ELX 303 – SIGNALS, SPECTRA AND PROCESSING

TOPIC 2: Classification of Signals

Learning Outcomes
Topic Title Estimated
time
“I SHOULD BE ABLE TO”…

2 Classification of Signals Classify signal as periodic or aperiodic, 10 hours

energy or power, and odd or even
symmetric
Determine the fundamental period of a
periodic signal.
Determine the energy and power of a
signal

CLASSIFICATIONS OF SIGNALS
There are many ways of classifying signals: continuous-time or discrete-time, periodic or
nonperiodic, energy or power, random or nonrandom, real or complex, etc.

CONTINUOUS-TIME AND DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS

A signal x(t) that is defined at all instants of time is known as a continuous-time signal. A
continuous-time signal takes a value at every instant of time t. An example of a continuous-time
signal x(t) is shown in Figure 2.1a.

A discrete-time signal is defined only at particular instants of time. A discrete-time signal is

usually identified as a sequence of numbers, denoted by x[n], where n is an integer. It may
represent a phenomenon for which the independent variable n is inherently discrete. An
example of discrete-time signal x[n] is shown in Figure 2.1b.

Fig. 2.1 Typical examples of (a) continuous-time and (b) discrete-time signals.

Since time is naturally continuous, most physical systems are continuous-time systems.
Discrete-time signals are often obtained from continuous-time signals through sampling.
As typically shown in Figure 2.2, the continuous-time signal x(t) in Figure 2.2a is sampled
uniformly with sampling period T to produce the discrete-time signal x[n] in Figure 1.3b. We
simplify notation by letting x(kT) x[k]. A discrete time signal is equally spaced in time with
sampling period T. Thus, discrete-time signals are samples of continuous time signals, or they
may exist naturally.

Fig. 2.2 Obtaining x[k] from x(t) through sampling

PERIODIC AND NON-PERIODIC SIGNALS

A periodic continuous-time signal satisfies

x (t )= x (t + nT ) (2.1)
where n is an
integer
T is the period of the signal
A periodic signal is one that repeats itself every T
seconds. A popular example of a periodic signal
is the sinusoid
x(t)= A sin(t + ), -< t <  (2.2)
where
A is the amplitude of the signal ω( = 2πf = 2π/T) is
the angular frequency in radians per second θ is the
phase in radians

Another example of a periodic (non-sinusoidal) continuous-time signal is shown in Figure 2.3a.

Any signal that does not satisfy the periodicity condition in (2.1) is called a non-periodic signal.

Fig. 2.3. Examples of periodic (a) continuous-time and (b) discrete-time signals.
A discrete-time signal x[n] is periodic with period N if it satisfies
x[n] = x[n + N] (2.3)

The discrete-time sine and cosine signals are given in

terms of complex exponential signals as

(2.4)

(2.5)
Another example of a periodic discrete-time signal is shown in Figure 2.3b.

Example 1.1 Show that the signal in Equation 1.2 is periodic.

Solution
The period of the signal in Equation 2.2 is

showing that x(t) satisfies Equation 2.1; hence it is periodic.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

If a continuous-time signal x(t) can assume any value in the range −∞ < t < ∞, then it is called an
analog signal. Although all analog signals are continuous-time signals, not all continuous-time
signals are analog signals. If a discrete-time signal assumes only finite values, then it is called a
digital signal.

An analog signal is a continuous-time signal in which the variation with time is analogous (or
proportional) to some physical phenomena.

A digital signal is a discrete-time signal that can have a finite number of values (usually binary).

A digital signal can assume only a finite number of values. The difference between analog and
digital signals is that analog is a continuous electrical signal, whereas digital is a discrete
electrical signal. We live in an analog world and most signals are analog. Although some signals
are inherently digital, most digital signals are obtained from analog signals by sampling or an
analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
For example, an analog signal is taken straight from the microphone and recorded into a tape in
its original form. The signal from the microphone is an analog signal, and therefore the signal on
the tape is analog as well. Since data is sent using variable currents in an analog system, it is
very difficult to remove noise and signal distortions during the transmission. For this reason,
analog signals cannot perform high quality data transmission. On the other hand, digital signals
use binary data strings (0 and 1) to reproduce data being transmitted.

ENERGY AND POWER SIGNALS

For continuous-time signal x(t), the normalized energy E of x(t) (assuming x(t) is real) is

(2.6)
If x(t) is complex valued, (1.6) can be
generalized:

(2.7) where |x(t)| is the magnitude

of x(t). The normalized power P for real x(t) is
(2.8)
This can be generalized for complex value
x(t) as

(2.9)
Similarly, for a discrete-time signal x[n], the normalized energy E
of x[n] is

(2.10)

while the normalized power P is

(2.11)
Based on the definitions of E and P in Equations (2.6) through (2.11) , we define the following:

A signal x(t) or x[n] is an energy signal if and only if 0 < E < ∞ and consequently P = 0.

A signal x(t) or x[n] is a power signal if and only if 0 < P < ∞ and consequently E = ∞.

If a signal is a power signal, then it cannot be an energy signal or vice versa; power and energy
signals are mutually exclusive. A signal may be neither a power nor an energy signal if the
conditions in Equations (2.6) through (2.11) are not met. Almost all periodic functions of
practical interest are power signals.
Example 2.2 Determine whether the following signals are energy signals, power signals, or
neither.

Solution

(a)The normalized energy of the signal is

confirming that x(t) is an energy signal.

(b)The sinusoidal signal has period T = 2π/ω.

The normalized average power is

showing that x(t) is a power signal. All periodic signals are generally
power signals.

(c)

The normalized average power is

that is, x[n] is a power signal.

EVEN AND ODD SYMMETRY

By definition, a signal is even if

x (t ) = x (-t ) (2.12)

A function is even if its plot is symmetrical about the vertical axis; that is, the signal for t < 0 is
the mirror image of the signal for t > 0. Examples of even signals are cos t, t2, and t4.

By definition, a signal is odd if

x (t ) = -x (-t ) (2.13)
The plot of an odd function is anti-symmetrical about the vertical axis. Examples of odd
functions are t, t3, and sin t.

An even signal x(t) is one for which x(t) = x(−t) and an odd signal y(t) is one for which
y(t)= −y(−t).

Any signal x(t) can be represented as the sum of even and odd signals as
x(t) = xe(t) + xo(t) (2.14)

where xe(t) is the even part

xo(t) is the odd part
Replacing t with −t in Equation (2.14) and incorporating Equations (2.12) and (2.13), we get
x(-t) = xe(-t) + xo(-t) = xe(t) - xo(t) (2.15)

Adding Equations (2.14) and (2.15) and dividing by 2,

(2.16)

Subtracting Equation (2.15) from Equation (2.14) and dividing by 2,

(2.17)
Thus,

(2.18)

Equation (2.16) shows that the two signals are added and scaled in magnitude to produce the
even signal xe(t), while Equation (2.17) indicates that x(−t) is subtracted from x(t) and the result
is amplitude-scaled by 0.5 to produce the odd signal xo(t). For a discrete-time signal x[n], we can
construct the even and odd parts using Equations (2.16) and (2.17).
 Note the following properties of even and odd functions:
1. The product of two even functions is also an even function.
2. The product of two odd functions is an even function.
3. The product of an even function and an odd function is an odd function.
4. The sum (or difference) of two even functions is also an even function.
5. The sum (or difference) of two odd functions is an odd function.
6. The sum (or difference) of an even function and an odd function is neither even nor odd.

Each of these properties can be proved using Equations (2.12) and (2.13).

Example 2.3 Determine the even and odd components of

(a)x(t) = 10 sin t + 5 cos t – 2 cos t sin t
(b)y(t) shown in Figure 1.5a

Solution
(a) We first find x(−t) and then apply Equations (2.13) and (2.14). We should keep in mind that
sin(−t) = −sin t and
cos(−t) = cos t.

(b) We first obtain y(−t) as shown in Figure 2.5b. Note that

Fig 1.5. For Example 2.3(b).

Both ye(t) and yo(t) are sketched in Figure 2.6

Fig. 2.6. For Example 2.3(b).

ACTIVITY NO. 2
Answer the following.
1. Show that the signal x(t) = A cos (2πt + 0.1π) is periodic.

2. Determine whether the following signals are energy signals, power signals, or neither.

3. Find the even and odd parts of the: signal

REFERENCES:
1. Sadiko, M N. O. Signals and Systems: A Primer with Matlab. CRC Press. 2016.
2. Tan, L.. Digital Signal Processing: Fundamentals and Applications. Academic Press. 2008.
3. Oppenheim, A. V., Wilsky, A. Signals and Systems. 2nd edition. Prentice Hall. 1996.
4. Orfanidis, S. J. Introduction to Signal Processing, Prentice Hall. 2010.
5. Proakis, J. G., Manolakis, D. G. Digital Signal Processing. 4th edition. Pearson. 2006.