computers is to
utilize access controls.

Access control
An access control is a security measure that defines who can access a computer, when the
users can access the computer, and what actions the users can take while accessing the
computer.

Access control is normally implemented using a two-phase process:

 Identification verifies whether the user is a valid one.
 Authentication verifies that the user is really the one he or she claims to be.

Four methods of identification and authentication exist, which include:

 User names and passwords
 Possessed objects
 Biometric devices
 Callback system

Most multi-user operating systems require a user to enter the correct user name and password
before accessing the data, information, and programs stored on a computer or network. Many

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other systems that maintain financial, personal, and other confidential information also require
a user name and password as part of their logon procedure.
Some systems assign the user names and even passwords to their users, but some systems
allow their users to choose their own user names and passwords.

Biometric devices
 A biometric device authenticates a person's identity by verifying personal
characteristics (e.g., fingerprints).
 It translates a personal characteristic into a digital code that is compared with a digital
code stored in the computer.

Examples of biometric devices include

1. A fingerprint scanner, which captures curves and indentations of a fingerprint.
2. A hand geometry system, which can measure the shape and size of a person's hand.
3. A face recognition system, which captures a live face image and compares it with a
stored image.
4. A voice recognition system, which compares a person's live speech with their stored
voice pattern.
5. A signature verification system, which recognizes the shape of handwritten
signature of a person.
6. An iris recognition system, which reads patterns in the tiny blood vessels in the back
of the eye, which are as unique as a fingerprint.

Advantages of biometric devices include

 Personal characteristics are unique and cannot be forgotten or misplaced.
Disadvantages of biometric devices include
 Most of the biometric devices are expensive.
 A fingerprint scanner might reject a legitimate user if the user cuts his or her finger.
 Hand geometry readers can transmit germs.
 A signature might not match the one on file when the person is nervous.
 A voice recognition system might reject a legitimate user with a sore throat.

Hardware theft
Hardware theft is the act of stealing computer equipment.
The act of defacing or destroying computer equipment is known as hardware vandalism.

Precautions to prevent hardware theft include:

1. Use physical access controls, such as locked doors, and windows.

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2. Use cables to lock the equipment to desk, cabinet, or floor.

3. Install alarm systems for additional security.
4. Never leave a notebook computer or handheld computer unattended in a public place.
5. Use passwords, possessed objects, and biometrics as a method of security.
6. Back up all the files stored on the computer regularly.

Two common forms of software theft are

 Physically stealing media (e.g., floppy disk, or CD-ROM) that contains software.
 Software piracy, which is the most common form of software theft.

Software piracy
Software piracy refers to the unauthorized and illegal duplication of copyrighted software.
Software piracy is the most common form of software theft.
Purchasing software only provides a consumer with a license agreement, or the right to use
the software.

Risks of software piracy include

 Increase the chance of spreading computer viruses.
 No technical support for the software can be received.
 Drive up the software cost for all legal users.

Information theft
Information theft refers to someone who steals personal or confidential information from
others.
Reasons for information theft include:
A company wants to learn about a competitor.
An individual steals credit card numbers to make fraudulent purchases.

Preventions for information theft include

 Implement access control to computers and networks.
 Use encryption techniques.
Encryption is the process of converting readable data into unreadable characters to
prevent unauthorized access. The unencrypted, readable data is called plaintext.
The encrypted data is called ciphertext.
Data is encrypted by converting the plaintext into ciphertext using a password or an
encryption key.
To read the data again, it must be decrypted into a readable form.

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An encryption key is a formula that the recipient of the data uses to decrypt ciphertext.
Two basic types of encryption are private key and public key.
 Information privacy refers to the right of individuals or organizations to deny or restrict
the collection and use of information about them.

System failure
A system failure is a prolonged malfunction of a computer that can also cause hardware,
software, data, or information loss.
Common causes of system failure include
 Old hardware
 Natural disaster (e.g., fires, floods, storms, or earthquakes)
 Electrical power variation

Measures to avoid system failure

 Files should be backed up regularly to prevent against data loss caused by a system
failure.
 A surge protector can be used to protect computer equipment against under voltage
and over voltage.
 Many users also connect an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) to the computer for
additional electrical protection.

Computer ethics
Computer ethics are the moral guidelines that govern the use of computers and information
systems.
Frequently concerned areas of computer ethics are:
 Unauthorized access and use of computer systems
 Software piracy
 Information privacy
 Information accuracy
 Intellectual property rights
 Codes of conduct

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Code of conduct
A code of conduct is a written guideline that helps determine whether a specific action is ethical
or unethical.
Sample IT Codes of Conduct
 Computers may not be used to harm other people.
 Users may not interfere with other's computer work.
 Users may not meddle in other's computer files.
 Computers may not be used to steal.
 Computers may not be used to bear false witness.
 Users may not copy or use software illegally.
 Users may not use other's computer resources without authorization.
 Users may not use other's output.
 Users shall consider the social impact of programs and systems they design.
 Users should always use computers in a way that demonstrates consideration and
respect for other people.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN COMPUTING

Information technology (IT) is the combination of computer and communication technologies

to process data into information.
Information and Communication Technology -
(ICT) The study of the technology used to handle information and aid communication.

THERE ARE MANY JOBS IN THE COMPUTING INDUSTRY.

Computer Trainer
1. Train people on how to use a computer and the various application programs
2. Developing training reference materials
3. Guiding learners on how to acquire knowledge through carrying out research
4. Advising the learners on the best career opportunities in ICT
5. Preparing learners for ICT examinations

Webmaster
1. Developing and testing websites
2. Maintaining, updating and modifying information on websites
3. Monitoring access and use of the internet connection

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4. Downloading information needed by the organization from internet websites

Computer Operator
1. Entering data into a computer for processing
2. Keeping up-to-date records of all information processing activities

Computer Technician
1. Troubleshooting computer hardware and software related problems
2. Assembling and upgrading computers and their components
3. Ensuring that computer accessories like printers are in good condition
4. Help engineers to develop some computer components such as motherboards

Systems Analyst
A computer system analyst is a person who is responsible for examining company needs or
problems then designs and develops a computer based information system.
Does the following:
1. Reviews the current manual system
2. Works with programmers to construct and test the system
3. Coordinating training for the new system

Computer programmer
1. Writes in house applications or system programs.
2. Customize commercial application package to suit the needs.
3. Test, debug, install and maintain programs developed.

Software Engineer
1. Developing system and application software.
2. Developing user and technical documentations for the new software.
3. Maintaining and updating the software to meet day to day requirements while overcoming
challenges.

Computer Engineer
1. Design and develop computer components like storage devices.
2. Determine the electrical power requirements of each computer component.
3. Re-engineer computer components to enhance their functionality and efficiency.
4. Design and develop engineering and manufacturing computer controlled devices.

Information Systems manager

1. Making sure that all tasks in the ICT department are done correctly.
2. Preparing budgets for the department.

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3. Keeping the department inventory records up-to-date.

4. Managing the human resource within the department.

Database Administrator
1. Designs and develops database applications for the organization.
2. Sets up security measures needed to control access to data and information.
3. Keeps the database up-to-date by adding new records, modifying or deleting unnecessary
records.

Network Administrator
1. Setting up computer networks
2. Maintaining and enforcing security measures on the networks
3. Monitoring the use of network resources
4. Maintaining and troubleshooting network related problems

Jobs a Sub-ICT Student can do

1. Writing CDs
2. Music mixing
3. Internet café management
4. Video editing
5. Computer secretarial bureau
6. Computer vendor or dealer
7. Digital money transfer dealing
8. Teaching computer science
9. Computer servicing and repair
10. Advert designer

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Revision Questions

Communications and Networking, Internet and the World Wide Web

1. How is analog signal different from digital signal? Give one example for each of
these signals.
 An analog signal consists of a continuous electrical wave that varies within a
predefined range. e.g., Human speech
 A digital signal consists of individual electrical pulses that represent the bits
grouped together into bytes. e.g., Signals generated by a personal computer
2. Give two advantages of digital signals over analog signals.
1) Digital signals can be copied exactly without any loss of quality.
2) Digital signals can be directly processed by a computer.
3. Describe briefly the functions of a modem for transmitting data between two
computers through a standard telephone line.
 The modem of the sending computer converts digital signals into analog signals
so that the signals can be transmitted through the telephone line.
 The modem of the receiving computer converts analog signals picked up from the
telephone line back into digital signals so that the signals can be understood by
the computer.
4. What is modulation and demodulation?
Modulation is the process of converting digital signals into analog signals, while
demodulation is the process of converting analog signals into digital signals.
5. Give two advantages of using a computer fax modem over using a stand-alone fax
machines.
1) Allows a user to store received faxes on the computer.
2) Received faxes can be e-mailed to others.
6. Give one advantage and one disadvantage for each of the following transmission
media:
a) Twisted pair cable
b) Coaxial cable
c) Optical fibre
d) Microwave
e) Satellite
7. Name two kinds of physical transmission media and two kinds of wireless
transmission media.

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Physical transmission media:

1) Twisted-pair wire
2) Coaxial cable
Wireless transmission media:
1) Microwave
2) Satellite
8. Give two advantages and two disadvantages of networking. Suggest one way to
transfer files without using a network.
Advantages:
1) Reduce cost by sharing hardware, software, data, and information.
2) Facilitates communications among people working within the network.

Disadvantages:
1) The hardware, software, and expertise required to set up a network can be
expensive.
2) Networks are vulnerable to security problems.
Floppy disk or other removable media can be used to transfer files between computers
without using a network.
9. Describe briefly the difference between a local area network (LAN) and a wide area
network (WAN). Give one example application for each of these networks.
 A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers in a limited
geographic area. e.g., A network inside a school computer laboratory.
 A wide area network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographic area. e.g.,
A network that connects the district offices of an enterprise across the country or
across several counties in the world.
10. How is peer-to-peer network different from client/server network, considering how
data and information are accessed?
Each computer on a peer-to-peer network can share the hardware, data, or information
located on any other computer on the network.
A client/server network has one or more computers acting as a server while the other
computers (i.e., clients) on the network can request services (e.g., access hardware,
data, or information) from the server.
11. State four tasks that are normally carried out by a network operating system (NOS).
1) Administration of system users and monitoring security on network resources.
2) System maintenance tasks such as files backup.
3) File management tasks such as deleting files.

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4) Prioritizing print jobs on the network.

12. Suggest two ways to improve the bottleneck of data transmission on a network.
1) Compress files before transmission.
2) Use faster communications media or devices.
13. What is a communication protocol? Which protocol is used as the Internet
communication standard?
A communications protocol is a set of rules and procedures for exchanging information
among computers on a network.
The TCP/IP (Transmission control protocol/Internet protocol) is a set of protocols
widely used on the Internet.
14. Describe briefly how TCP/IP works.
TCP/IP manages the transmission of data by breaking it up into packets. It then
provides routing information for sending the packets along the fastest available path
to the recipient's computer, and then reassembles the data at the receiving end.
15. What is Ethernet? State two advantages of using Ethernet for networking.
Ethernet is a LAN protocol that allows personal computers to contend for access to the
network.
Advantages of Ethernet:
1) Easy to install and maintain.
2) Inexpensive.
16. Describe briefly the difference between simplex, half-duplex, and duplex
transmission. Give one example for each of these transmission types.
 In simplex transmission, data flow only in one direction—from the sending device
to the receiving device. e.g., Fire alarm systems, radio broadcasting, TV
 In half-duplex transmission, data can flow in either direction—from the sending
device to the receiving device, and back—but only in one direction at a time. e.g.,
Fax machines
 In full-duplex transmission, data can flow in both directions at the same time. e.g.
a regular telephone line
17. How is a dial-up line different from a leased line? Give one advantage and one
disadvantage for each of these lines.
 A dial-up line is a temporary connection that uses one or more analog telephone
lines for communications.
 A leased line is a dedicated line leased from a telephone or communications
service company.

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Advantages Disadvantages
Dial-up line Costs no more than making a regular The user cannot control the quality of the
telephone call. connection company's switching office
randomly selects the line for connection.
Leased line Better quality and consistency of More expensive.
connection.

18. Describe briefly how broadband transmission is different from base band
transmission. Give two examples of broadband transmission applications.
Base band transmission transmits only one signal at a time while broadband
transmission can transmit multiple signals simultaneously.
Example applications of broadband transmission:
1) Download music and movies from the Internet.
2) Play online games.
19. Describe briefly the functions for each of the following communication devices:
a) Hub e) Bridge
b) Switch f) Gateway
c) Multiplexer g)Router
d) Repeater

a) A hub provides a central point for cables in a network.

b) A switch allows the network manager to connect certain workstations to specific
servers.
c) A multiplexer combines two or more input signals from various devices into a single
stream of data and then transmits it over a single transmission medium.
d) A repeater accepts a signal from a transmission medium, amplifies it, and retransmits
it over the medium.
e) A bridge connects two LANs using the same protocol, such as the Ethernet.
f) A gateway is a combination of hardware and software that connects networks that
use different protocols.
g) A router is an intelligent communications device that sends (routes) communications
traffic to the appropriate network using the fastest available path.

20. Name four kinds of communications software.

1) E-mail software
2) Web browser

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3) Chat room software

4) Newsreader
21. How is a chat room different from a newsgroup?
A chat room is a live conversation but a newsgroup is not.
22. Give two advantages of e-mail over ordinary postal mail. Give two advantages of
postal mail over e-mail.

Advantages of e-mail over postal mail:

1) Can be picked up anywhere in the world.
2) Very cheap to send and very quick delivery.

Advantages of postal mail over e-mail:

1) Packets and parcels can be sent.
2) It does not require any special equipment.
23. Give two advantages of e-mail over telephone call. Give two advantages of
telephone call over e-mail.

Advantages of e-mail over telephone call:

1) Computer files can be attached to an e-mail.
2) Can be sent at any time to suit the sender.

Advantages of telephone call over e-mail:

1) Tone of voice helps communication.
2) Immediate contact and feedback.
24. For the e-mail address [email protected], which part is the user name, and
which part is the domain name?
aringass is the user name, and yahoo.com is the domain name.
25. Suggest two advantages of using e-mail through the intranet within an office
environment.
1) Files can be attached to e-mail for sending.
2) Environmental protection by saving paper and ink.
26. Give two advantages of videoconferencing. Name two peripherals that must be
added to a desktop computer in order to conduct videoconferencing.
Advantages:
1) Can be conducted with participants locating at different parts of the world.
2) Save participant’s time and money to travel for the meeting.

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Additional peripheral required:

1) Video camera
2) Microphone
27. Give one advantage of Internet telephony over traditional telephone call. Name two
hardware devices that must be required to conduct Internet telephony.

Advantage:
Internet telephony allows a user to talk to others for just the cost of the Internet
connection.

Additional hardware required:

1) Microphone
2) Sound card
28. Give four examples of information that can be obtained from the Internet.
1) News
2) Sports results
3) Stock prices
4) Weather reports
29. State four reasons why people want to access the Internet.
1) To search for different kinds of information.
2) To shop for goods and services.
3) Listen to music and watch movies.
4) Communicate with other people.
30. State four kinds of services that are provided by the Internet.
1) E-mail
2) World Wide Web (WWW)
3) File transfer
4) Newsgroup
31. Describe briefly the meaning of IP address and domain name, and how they are
related.
 An IP (Internet protocol) address is a number that uniquely identifies each
computer or device connected to the Internet.
 A domain name (e.g., www.csklsc.net) is the text version of an IP address (e.g.,
216.200.47.93).
32. What is the difference between DNS and DNS server?

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 The domain name system (DNS) is the system on the Internet that stores the
domain names and their corresponding IP address.
 The DNS server translates the domain name into its associated IP address, so that
data can route to the correct computer.
33. What is HTML? How does it related to the Internet technology?
HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language, which is a set of special codes that
format a file for use as a Web page on the Internet. The codes, also known as tags,
specify how text and other elements display in a browser and where the links lead.
34. What is URL? How does it related to the Internet technology?
The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is the unique address of a Web page. It tells the
browser where to locate the Web page on the Internet.
35. How is HTTP different from FTP?
 HTTP stands for hypertext transfer protocol, which is the standard that enables
pages to transfer on the Web.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is an Internet standard that allows users to upload and
download files with other computers.
36. How is Internet different from WWW?
 The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks linked together. It is the largest
wide area network (WAN) in the world.
 The World Wide Web (WWW) is only one of the most popular services available
on the Internet.
37. For the URL http://www.aringass.com/it/notes.htm,
a) What does http represent?
b) What is the domain name?
c) What is the top-level domain (TLD)?
d) What is the path?

a) HTTP stands for hypertext transfer protocol, which is the standard that enables
pages to transfer on the Web.
b) www.aringass.com is the domain name.
c) .com is the top-level domain.
d) it/notes.htm is the path.

38. Describe briefly the following terms:

a) Web page c) Home page
b) Web site d)Hyperlink

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a) A Web page is an electronic document on the Web.

b) A Web site is a collection of Web pages.
c) The home page is the index page of a Web site. It is also the default Web page
loaded when the Web site is entered.
d) A hyperlink, also called a link, is a built-in connection to another related Web page
or part of a Web page.
39. How is intranet different from Internet?
The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks linked together. It is the largest wide
area network (WAN) in the world.
Intranet is a small version of the Internet used within an organization.
40. Give two advantages of Web publishing over traditional publishing.

Advantages of Web publishing:

1) Save paper and money for printing.
2) Contents can be updated whenever changes have been made.
41. What is a search engine? Describe briefly how to operate a search engine.
 A search engine is a software program that can be used to locate Web sites, Web
pages, or files on the Internet.
 To operate a search engine, the user simply enters a word or phrase, called the
keywords or search text, to the search engine, and the search engine then displays
a list of all the Web sites or Web pages that match the keywords or search text
entered.
42. Mention three problems of data security on networked computers
 Unauthorized access by hackers; hacking into private, personal files with criminal
intent.
 Spread of computer virus via Internet through downloads, opening email
attachments
 Internet/electronic fraud; fraudent websites taking credit card details from
customers
 Phishing, is a mail where a user is tricked into entering his/her username and
password to a fake website. (The website looks like their bank/ eBay/ paypal
website but belongs to a hacker)
 Pharming, is the term where hackers redirect Internet traffic from one website to
different identical-looking site in order to trick you into entering your username and
password into their database of their fake site.

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Revision Questions
1 (a) Mention three problems of data security on networked computers:
a) Unauthorized access by hackers; hacking into private, personal files with criminal
intent.
b) Spread of computer virus via Internet
c) Internet/electronic fraud; fraudent websites taking credit card details from customers
d) Identity theft, data being used to impersonate someone e.g applying for a bank loan in
someone’s name.
e) Information theft refers to someone who steals personal or confidential information
from others.
f) Phishing, a mail where a user is tricked into entering his/her username and password
to a fake website. (The website looks like their bank/ eBay/ paypal website but belongs
to a hacker)
g) Pharming, the term where hackers redirect Internet traffic from one website to different
identical-looking site in order to trick you into entering your username and password
into their database of their fake site.
h) Spyware, software designed to collect information about what you are doing on the
computer.
(b) How to increase security of data on networked computers:
a) Install antivirus software/program
b) Use a username and have a good password
 A username identifies the person to the network
 A password confirms that the person is the real owner of the username
c) Data encryption for sensitive data. Encryption is the process of converting readable
data into unreadable characters to prevent unauthorized access. This is done by
using a password or an encryption key.
d) Use Firewall, a special hardware or software that prevents unauthorized users
from accessing the computers on a network.
e) Anti-spyware, to remove spyware from your computer

2. (a). (i) What is a hacker in relation to computers?

Refers to the unauthorized use of a computer for personal gain.
(i) Give any three examples of computer crime.
 Computer virus attacks.
 Physical damage of a computer.
 Using a computer to bear false witness.

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 Hacking.
 Software piracy.
 Spamming other users.
 Carrying out fraud activities.
 Obscene or offensive content
 Using a computer to pose threats to other users.
 Carrying out cyber terrorism

(b). (i) Mention any two ways of controlling effects of computer crime
 By using passwords.
 By using biometric devices for access control.
 Installing a strong firewall.
 Installing a copy of latest antivirus software programs.
 By using data encryption techniques.
 By backing up data regularly.
 By physically locking computers to tables to avoid their movement.

(c). (i) What is a cyber-terrorism? Refers to online or Internet-based illegal acts.

(ii). Give any two security risks computer users have to observe.
 Computer viruses
 Unauthorized access and use of computer systems
 Hardware theft and software theft
 Information theft and information privacy
 System failure
3. (a).(i). Differentiate between BCC and CC as used in emails.
 BCC (blind carbon copy; also Bee) is a copy of an email message sent to a
recipient whose email address does not appear in the message
 While in CC (carbon copy) recipients, whose addresses do appear in the
respective header lines.
(ii). Give two disadvantages of attaching documents to an e-mail.
 Can attach a file containing a computer virus.
 Sometimes, it takes time to upload and download.
 It has a limited amount of data it can send.
 Attachments are not good for certain types of data for example very large
videos.
 Attaching files takes very many steps to attach and download.

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 Recipients need relevant software to download it well and open e.g. Winrar,
Winzip, e.t.c
4. (a) Who is a systems administrator?
A person who plans and directs the activities of the entire information services for an
organization.
(b) The mention five job careers in computer industry:
 Database administrator, a person who designs and maintains the database of
the organization, prepares and enforces standards for the use and security of
information in databases.
 Computer analyst, a person who checks for the correctness of data and programs
on the computer
 Computer programmer, a person who designs computer applications by the use
of programming languages
 Hardware engineer/ technician, a person responsible for the maintenance and
repair of the computer equipments
 Computer teacher/ instructor, someone who helps students to acquire a level of
computer literacy
 Computer operator, a person who controls operations of the computer from input
the input of data and instructions to the output
 Data entry clerk, a person whose main responsibility is to enter data into computer
for processing.
 Network administrator, a person in charge of/ responsible for managing network
traffic.

Revision questions:

Mention one practical activity carried out by the following personnel in the computing
environment.
(a) Network Administrator.
 Network administrators are responsible for building, maintaining, managing, and
repairing an organization's computer networks.
 Network administrators handle a company's Local Area Networks (LANs), Wide Area
Networks (WANs) and network segments, as well as manage the company's Internet
and intranet systems.
 They must install and maintain hardware and software that supports an organization's
networks, making sure everything is working the way it is supposed to be.

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 Network administrators keep a sharp eye on network performance, taking steps to

ensure user's needs are being met and repairing any problems that crop up.
 Network security is also a vital component of a network administrator's work, as they
must establish a means of protecting the organization's networks from hackers and
other threats.

(b) Systems Administrator.

The system administrator is responsible for following things:
 User administration (setup and maintaining account)
 Maintaining system
 Verify that peripherals are working properly
 Quickly arrange repair for hardware in occasion of hardware failure
 Monitor system performance
 Create file systems
 Install software
 Create a backup and recovery policy
 Monitor network communication
 Update system as soon as new version of OS and application software comes out
 Implement the policies for the use of the computer system and network
 Setup security policies for users. A sysadmin must have a strong grasp of computer
security (e.g. firewalls and intrusion detection systems)
 Documentation in form of internal wiki
 Password and identity management

(c) Website Developer.

 Writing and editing content
 Designing webpage layout
 Determining technical requirements
 Updating websites
 Creating back up files
 Solving code problems

(d) Computer Instructor.

 Design, facilitate, and teach the computer instruction component.
 Prepare execute lesson plans, assigning tasks, and evaluating student work and
progress.

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 Develop course syllabus, assess, supervise, and motivate high school students.
 Have basic computer knowledge of software, MSOffice, and assist program students
with program presentation.
 Promote safe, effective, and ethical learning environment.
 Use professional discretion and judgment in managing students in classroom setting.

(e) Information System Manager.

 Serve as technology manager and decision maker within an institution or on a
consulting basis.
 He/she ensures that the information technology and telecommunications of the
company work and run smoothly.
 Assists other managers and executives in assessing the short- and long-term goals of
the company, and subsequently recommend and implement technological solutions
for reaching those goals.
 Oversees such areas as software development, network security, and Internet
operations.
 Also work with computer engineers, Web designers, support specialists, and other IT
professionals to implement and upgrade computer hardware and software, create
intranet sites, develop Internet sites, and manage the overall network system.
 Have strong leadership and managerial skills, excellent communicators, and able to
quickly think seriously and reasonably.
 Solve any technological problem, and therefore troubleshoot quickly and effectively,
and are to work under stressful circumstances and deadlines.

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