LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Ex.No. Name of the Experiment

Implement Linear Search. Determine the time required to search for an element.
1. Repeat the experiment for different values of n, the number of elements in the list
to be searched and plot a graph of the time taken versus n.
Implement recursive Binary Search. Determine the time required to search an
2. element. Repeat the experiment for different values of n, the number of elements
in the list to be searched and plot a graph of the time taken versus n.
Given a text txt [0...n-1] and a pattern pat [0...m-1], write a function search (char
3. pat [ ], char txt [ ]) that prints all occurrences of pat [ ] in txt [ ]. You may assume
that n > m.
Sort a given set of elements using the Insertion sort and Heap sort methods and
determine the time required to sort the elements. Repeat the experiment for
4.
different values of n, the number of elements in the list to be sorted and plot a graph
of the time taken versus n.

5. Develop a program to implement graph traversal using Breadth First Search

6. Develop a program to implement graph traversal using Depth First Search

From a given vertex in a weighted connected graph, develop a program to find

7. the shortest paths to other vertices using Dijkstra’s algorithm.

Find the minimum cost spanning tree of a given undirected graph using Prim’s
8. algorithm.

Implement Floyd’s algorithm for the All-Pairs- Shortest-Paths problem.

9.
Compute the transitive closure of a given directed graph using Warshall's
10. algorithm.

Develop a program to find out the maximum and minimum numbers in a given list
11. of n numbers using the divide and conquer technique.
Implement Merge sort and Quick sort methods to sort an array of elements and
determine the time required to sort. Repeat the experiment for different values of
12.
n, the number of elements in the list to be sorted and plot a graph of the time taken
versus n.
13 Implement N Queens problem using Backtracking.
 Implement any scheme to find the optimal solution for the Traveling Salesperson
14 problem and then solve the same problem instance using any approximation
algorithm and determine the error in the approximation.
15 Implement randomized algorithms for finding the kth smallest number.
 Ex.No.1 LINEAR SEARCH
Date:

Aim
To Implement Linear Search and calculate the time required to search for an
element.

Algorithm
1. Step 1: set pos = -1 2. Step 2: set i = 1 3. Step 3: repeat step 4
while i <= n 4. Step 4: if a[i] == val 5. set pos = i 6. print pos 7. go
to step 6 8. [end of if] 9. set ii = i + 1 10. [end of loop] 11. Step 5: if
pos = -1 12. print "value is not present in the array " 13. [end of if] 14.
Step 6: exit
Program // Online C compiler to run C program online
#include<stdio.h>
#include<time.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#define max 20 int
pos;
int linsearch (int,int[],int);
void main()
{ intch=1; double t; int n,i,a [max],k,op,low,high,pos;
clock_tbegin,end,ctime; double cpu_time_used;
begin=clock(); end=clock(); while(ch) {
printf("\n.......MENU ...... \n 1.Linear search \n 2.Exit \n");
printf("\n enter your choice\n"); scanf("%d",&op);
switch(op) {
case 1:printf("\n enter the number of elements \n"); scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\n enter the elements of an array\n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++) scanf("%d",&a[i]);
printf("\n enter the element to be searched \n");
scanf("%d",&k);
begin=clock();
pos=linsearch(n,a,k);
end=clock(); if(pos==-1)
printf("\n\n Unsuccessful search");
else printf("element %d is found at position
%d",k,pos+1); ctime=(end-begin)/cpu_time_used;
printf("\n Time taken is %ld CPU cycles \n",ctime);
break;

default:printf("Invalid choice entered \n");

exit(0); }
printf("\n Do you wish to run again(1/0) \n");
scanf("%d",&ch);
}
 }

int linsearch(int n,int a[],int k)

{ if(n<0) return -1;
if(k==a[n-1])
return (n-1);
else
return linsearch(n-1,a,k);
}

PROGRAM 50

VIVA 10

OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT
Thus the program to execute the linear Search was executed successfully
Output:
EX NO:2 RECURSIVE BINARY SEARCH

DATE:

AIM:
To Implement the recursive binary search and calculate the CPU running time of the algorithm.

ALGORITHM
1. Compare x with the middle element.
2. If x matches with middle element, we return the mid index.
3. Else If x is greater than the mid element, then x can only lie in right half subarray
after the mid element. So we recur for right half.
4. Else (x is smaller) recur for the left half.

PROGRAM CODE:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<time.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#define max 20 int
pos;
int binsearch (int,int[],int,int,int); int
linsearch (int,int[],int);
void main()
{ intch=1; double t; int n,i,a [max],k,op,low,high,pos;
long tick1,tick2; long elapsed=tick2-tick1;
double elapsed_time = ((double)elapsed/CLOCKS_PER_SEC);

while(ch) {
printf("\n.......MENU ...... \n 1.BinarySearch \n 2.Linear search \n 3.Exit \n");
printf("\n enter your choice\n");
scanf("%d",&op); switch(op)
{
case 1:printf("\n enter the number of elments\n"); scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\n enter the number of an array in the order \n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++) scanf("%d",&a[i]);
printf("\n enter the elements to be searched \n");
scanf("%d",&k); low=0;high=n-1; tick1=clock();
pos=binsearch(n,a,k,low,high); tick2=clock();
if(pos==-1)
printf("\n\nUnsuccessful search");
else
printf("\n element %d is found at position %d",k,pos+1);

printf("Time taken by the CPU is %lf seconds \n",elapsed_time); break;

case 2:printf("\n enter the number of elements \n"); scanf("%d",&n);

printf("\n enter the elements of an array\n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++) scanf("%d",&a[i]);
printf("\n enter the element to be searched \n");
scanf("%d",&k);
tick1=clock();
pos=linsearch(n,a,k);
tick2=clock(); if(pos==-1)
printf("\n\n Unsuccessful search");
else printf("element %d is found at position %d",k,pos+1);
printf("Time taken by the CPU is %lf seconds
\n",elapsed_time); break;
default:printf("Invalid choice entered \n");
exit(0); }
printf("\n Do you wish to run again(1/0) \n");
scanf("%d",&ch);
}

}
int binsearch(int n,int a[],int k,intlow,int high)
{ int mid;
mid=(low+high)/2
; if(low>high)
return -1;
if(k==a[mid])
return(mid); else
if(k<a[mid])
return binsearch(n,a,k,low,mid-1); else
return binsearch(n,a,k,mid+1,high);
}
int linsearch(int n,int a[],int k)
{ if(n<0) return -
1;
 if(k==a[n-1])
return (n-1);
else
return linsearch(n-1,a,k);
}

PROGRAM 50

VIVA 10

OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT
Thus the program to implement the recursive binary search was executed successfully.
Output:
 EX NO:3 NAÏVE PATTERN SEARCH
DATE

AIM:
ToperformGiven a text txt [0...n-1] and a pattern pat [0...m-1], write a function
search (char pat [ ], char txt [ ]) that prints all occurrences of pat [ ] in txt [ ].

ALGORITHM
1. n ← length [T]
2. m ← length [P]
3. fOr s ← 0 tO n -m
4. do if P [1.....m] = T [s + 1. .. s + m]
5. then print "Pattern occurs with shift"
PROGRAM CODE:

#include <stdio.h> #include

<string.h>
void search(char* pat, char* txt)
{ int M = strlen(pat); int N =
strlen(txt); for (int i = 0; i<=
N - M; i++) {int j;for (j = 0; j
< M; j++)
if (txt[i + j] != pat[j])
break; if (j
== M)
printf("Pattern found at index %d \n", i);
}
}

int main()
{
char txt[] = "AABAACAADAABAAABAA";
char pat[] = "AABA"; search(pat, txt); return
0;
}
 PROGRAM 50

VIVA 10

OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT
Thus the naïve pattern matching algorithm was implemented successfully
 EX NO :4a INSERTION SORT
DATE

AIM
To Sort a given set of elements using the Insertion sort method and determine the time
required to sort the elements.

ALGORITHM
1. Iterate from arr[1] to arr[N] over the array.
2. Compare the current element (key) to its predecessor.
3. If the key element is smaller than its predecessor, compare it to the elements
before. Move the greater elements one position up to make space for the
swapped element.

PROGRAM
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
/* Function to sort an array using insertion sort*/ void
insertionSort(int arr[], int n)
{ sleep(4); int i, key, j; for (i
= 1; i< n; i++) {
key = arr[i];
j = i - 1;
while (j >= 0 &&arr[j] > key) {
arr[j + 1] = arr[j];
j = j - 1;
}
arr[j + 1] = key;
}
}
void printArray(int arr[], int n)
{
int i;
for (i = 0; i< n; i++)
printf("%d ", arr[i]);
printf("\n");
} int
main()
{
long tick1,tick2; int arr[] = { 12, 11,
13, 5, 6 }; int n = sizeof(arr) /
sizeof(arr[0]);
tick1 = clock(); insertionSort(arr,
n); tick2 = clock(); long
elapsed = tick2-tick1;
double elapsed_time = ((double)elapsed/CLOCKS_PER_SEC); printArray(arr,
n);
printf("Time taken by the CPU is %lf seconds \n",elapsed_time);
return 0; }

long tick1,tick2; int arr[] = { 12, 11,

13, 5, 6 }; int n = sizeof(arr) /
sizeof(arr[0]);
tick1 = clock(); insertionSort(arr,
n); tick2 = clock(); long
elapsed = tick2-tick1;
double elapsed_time = ((double)elapsed/CLOCKS_PER_SEC); printArray(arr,
n);
printf("Time taken by the CPU is %lf seconds \n",elapsed_time);
return 0; }
 PROGRAM 50

VIVA 10

OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT
Thus the program to sort a given set of elements using the Insertion sort method and
determine the time required to sort the elements
EX NO :4b HEAP SORT
DATE

AIM
To Sort a given set of elements using the Heap sort method and determine the time
required to sort the elements.

ALGORITHM

1. First convert the array into heap data structure using heapify, then one by one delete the
root node of the Max-heap and replace it with the last node in the heap and then heapify
the root of the heap. Repeat this process until size of heap is greater than 1.
2. Build a heap from the given input array.
3. Repeat the following steps until the heap contains only one element:
a. Swap the root element of the heap (which is the largest element)
with the last element of the heap
b. Remove the last element of the heap (which is now in the correct
position).
c. Heapify the remaining elements of the heap. 4. The sorted array
is obtained by reversing the order of the elements in the input
array.

PROGRAM
#include <stdio.h>
#include<time.h>

void main()
{
int heap[10], num, i, j, c, rootElement, tempVar; long
tick1,tick2;
printf("\n Enter num of elements :");
scanf("%d", &num);
printf("\n Enter the nums : ");
for (i = 0; i< num; i++)
scanf("%d", &heap[i]); for (i
= 1; i< num; i++)
{ c = i;
do
{ rootElement = (c - 1) / 2;
if (heap[rootElement] < heap[c]) /* to create MAX heap array */ {
tempVar = heap[rootElement];
heap[rootElement] = heap[c];
heap[c] = tempVar;
}c=
rootElement;
} while (c != 0);
} tick1=clock();
printf("Heap array : "); for
(i = 0; i< num; i++)
printf("%d\t ", heap[i]); for
(j = num - 1; j >= 0; j--)
{ tempVar =
heap[0]; heap[0] =
heap[j]; heap[j] =
tempVar;
rootElement = 0;
do
{ c = 2 * rootElement + 1; if ((heap[c]
<heap[c + 1]) && c < j-1) c++;
if (heap[rootElement]<heap[c] && c<j) {
tempVar = heap[rootElement];
heap[rootElement] = heap[c];
heap[c] = tempVar;
} rootElement =
c;
} while (c < j);
} printf("\n The sorted array is :
"); for (i = 0; i< num; i++)
printf("\t %d", heap[i]); tick2-
clock(); long elapsed = tick2-
tick1;
double elapsed_time = ((double)elapsed/CLOCKS_PER_SEC);
printf("Time taken by the CPU is %lf seconds \n",elapsed_time); }
 PROGRAM 50

VIVA 10

OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT
Thus the program to implement heap sort was executed successfully
EX NO :5 BREADTH FIRST SEARCH
DATE:

AIM
To Develop a program to implement graph traversal using Breadth First Search

ALGORITHM
1. Start by putting any one of the graph's vertices at the back of a queue.
2. Take the front item of the queue and add it to the visited list.
3. Create a list of that vertex's adjacent nodes. Add the ones which aren't in the visited list to
the back of the queue.
4. Keep repeating steps 2 and 3 until the queue is empty.

PROGRAM

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#define SIZE 40

struct queue
{ int
items[SIZE]; int
front; int rear;
};

struct queue* createQueue(); void

enqueue(struct queue* q, int); int
dequeue(struct queue* q); void
display(struct queue* q); int
isEmpty(struct queue* q);
void printQueue(struct queue* q);

struct node {
int vertex; struct
node* next;
}; struct node*

createNode(int);

struct Graph {

int numVertices;
struct node** adjLists;
int* visited;
};

// BFS algorithm void bfs(struct Graph* graph,

int startVertex) {
struct queue* q = createQueue();

graph->visited[startVertex] = 1;
enqueue(q, startVertex);

while (!isEmpty(q)) {
printf("Visited %d\n", currentVertex); struct node*

temp = graph->adjLists[currentVertex];

while (temp) {
int adjVertex = temp->vertex;

if (graph->visited[adjVertex] == 0) {
graph->visited[adjVertex] = 1;
enqueue(q, adjVertex);
}
temp = temp->next;
}
}
}

// Creating a node struct node*

createNode(int v) {
struct node* newNode = malloc(sizeof(struct node));
newNode->vertex = v; newNode->next
= NULL;
return newNode;
}
 ct Graph* graph = malloc(sizeof(struct Graph)); graph->numVertices =
vertices;

graph->adjLists = malloc(vertices * sizeof(struct node*)); graph-

>visited = malloc(vertices * sizeof(int));
int i;
for (i = 0; i< vertices; i++) {
graph->adjLists[i] = NULL; graph-
>visited[i] = 0;
}

return graph;
}
return graph;
}

// Add edge void addEdge(struct Graph* graph, int

src, int dest) {
// Add edge from src to dest struct node*
newNode = createNode(dest);
newNode->next = graph->adjLists[src];
graph->adjLists[src] = newNode;

// Add edge from dest to src newNode =

createNode(src); newNode->next =
graph->adjLists[dest];
graph->adjLists[dest] = newNode;
}

// Create a queue struct

queue* createQueue() {
struct queue* q = malloc(sizeof(struct queue));
q->front = -1; q->rear = -1; return q;
}

// Check if the queue is empty

int isEmpty(struct queue* q) {
if (q->rear == -1)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

Adding elements into queue void

enqueue(struct queue* q, int value) {
if (q->rear == SIZE - 1)
printf("\nQueue is Full!!");
else {
if (q->front == -1)
q->front = 0; q-
>rear++; q-
>items[q->rear]
= value;
}
}

// Removing elements from queue int

dequeue(struct queue* q) {
int item; if
(isEmpty(q)) {
printf("Queue is empty");
item = -1;
} else { item = q->items[q-
>front]; q->front++; if (q-
>front > q->rear) {
printf("Resetting queue ");
q->front = q->rear = -1;
}
} return
item;
}

// Print the queue void

printQueue(struct queue* q) {
int i = q->front;

if (isEmpty(q)) {
printf("Queue is empty");
} else { printf("\nQueue contains \n");
for (i = q->front; i< q->rear + 1; i++) {
printf("%d ", q->items[i]);
 }
}
}

int main() {
struct Graph* graph = createGraph(6);
addEdge(graph, 0, 1); addEdge(graph,
0, 2); addEdge(graph, 1, 2);
addEdge(graph, 1, 4);
addEdge(graph, 1, 3);
addEdge(graph, 2, 4);
addEdge(graph, 3, 4);

bfs(graph, 0);

return 0;
}
 PROGRAM 50

VIVA 10

OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT

Thus the program to implement the breadth first search was executed successfully.
EX NO :6 DEPTH FIRST SEARCH
DATE:

AIM
To Implement the Graph traversal using depth first search.

ALGORITHM

1. Start by putting any one of the graph's vertices on top of a stack.

2. Take the top item of the stack and add it to the visited list.
3. Create a list of that vertex's adjacent nodes. Add the ones which aren't in the visited list to
the top of the stack.
4. Keep repeating steps 2 and 3 until the stack is empty.

PROGRAM

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
// Globally declared visited array
int vis[100];
// Graph structure to store number
// of vertices and edges and
// Adjacency matrix struct
Graph {
int V; int
E; int**
Adj;
};
// Function to input data of graph
struct Graph* adjMatrix()
{ struct Graph* G = (struct Graph*)
malloc(sizeof(struct Graph)); if (!G)
{ printf("Memory Error\n");
return NULL;
}
G->V = 7;
G->E = 7;
 G->Adj = (int**)malloc((G->V) * sizeof(int*));
for (int k = 0; k < G->V; k+

G->Adj[k] = (int*)malloc((G->V) * sizeof(int));

}
for (int u = 0; u < G->V; u++) { for
(int v = 0; v < G->V; v++) { G-
>Adj[u][v] = 0;
}
}
G->Adj[0][1] = G->Adj[1][0] = 1;
G->Adj[0][2] = G->Adj[2][0] = 3;
G->Adj[1][3] = G->Adj[3][1] = 1;
G->Adj[1][4] = G->Adj[4][1] = 4;
G->Adj[1][5] = G->Adj[5][1] = 1;
G->Adj[1][6] = G->Adj[6][1] = 6;
G->Adj[6][2] = G->Adj[2][6] = 1;

return G;
}// DFS function to print DFS traversal of graph
void DFS(struct Graph* G, int u)
{ vis[u] = 1; printf("%d ", u); for (int v = 0; v
< G->V; v++) { if (!vis[v] && G-
>Adj[u][v]) { DFS(G, v);
}
}
}
// Function for DFS traversal void
DFStraversal(struct Graph* G)
{ for (int i = 0; i< 100; i++) {
vis[i] = 0;
}
for (int i = 0; i< G->V; i++) { if
(!vis[i]) {
DFS(G, i);
}}}
// Driver code void
main()
{ struct Graph* G; G =
adjMatrix();
DFStraversal(G);
}
 PROGRAM 50

VIVA 10
OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT

Thus the program to implement the graph traversal using depth first search was
completed successful
SAMPLE OUTPUT
EX NO :7 DIJIKSTRA’S ALGORITHM
DATE:

AIM
To implement a program to find the shortest paths to other vertices using Dijkstra’s
algorithm.

ALGORITHM

1. Set all vertices distances = infinity except for the source vertex, set the source distance =
0.
2. Push the source vertex in a min-priority queue in the form (distance , vertex), as the
comparison in the min-priority queue will be according to vertices distances.
3. Pop the vertex with the minimum distance from the priority queue (at first the popped
vertex = source).
4. Update the distances of the connected vertices to the popped vertex in case of "current
vertex distance + edge weight < next vertex distance", then push the vertex with the new
distance to the priority queue.
5. If the popped vertex is visited before, just continue without using it.
6. Apply the same algorithm again until the priority queue is empty.

PROGRAM
#include <limits.h>
#include <stdbool.h>
#include <stdio.h>

// Number of vertices in the graph

#define V 9

// A utility function to find the vertex with minimum

// distance value, from the set of vertices not yet included
// in shortest path tree
int minDistance(int dist[], bool sptSet[])
{
// Initialize min value
int min = INT_MAX, min_index;

for (int v = 0; v < V; v++) if (sptSet[v] == false

&&dist[v] <= min) min = dist[v],
min_index = v;
return min_index;
}
void printSolution(int dist[]) {
printf("Vertex \t\t Distance from Source\n");
for (int i = 0; i< V; i++) printf("%d \t\t\t\t %d\n", i,
dist[i]); }

// Function that implements Dijkstra's single source

// shortest path algorithm for a graph represented using
// adjacency matrix representation void
dijkstra(int graph[V][V], int src)
{ int dist[V]; // The output array. dist[i] will hold the //
shortest
// distance from src to i
bool sptSet[V]; // sptSet[i] will be true if vertex i is
// included in shortest
// path tree or shortest distance from src to i is
// finalized

// Initialize all distances as INFINITE and stpSet[] as

// false
for (int i = 0; i< V; i++) dist[i] = INT_MAX,
sptSet[i] = false;

// Distance of source vertex from itself is always 0

dist[src] = 0;

// Find shortest path for all vertices for (int

count = 0; count < V - 1; count++) { int u =
minDistance(dist, sptSet);

// Mark the picked vertex as processed

sptSet[u] = true;

// Update dist value of the adjacent vertices of the

// picked vertex.
for (int v = 0; v < V; v++)

// Update dist[v] only if is not in sptSet,

// there is an edge from u to v, and total
 // weight of path from src to v through u
is // smaller than current value of dist[v] if
(!sptSet[v] && graph[u][v]
&&dist[u] != INT_MAX
&&dist[u] + graph[u][v] <dist[v])
dist[v] = dist[u] + graph[u][v];
}

// print the constructed distance array

printSolution(dist);
}

// driver's code
int main() {
/* Let us create the example graph discussed above */
int graph[V][V] = { { 0, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 8, 0 },
{ 4, 0, 8, 0, 0, 0, 0, 11, 0 },
{ 0, 8, 0, 7, 0, 4, 0, 0, 2 },
{ 0, 0, 7, 0, 9, 14, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 9, 0, 10, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 4, 14, 10, 0, 2, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 1, 6 },
{ 8, 11, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 7 },
{ 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 6, 7, 0 } };

// Function call
dijkstra(graph, 0);

return 0;
}
 PROGRAM 50
VIVA 10
OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT

Thus the program to implement the shortest paths to other vertices using Dijkstra’s
algorithm was executed successfully.
EX NO :8 PRIM’S ALGORITHM
DATE:

AIM
To implement the minimum cost spanning tree of a given undirected graph using Prim’s
algorithm.

ALGORITHM
Step 1: Determine an arbitrary vertex as the starting vertex of the MST.
Step 2: Follow steps 3 to 5 till there are vertices that are not included in the MST (known
as fringe vertex).
Step 3: Find edges connecting any tree vertex with the fringe vertices.
Step 4: Find the minimum among these edges.
Step 5: Add the chosen edge to the MST if it does not form any cycle.
Step 6: Return the MST and exit

PROGRAM

#include <limits.h>
#include <stdbool.h>
#include <stdio.h> #define
V5
int minKey(int key[], bool mstSet[])
{
// Initialize min value
int min = INT_MAX, min_index;

for (int v = 0; v < V; v++) if (mstSet[v] ==

false && key[v] < min) min = key[v],
min_index = v;

return min_index;
}

int printMST(int parent[], int graph[V][V])

{ printf("Edge \tWeight\n"); for (int i = 1; i< V; i++)
printf("%d - %d \t%d \n", parent[i], i,
graph[i][parent[i]]); }

void primMST(int graph[V][V]

{
// Array to store constructed MST
int parent[V];
// Key values used to pick minimum weight edge in cut int
key[V];
// To represent set of vertices included in MST bool
mstSet[V];

// Initialize all keys as INFINITE

for (int i = 0; i< V; i++) key[i] = INT_MAX,
mstSet[i] = false;

// Always include first 1st vertex in MST. //

Make key 0 so that this vertex is picked as first
// vertex.
key[0] = 0;

// First node is always root of MST parent[0]

= -1;

// The MST will have V vertices for (int

count = 0; count < V - 1; count++) {

// Pick the minimum key vertex from the

// set of vertices not yet included in MST
int u = minKey(key, mstSet);

// Add the picked vertex to the MST Set mstSet[u]

= true;

// Update key value and parent index of //

the adjacent vertices of the picked vertex.
// Consider only those vertices which are not
// yet included in MST for
(int v = 0; v < V; v++)

// graph[u][v] is non zero only for adjacent

// vertices of m mstSet[v] is false for vertices
// not yet included in MST Update the key only
// if graph[u][v] is smaller than key[v] if (graph[u][v]
&&mstSet[v] == false && graph[u][v] < key[v]) parent[v] =
u, key[v] = graph[u][v]; }
// print the constructed MST printMST(parent,
graph);
}

// Driver's code
int main()
{
int graph[V][V] = { { 0, 2, 0, 6, 0 },
{ 2, 0, 3, 8, 5 },
{ 0, 3, 0, 0, 7 },
{ 6, 8, 0, 0, 9 },
{ 0, 5, 7, 9, 0 } };

// Print the solution primMST(graph);

return 0;
}
 PROGRAM 50

VIVA 10

OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT

This the program to implement the minimum cost spanning tree of a given undirected
graph using Prim’s algorithm.
EX NO :9 FLOYD’S ALGORITHM
DATE:

AIM
To implement Floyd’s algorithm for the All-Pairs- Shortest-Paths problem
ALGORITHM:

1. Initialize the solution matrix same as the input graph matrix as a first step.
2. Then update the solution matrix by considering all vertices as an intermediate vertex.
3. The idea is to one by one pick all vertices and updates all shortest paths which include the
picked vertex as an intermediate vertex in the shortest path.
4. When we pick vertex number k as an intermediate vertex, we already have considered
vertices {0, 1, 2, .. k-1} as intermediate vertices.
5. For every pair (i, j) of the source and destination vertices respectively, there are two
possible cases. o k is not an intermediate vertex in shortest path from i to j. We keep
the value of dist[i][j] as it is.
o k is an intermediate vertex in shortest path from i to j. We update the value
of dist[i][j] as dist[i][k] + dist[k][j] if dist[i][j] >dist[i][k] + dist[k][j]

PROGRAM
// C Program for Floyd Warshall Algorithm
#include <stdio.h>

// Number of vertices in the graph

#define V 4

/* Define Infinite as a large enough

value. This value will be used
for vertices not connected to each other */
#define INF 99999

// A function to print the solution matrix void

printSolution(int dist[][V]);

// Solves the all-pairs shortest path //

problem using Floyd Warshall algorithm
void floydWarshall(int dist[][V])
{
int i, j, k;
/* Add all vertices one by one to the set of
intermediate vertices. ---> Before start of
 an iteration, we have shortest distances
between all pairs of vertices such that the
shortest distances consider only the
vertices in set {0, 1, 2, .. k-1} as
intermediate vertices.
----> After the end of an
iteration, vertex no. k is added to
the set of intermediate vertices
and the set becomes {0, 1, 2, ..
k} */ for (k = 0; k < V; k++) {
// Pick all vertices as source one by one
for (i = 0; i< V; i++) {
// Pick all vertices as destination for the
// above picked source
for (j = 0; j < V; j++) {
// If vertex k is on the shortest path from
// i to j, then update the value of
// dist[i][j]
if (dist[i][k] + dist[k][j] <dist[i][j])
dist[i][j] = dist[i][k] + dist[k][j]; }
}
}

// Print the shortest distance matrix

printSolution(dist);
}

/* A utility function to print solution */ void

printSolution(int dist[][V])
{ printf(
"The following matrix shows the shortest distances"
" between every pair of vertices
\n"); for (int i = 0; i< V; i++) { for (int j = 0;
j < V; j++) { if (dist[i][j] == INF)
printf("%7s", "INF");
else
printf("%7d", dist[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");

}
}

// driver's code
int main()
{ int graph[V][V] = { { 0, 5, INF, 10 },
{ INF, 0, 3, INF },
{ INF, INF, 0, 1 },
{ INF, INF, INF, 0 } };

// Function call
floydWarshall(graph);
return 0;
}

PROGRAM 50

VIVA 10

OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT

Thus the program to implement Floyd’s algorithm for the All-Pairs- Shortest-Paths
problem was executed successfully.
EX NO :10 WARSHALL’S ALGORITHM
DATE

AIM:
To implement the transitive closure of a given directed graph using Warshall's algorithm

ALGORITHM

1. Warshall(A[1...n, 1...n]) // A is the adjacency matrix

2. R(0) ← A
3. fOr k ← 1 tO n dO
4. fOr i ← 1 tO n dO
5. fOr j ← tO n dO
6. R(k)[i, j] ← R(k-1)[i, j] Or (R(k-1)[i, k] and R(k-1)[k, j])
7. return R(n)
PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h> int
max(int, int);
void warshal(int p[10][10], int n) { int
i, j, k;
for (k = 1; k <= n; k++) for (i = 1; i<= n; i++)
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++) p[i][j] = max(p[i][j],
p[i][k] && p[k][j]);
}
int max(int a, int b) {
;
if (a > b)
return (a);
 else return
(b);
} void main() { int p[10][10] = { 0 },
n, e, u, v, i, j;
printf("\n Enter the number of vertices:");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("\n Enter the number of edges:");
scanf("%d", &e); for (i =
1; i<= e; i++) {
printf("\n Enter the end vertices of edge %d:", i);
scanf("%d%d", &u, &v);
p[u][v] = 1;
} printf("\n Matrix of input data:
\n"); for (i = 1; i<= n; i++) { for (j
= 1; j <= n; j++)
printf("%d\t", p[i][j]); printf("\n");
} warshal(p,
n);
printf("\n Transitive closure: \n");
for (i = 1; i<= n; i++) { for (j =
1; j <= n; j++)
printf("%d\t", p[i][j]);
printf("\n"); }
}

PROGRAM 50

VIVA 10

OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT
Thus the transitive closure of a given directed graph using Warshall's algorithm was
executed successfully.
 EX NO :11 FINDING MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM NUMBERS IN ARRAY
DATE

AIM
To implement a program to find out the maximum and minimum numbers in a given list
of n numbers using the divide and conquer technique.
ALGORITHM
1. Create two intermediate variables max and min to store the maximum and
minimum element of the array.
2. Assume the first array element as maximum and minimum both, say max =
arr[0] and min = arr[0].
3. Traverse the given array arr[].
4. If the current element is smaller than min, then update the min as the current
element. 5. If the current element is greater than the max, then update the max as the
current element.
6. Repeat the above two steps 4 and 5 for the element in the array.

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int max, min; int
a[100];
void maxmin(int i, int j)
{ int max1, min1,
mid;
if(i==j)
{ max = min =
a[i];
} else
{ if(i ==
j-1)
{ if(a[i]
<a[j])
{ max =
a[j]; min =
a[i];
}
else
 { max =
a[i]; min =
a[j];
}
}
else
{ mid =
(i+j)/2;
maxmin(i, mid);
max1 = max; min1 = min;
maxmin(mid+1, j);
if(max <max1)
max = max1;
if(min > min1)
min = min1;
} }} int
main ()
{ int i,
num;
printf ("\nEnter the total number of numbers : ");
scanf ("%d",&num); printf
("Enter the numbers : \n");
for (i=1;i<=num;i++)
scanf ("%d",&a[i]);
max = a[0]; min
= a[0];
maxmin(1, num); printf ("Minimum element in an
array : %d\n", min); printf ("Maximum element in an
array : %d\n", max); return 0;
}

PROGRAM 50
VIVA 10

OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT
Thus the program to find out the maximum and minimum numbers in a given list of n
numbers using the divide and conquer technique was executed successfully.
Output:
 EX NO :12A MERGE SORT
DATE

AIM
To Implement merge sort methods to sort an array of elements and determine the time
required to sort.

ALGORITHM
step 1: start
step 2: declare array and left, right, mid variable
step 3: perform merge function.
if left > right
return
mid= (left+right)/2 mergesort(array,
left, mid) mergesort(array, mid+1,
right) merge(array, left, mid, right)
step 4: Stop
PROGRAM
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

// Merges two subarrays of arr[].

// First subarray is arr[l..m] //
Second subarray is arr[m+1..r]
void merge(int arr[], int l, int m,
int r)
{
int i, j, k; int n1 =
m - l + 1;
int n2 = r - m;

// Create temp arrays

int L[n1], R[n2];

// Copy data to temp arrays

// L[] and R[] for (i
= 0; i< n1; i++)

L[i] = arr[l + i];

for (j = 0; j < n2; j++)
 R[j] = arr[m + 1 + j];
// Merge the temp arrays back
// into arr[l..r]
// Initial index of first subarray
i = 0;

// Initial index of second subarray

j = 0;

// Initial index of merged subarray

k = l; while (i< n1 && j < n2)
{ if (L[i] <= R[j])
{
arr[k] = L[i];
i++;
}
else
{
arr[k] = R[j];
j++;
}
k++;
}

// Copy the remaining

elements // of L[], if there are
any while (i< n1) { arr[k] =
L[i]; i++; k++;
}

// Copy the remaining elements of

// R[], if there are any while (j <
n2)
{ arr[k] = R[j]; j++;
k++;
}
}
void mergeSort(int arr[],
int l, int r)
{ if (l < r)
{
// Same as (l+r)/2, but avoids
// overflow for large l and h
int m = l + (r - l) / 2;

// Sort first and second halves

mergeSort(arr, l, m);
mergeSort(arr, m + 1, r);

merge(arr, l, m, r);
}
}

// UTILITY FUNCTIONS
// Function to print an array void
printArray(int A[], int size)
{
int i;
for (i = 0; i< size; i++)
printf("%d ", A[i]);
printf("\n");
}

// Driver code
int main()
{ long tick1,tick2; int arr[] = {12, 11,
13, 5, 6, 7};
int arr_size = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);

printf("Given array is \n"); printArray(arr,

arr_size);
tick1=clock(); mergeSort(arr, 0,
arr_size - 1);
tick2=clock(); long elapsed=tick2-
tick1; printf("\nSorted array is \n");
double elapsed_time = ((double)elapsed/CLOCKS_PER_SEC);
 printArray(arr, arr_size);

printf("Time taken by the CPU is %lf seconds \n",elapsed_time);

return 0;
}

PROGRAM 50

VIVA 10

OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT
Thus the Implementation of merge sort to sort an array of elements and the time required
was executed and determined successfully.
Output:
EX NO :12B QUICK SORT
DATE:

AIM
To Implement Quick sort methods to sort an array of elements and determine the time
required to sort.

ALGORITHM
Step 1 − Pick an element from an array, call it as pivot element.
Step 2 − Divide an unsorted array element into two arrays.
Step 3 − If the value less than pivot element come under first sub array, the remaining
elements with value greater than pivot come in second sub array.

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h> #include
<time.h>
void quicksort(int number[25],int first,int last){
int i, j, pivot, temp;
sleep(10); if(first<last){
pivot=first;
i=first; j=last;
while(i<j){
while(number[i]<=number[pivot]&&i<last)
i++; while(number[j]>number[pivot])
j--;
if(i<j){
temp=number[i];
number[i]=number[j];
number[j]=temp;
}
}
temp=number[pivot];
number[pivot]=number[j];
number[j]=temp; quicksort(number,first,j-
1); quicksort(number,j+1,last);
 }
} int
main(){ int
i, count,

number[25
]; long
tick1,tick2
;

printf("How many elements are u going to enter?: "); scanf("%d",&count);

printf("Enter %d elements: ", count);
for(i=0;i<count;i++)
scanf("%d",&number[i]);
tick1=clock();
quicksort(number,0,count-1);
tick2=clock(); long elapsed
=tick2-tick1;
double elapsed_time = ((double)elapsed/CLOCKS_PER_SEC);
printf("Order of Sorted elements: ");
for(i=0;i<count;i++)
printf(" %d",number[i]);
printf("Time taken by the CPU is %lf seconds \n",elapsed_time);
return 0;
}

PROGRAM 50

VIVA 10

OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT
Thus the Implementation of Quick sort to sort an array of elements and the time required
to sort was executed and determined successfully.
Output:
EX NO :13 N-QUEENS PROBLEM
DATE:

AIM
To Implement N Queens problem using Backtracking

ALGORITHM
1. Initialize an empty chessboard of size NxN.
2. Start with the leftmost column and place a queen in the first row of that column.
3. Move to the next column and place a queen in the first row of that column.
4. Repeat step 3 until either all N queens have been placed or it is impossible to place a
queen in the current column without violating the rules of the problem.
5. If all N queens have been placed, print the solution.
6. If it is not possible to place a queen in the current column without violating the rules of
the problem, backtrack to the previous column.
7. Remove the queen from the previous column and move it down one row.
8. Repeat steps 4-7 until all possible configurations have been tried.

PROGRAM

#define N 4
#include <stdbool.h>
#include <stdio.h>

void printSolution(int board[N][N])

{ for (int i = 0; i< N; i++) { for (int j = 0; j < N;
j++) printf(" %d ", board[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
}

bool isSafe(int board[N][N], int row, int col)

{
int i, j;
 /* Check this row on left side */
for (i = 0; i< col; i++) if
(board[row][i])
return false;
/* Check upper diagonal on left side */ for (i
= row, j = col; i>= 0 && j >= 0; i--, j--)
if (board[i][j])
return false;

/* Check lower diagonal on left side */ for (i

= row, j = col; j >= 0 &&i< N; i++, j--) if
(board[i][j]) return false;

return true;
}

/* A recursive utility function to solve N

Queen problem */
bool solveNQUtil(int board[N][N], int col)
{
/* base case: If all queens are
placed then return true */ if (col >=
N) return true;

/* Consider this column and try

placing this queen in all rows one by
one */ for (int i = 0; i< N; i++) {
/* Check if the queen can be placed on
board[i][col] */ if
(isSafe(board, i, col)) {
/* Place this queen in board[i][col] */
board[i][col] = 1;

/* recur to place rest of the queens */

if (solveNQUtil(board, col + 1))
return true;

/* If placing queen in board[i][col]

doesn't lead to a solution, then
remove queen from board[i][col] */
board[i][col] = 0; // BACKTRACK
}
 /* If the queen cannot be placed in any row in
this column col then return false */
return false;
}

bool solveNQ()
{
int board[N][N] = { { 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0 } };

if (solveNQUtil(board, 0) == false) {
printf("Solution does not exist");
return false;
}

printSolution(board);
return true;
}

// driver program to test above function

int main()
{ solveNQ();
return 0;
}

PROGRAM 50
VIVA 10
OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT
Thus to Implement N Queens problem using Backtracking was executed successfully.
Output:
EX NO :14 TRAVELLING SALESPERSON PROBLEM
DATE:

AIM
To find the optimal solution for the Traveling Salesperson problem and then solve the
same problem instance using any approximation algorithm and determine the error in the
approximation.

ALGORITHM
1. Start on an arbitrary vertex as current vertex.
2. Find out the shortest edge connecting current vertex and an unvisited vertex V.
3. Set current vertex to V.
4. Mark V as visited.
5. If all the vertices in domain are visited, then terminate.
6. Go to step 2.
7. The sequence of the visited vertices is the output of the algorithm.

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h> int
a[10][10],n,visit[10]; int
cost_opt=0,cost_apr=0; int
least_apr(int c); int
least_opt(int c);

void mincost_opt(int city)

{ int i,ncity;
visit[city]=1;
printf("%d-->",city);
ncity=least_opt(city);
if(ncity==999)
{ ncity=1;
printf("%d",ncity);
cost_opt+=a[city][ncity]
; return;
} mincost_opt(ncity);
} void mincost_apr(int
city)
{ int i,ncity;
visit[city]=1;
printf("%d-->",city);
ncity=least_apr(city); if(ncity==999)
{ ncity=1;
printf("%d",ncity);
cost_apr+=a[city][ncity]
; return;
} mincost_apr(ncity);
}

int least_opt(int c)
{ int i,nc=999; int
min=999,kmin=999;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{ if((a[c][i]!=0)&&(visit[i]==0))
if(a[c][i]<min)
{ min=a[i][1]+a[c][i];
kmin=a[c][i]; nc=i;
}
}
if(min!=999)
cost_opt+=kmin; return
nc;
}

int least_apr(int c)
{ int i,nc=999; int
min=999,kmin=999;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{ if((a[c][i]!=0)&&(visit[i]==0))
if(a[c][i]<kmin) {
min=a[i][1]+a[c][i]; kmin=a[c][i]; nc=i;
}
} if(min!=999)
cost_apr+=kmin;
return nc;
} void
main()
{
int i,j;
printf("Enter No. of cities:\n");
scanf("%d",&n);

printf("Enter the cost matrix\n"); for(i=1;i<=n;i++)

 { printf("Enter elements of
row:%d\n",i ); for(j=1;j<=n;j++)
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]); visit[i]=0;
} printf("The cost
list is \n");
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{ printf("\n\n");
for(j=1;j<=n;j++)
printf("\t%d",a[i][j]);
} printf("\n\n Optimal
Solution :\n"); printf("\n The path
is :\n"); mincost_opt(1); printf("\n
Minimum cost:");
printf("%d",cost_opt);

printf("\n\n Approximated Solution :\n");

for(i=1;i<=n;i++) visit[i]=0;
printf("\n The path is :\n");
mincost_apr(1); printf("\nMinimum
cost:"); printf("%d",cost_apr);
printf("\n\nError in approximation is approximated solution/optimal
solution=%f", (float)cost_apr/cost_opt); }

PROGRAM 50
VIVA 10
OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100

RESULT
Thus the optimal solution for the Traveling Salesperson problem using approximation
algorithm was executed successfully.
Output:
 EX NO :15 FINDING THE Kth SMALLEST NUMBER
DATE:

AIM
To implement randomized algorithms for finding the kth smallest number.

ALGORITHM
1. check if k>0&& k<=r-l+1:

● declare pos as randomPartition(arr,l,r).

● check if pos-1==k-1 than return arr[pos].
● check if pos-1>k-1 than recursively call kthsmallest(arr,l,pos-1,k).
● return recursively call kthsmallest(arr,pos+1,r,k-pos+l-1).
2. return INT_MAX.
PROGRAM

#include<iostream>
#include<climits> #include<cstdlib>
using namespace std;
int randomPartition(int arr[], int l, int r);

// This function returns k'th smallest element in arr[l..r] using

// QuickSort based method. ASSUMPTION: ELEMENTS IN ARR[] ARE DISTINCT int
kthSmallest(int arr[], int l, int r, int k)
{
// If k is smaller than number of elements in array
if (k > 0 && k <= r - l + 1)
{
// Partition the array around a random element
and // get position of pivot element in sorted array
int pos = randomPartition(arr, l, r);

// If position is same as
k if (pos-l == k-1)
return arr[pos];
 if (pos-l > k-1) // If position is more, recur for left subarray
return kthSmallest(arr, l, pos-1, k);

// Else recur for right subarr

return kthSmallest(arr, pos+1, r, k-pos+l-1); }

// If k is more than the number of elements in the array

return INT_MAX;
}

void swap(int *a, int *b)

{ int temp = *a; *a =
*b;
*b = temp;
}

// Standard partition process of QuickSort(). It considers the last

// element as pivot and moves all smaller element to left of it and //
greater elements to right. This function is used by randomPartition()
int partition(int arr[], int l, int r)
{ int x = arr[r], i = l; for (int j = l; j
<= r - 1; j++)
{ if (arr[j] <= x)
{ swap(&arr[i], &arr[j]); i++;
}
}
swap(&arr[i], &arr[r]);
return i;
}

// Picks a random pivot element between l and r and partitions //

arr[l..r] around the randomly picked element using partition()
int randomPartition(int arr[], int l, int r)
{ int n = r-l+1; int pivot = rand() % n;
swap(&arr[l + pivot],
&arr[r]); return partition(arr, l,
r);
}
// Driver program to test above methods
int main()
{ int arr[] = {12, 3, 5, 7, 4, 19, 26}; int n =
sizeof(arr)/sizeof(arr[0]), k = 3;

cout<< "K'th smallest element is " <<kthSmallest(arr, 0, n-1, k);

return 0;
}

PROGRAM 50

VIVA 10

OUTPUT 20
TOTAL 100
RESULT

Thus the program to implement randomized algorithms for finding the kth smallest
number was executed successfully.

Output: