CSC200: Introduction to Computers

Lecture 3
Title: Computer hardware component

Description
In lecture 2, we described in broad terms the various units of a computer system, namely, input,
process, storage and output units. In this lecture, the devices for the units will be discussed in
greater details to allow students to completely identify different components of a computer. The
primary units of measurement of storage capacity and CPU speed will be explained.

Objectives
Students will learn

1. The major hardware components of a computer system.

2. About the design and functioning of the central processing unit.
3. The relationships between microprocessor component designs and performance.
4. The main types of primary and secondary storage.
5. About how to distinguish between primary and secondary storage along the dimensions
of speed, cost, and capacity.
6. Enterprise storage and their various types.
7. Various types of input and output technologies and their uses.
8. Measurement units of memory and speed of CPU.

Computer hardware

Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitute a computer system. It
is the physical parts or components of a computer that are tangible, i.e. the components that can
be seen and touched.

Examples of hardware components are as follows:

 Input devices
 Output devices
 Central Processing Unit(CPU)
 Secondary storage (also called secondary memory, will be discussed under the
MEMORY subheading)

INPUT DEVICES
Input devices allow the user to enter information into the system, or control its operation. Most
personal computers have a mouse and keyboard, but laptop systems typically use a touchpad
instead of a mouse. Other input devices include webcams, microphones, joysticks, scanners, light
pen, track ball, Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR), Optical Character Reader (OCR), Bar Code
Reader, and Optical Mark Reader (OMR), etc.

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OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices display information in a human readable form. Such devices include speakers,
monitors, plotters, printers, etc.

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 Flat- Panel Display

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Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers:
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed on
the paper. Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:
 Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types

 Character printers
 Line printers

Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
 Daisy Wheel

Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of further two types
 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time so they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers.
 They are not noisy.
 High quality.
 Support many fonts and different character size.

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CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
The CPU is considered as the brain of the computer and it performs all types of data processing
operations. It also stores data, intermediate results and instructions (program) and controls the
operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components:

 Memory Unit(it is also called primary memory and will be discussed under the
MEMORY subheading below)
 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

CONTROL UNIT
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of this unit are:

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  It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of
a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely:
 Arithmetic section
 Logic Section

Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above
operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching
and merging of data.

CPU models and manufacturers

The power and performance of a computer depends on mainly the CPU or the Central Processing
Unit of the computer. As the brains of the computer, the CPU is the most important MVP (most
valuable player) of the system.

The speed of the CPU is defined as the number of times data and instructions are fetched from
the main memory, decoded by the control unit and then sent to the arithmetic/logic unit for
execution and final results stored to the main memory. This is also called the machine instruction
cycle. This typically occurs millions of times per second or more. Note that the units within the
CPU are connected using buses (theses are devices that carry electrical signals). That is CPU is
faster or slower depends on the

1. The preset speed of the clock that times all chip (circuitry on the silicon wafer) activities,
measured in megahertz (MHz), millions of cycles per second, and gigahertz (GHz),
billions of cycles per second. The faster the clock speed, the faster the chip. (For
example, all other factors being equal, a 1.0 GHz chip is twice as fast as a 500 MHz
chip.)
2. The word length, which is the number of bits (0s and 1s) that can be processed by the
CPU at any one time. The majority of current chips handle 32-bit word lengths, and the
Pentium 4 is designed to handle 64-bit word lengths. Therefore, the Pentium 4 chip will
process 64 bits of data in one machine cycle. The larger the word length, the faster the
chip.
3. The bus width. The wider the bus (the physical paths down which the data and
instructions travel as electrical impulses), the more data can be moved and the faster the

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 processing. A processor’s bus bandwidth is the product of the width of its bus (measured
in bits) times the frequency at which the bus transfers data (measured in megahertz). For
example, Intel’s Pentium 4 processor uses a 64-bit bus that runs at 400 MHz. That gives
it a peak bandwidth of 3.2 gigabits per second.

In some cases, the links between the devices internal to the microprocessor are distinguished
from external links. The internal links are called back-side bus and the external links (i.e.,
connections between the processor and main memory) are called front-side bus.

Computer manufacturers have found that performance is boosted if a computer has more than
one CPU. This arrangement is called Dual-core or Multi-core Processing and harnesses the
power of two processors. In this configuration, one integrated circuit contains two processors,
their caches as well as the cache controllers. These two "cores" have resources to perform tasks
in parallel, almost doubling the efficiency and performance of the computer as a whole. Dual
processor systems on the other hand have two separate physical processors in the system.

In addition to the multitasking of processors, some advances in technology such as hyper-

threading (processing multiple system intensive applications at the same time), extended memory
64 technology and dual core (two cores in one processor) are also enhancing system
responsiveness. Some resellers are using a method called "overclocking" to increase the
performance of the CPU by enabling it to run at higher speeds than those recommended by the
manufacturers.

INTEL CPU'S
Currently, Intel and AMD are the major CPU manufacturers who seem to have the market
covered. Most computers such as APPLE Macs, Gateway computers, HP computers and Dell use
processors made by the same computer manufacturers, such as Intel, AMD, etc. Some examples
of CPUs are giving below:

Multi-Core Intel Xeon Processors

The core speed of Xeon family of processors range from 1.6GHz to 3.2 GHz. These processors
are suited for specific communication applications such as telecommunications servers, search
engines, network management or storage. It provides high memory bandwidth, memory capacity
and I/O bandwidth. Examples of Computer manufacturers that use this processor in their systems
- Dell, Apple, etc.
Intel Core 2 Extreme Quad-core Processors
This first four core desktop processor is designed for multimedia applications such as
audio/video editing and rendering, 3D modeling and other intensive, high CPU demanding tasks.
With multi-core processing, the system response is improved by delegating certain tasks to
specific cores. Quad core configuration also has an unlocked clock for easier overclocking.
Examples of Computer manufacturers that use this processor in their systems - Dell, Gateway.
Intel Core 2 Duo Processors
The new Intel chipsets that feature 1333MHz bus speeds are enabling the creation of higher
performance processors at competitive prices. There are four processors: Core 2 Duo processor
E6400, Core 2 Duo processor E4300, Core 2 Duo processor T7400 and the Core 2 Duo processor
L7400. This family of processors delivers more instructions per cycle, improves system

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performance by efficiently using the memory bandwidth and is more environmentally friendly
because of its low energy consumption. Examples of Computer manufacturers that use this
processor in their systems - Apple computers, Gateway.
Intel Pentium Processors - Pentium M, Pentium 4
This family of Pentium Processors uses a micro architecture for high-performance computing
using low-power. These processors are designed for medium to large enterprise communications
applications, transaction terminals, etc. The cheapest Intel CPUs now available in the market are
the Intel Pentium models.

Intel Pentium Processors

Intel Celeron Processors

The Celeron M family is designed for the next generation mobile applications. Combining Intel's
trademark high performance stats with low power consumption, these processors are perfect for
thermally sensitive embedded and communications applications. This family of processors will
probably be used for small to medium businesses and for enterprise communications, Point on
Sale appliances and ATMs.

AMD Athlon 64 X2 Dual Core processors

Popular computer for medium to high performance computing. Boosts performance by using
dual-core technology. The Athlon 64 X2 is the best AMD value for its price.
Examples of companies that use this processor in their systems - Acer, HP, Gateway.

Other processors by AMD include:

AMD Athlon X2, AMD Sempron, AMD Turion, AMD Opteron, AMD Athlon 64 FX

COMPUTER MEMORY
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types

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  Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

Memory Capacity

As already noted CPUs process only 0s and 1s. All data are translated through computer
languages into series of these binary digits, or bits. A particular combination of bits represents a
certain alphanumeric character or simple mathematical operation. Eight bits are needed to
represent any one of these characters. This 8-bit string is known as a byte. The storage capacity
of a computer is measured in bytes. (Bits are used as units of measure typically only for
telecommunications capacity, as in how many million bits per second can be sent through a
particular medium.) The hierarchy of byte memory capacity is as follows:

 Kilobyte. Kilo means one thousand, so a kilobyte (KB) is approximately one thousand
bytes. Actually, a kilobyte is 1,024 bytes (210 bytes).
 Megabyte. Mega means one million, so a megabyte (MB) is approximately one million
bytes (1,048,576 bytes, or 1,024 x 1,024, to be exact). Most personal computers have
hundreds of megabytes of main memory.
 Gigabyte. Giga means one billion; a gigabyte (GB) is actually 1,073,741,824 bytes
(1,024 x 1,024 x 1,024 bytes). The storage capacity of a hard drive in modern personal
computers is often many gigabytes.
 Terabyte. One trillion bytes (actually, 1,078,036,791,296 bytes) is a terabyte.

To get a feel for these amounts, consider the following examples. If your computer has 256 MB
of RAM (a type of primary storage), it can store 268,435,456 bytes of data. A written word
might, on average, contain 6 bytes, so this translates to approximately 44.8 million words. If your
computer has 20 GB of storage capacity on the hard drive (a type of secondary storage) and the
average page of text has about 2,000 bytes, your hard drive could store some 10 million pages of
text.

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from
disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory has limited capacity.

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  It is very expensive.

Main Memory Unit

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
the other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main
memory or primary storage.
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working.
It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction
required to be processed reside in main memory.
Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories
 It is known as main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Random Access Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program
and program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As
soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with computers.
RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Read Only Memory

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. One can only read but cannot write on it. This type of
memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This
operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in
other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

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Following are the various types of ROM:

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. It can be programmed only once
and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire
chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
 Non-volatile in nature
 These cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 These are static and do not require refreshing
 Its contents are always known and can be verified

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. Examples include:
hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.

Characteristic of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories
 It is known as backup memory.
 It is non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

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Hard drive interfaces
Hard drives come with one of several different connectors built in. The five types are ATA/IDE
and SATA for consumer-level drives, and SCSI, Serial Attached SCSI (SAS), and Fibre Channel
for enterprise-class drives.

ATA/IDE Cable
For many years, Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA) connections were the favored internal
drive connection in PCs. Apple adopted ATA with the Blue and White G3 models. ATA drives
must be configured as either a master or a slave when connecting. This is usually accomplished
by the use of a hardware jumper or, more recently, through the use of a cable that can tell the
drive to act as either a master or slave.

ATA also goes by the name ATAPI, IDE, EIDE and PATA, which stands for Parallel ATA.
ATA is still in use in many computers today, but most drive manufacturers are switching over to
SATA (Serial ATA).

SATA
As of 2007, most new computers (Macs and PCs, laptops and desktops) use the newer SATA
interface. It has a number of advantages, including longer cables, faster throughput, multidrive
support through port multiplier technology, and easier configuration. SATA drives can also be
used with eSATA hardware to enable fast, inexpensive configuration as an external drive. Most
people investing in new hard drive enclosures for photo storage should be using SATA drives.

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SCSI/SAS and Fibre Channel
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI), SAS, and Fibre Channel drives are rare in desktop
computers, and are typically found in expensive enterprise-level storage systems. You can also
find SAS drives (along with the necessary SAS controller cards) in video editing systems where
maximum throughput is needed.

References
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/computer-hardware
2. www.tutorialspoint.com/computer-fundamentals/computer_ram.html
3. www.geekswhoknow.com/articles/cpu.php
4. http://www.dpbestflow.org/data-storage-hardware/hard-drive-101#interfaces
5. www.wiley.com/college/turban/0471073806/sc/ch03.pdf (CPU Speed and Memory
Capacity)

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