Unit 2

Mobile Radio Propagation

Source: Theodore S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications Principles and Practice, 2nd Edition, Pearson Education, 2003.
I. Large Scale Fading
1. Free Space Propagation Model
• The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength
when the transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path
between them.
• Example: Satellite communication systems and microwave line-of-sight radio
links.
• The free space model predicts that received power decays as a function of the T-
R separation distance raised to some power (i.e. a power law function).
• The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is separated from a
radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by the Friis free space
equation,
• The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor Pr for for values of d which are
in the far-field of the 'transmitting antenna.
• The far-field, or Fraunhofer region, of a transmitting antenna is defined as the
region beyond the far-field distance df, which is related to the largest linear
dimension of the transmitter antenna aperture and the carrier wavelength.
• The Fraunhofer distance is given by

where D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna.

• Additionally, to be in the far-field region, df must satisfy
2. The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms
3. Reflection
3.1. Reflection from Dielectrics
• This example illustrates that ground may
be modeled as a perfect reflector with a
reflection coefficient of unit magnitude
when an incident wave grazes the earth,
regardless of polarization or ground
dielectric properties
3.2. Reflection from Conductors
4. Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model
5. Diffraction
5.1. Fresnel Zone Geometry
α
5.2. Knife-edge Diffraction Model
• The normalized electric field produced at the receiver, relative to
the LOS path (free space field) is,

• The diffraction gain due to the presence of a knife edge, as

compared to the free space E-field, is given by
• A graphical representation of Gd (dB) as a function of u is given in
Figure 3.14.
5.3.Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction
• In many practical situations, especially in hilly terrain, the propagation path
may consist of more than one obstruction, in which case the total
diffraction loss due to all of the obstacles must be computed.
• Bullington suggested that the series of obstacles be replaced by a single
equivalent obstacle so that the path loss can be obtained using single knife-
edge diffraction models.
6. Scattering
• Scattering occurs when medium has objects that are smaller or
comparable to the wavelength of the signal.
• Scattered waves are produced by droplets, rough surfaces, rain drops,
snow, small objects, or by irregularities in the channel, foliage, street signs
etc.
▪ The actual received signal in a mobile radio environment is often stronger
than what is predicted by reflection and diffraction models alone.
▪ This is because when a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected
energy is spread out (diffused) in all directions due to scattering.
▪ Objects such as lamp posts and trees tend to scatter energy in all directions,
thereby providing additional radio energy at a receiver.
▪ Flat surface may be modeled EM reflection (one direction).
▪ Rough surface may be modeled EM scattering (many directions).

▪ Surface roughness is often tested using the Rayleigh criterion which defines a
critical height (ℎ𝑐 ) of surface protuberances for a given angle of incidence 𝜃𝑖 ,
given by
𝜆
ℎ𝑐 =
8 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖
▪ If minimum to maximum roughness height h < ℎ𝑐 then the surface is smooth
▪ If minimum to maximum roughness height h > ℎ𝑐 then the surface is rough
• Ament assumed that the surface height h is a Gaussian distributed random
variable with a local mean and found Scattering loss factor 𝜌𝑠 to be given by:

2
𝜋𝜎ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖
𝜌𝑠 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −8
𝜆

where 𝜎ℎ is the standard deviation of the surface height about the mean surface
height.

• The scattering loss factor derived by Ament was modified by Boithias to give
better agreement with measured results, and is given by:
2 2
𝜋𝜎ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 𝜋𝜎ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖
𝜌𝑠 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −8 𝐼𝑜 8
𝜆 𝜆
where 𝐼𝑜 is the Bessel function of the first kind and zero order.
• For rough surface, the flat surface reflection coefficient is multiplied by
scattering loss factor ρs to account for diminished electric field

• The reflected E-fields for ℎ > ℎ𝑐 can be solved for rough surfaces using a
modified reflection coefficient given as:
Γ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑠 Γ
6.1 Radar Cross Section Model

• In radio channels where large, distant objects induce scattering. So the

knowledge of physical location of such objects can be used to accurately
predict scattered signal strengths.

• The radar cross section (RCS) of a scattering object is defined as the ratio
of the power density of the signal scattered in the direction of the receiver
to the power density of the radio wave incident upon the scattering object,
and has units of square meters.

• For urban mobile radio systems, the bistatic radar equation based models
may be used to compute the received power due to scattering in the far
field.
• The bistatic radar equation describes the propagation of a wave traveling in free
space which impinges on a distant scattering object, and is then reradiated in
the direction of the receiver, given by

𝑃𝑅 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 𝑃𝑇 𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 𝐺𝑇 𝑑𝐵𝑖 + 20 log 𝜆 + 𝑅𝐶𝑆 𝑑𝐵𝑚2

−30 log 4𝜋 − 20 log 𝑑𝑇 − 20 log 𝑑𝑅

Where
𝑑𝑇 distance from the scattering object to the transmitter
𝑑𝑅 distance from the scattering object to the receiver

• The above Equation may be applied to scatterers in the far-field of both the
transmitter and receiver and is useful for predicting receiver power which
scatters off large objects, such as buildings, which are for both the transmitter
and receiver.
7. Practical Link Budget Design using Path Loss Models

• The early models (like two-ray, knife-edge diffraction) are oversimplified.

• Most radio propagation models are derived using a combination of analytical

and empirical models.
• Empirical method is based on collecting measurement data and fitting
into curves
• Analytical methods model the propagation mechanism mathematically
and derive equations for path loss

𝑃𝑟 (d) = 𝑃𝑡 − 𝑃𝐿 (𝑑)
• Over many years, some classical propagation models have been developed,
which are used to predict large-scale coverage for mobile communication
system design.

• By using path loss estimation models to estimate the received signal level
as a function of distance, it becomes possible to predict the SNR for a
mobile communication system.
✓ Log-Distance Path Loss Model

✓ Log-Normal Shadowing model

7.1. Log-Distance Path Loss Model
• The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R separation is
expressed as a function of distance by using a path loss exponent, n.
𝑛
𝑑
𝑃𝐿 𝑑 ∝
𝑑𝑜
or
𝑑
𝑃𝐿 𝑑 [𝑑B] = 𝑃𝐿 𝑑𝑜 [dB] + 10𝑛 log
𝑑𝑜
Where
n: path loss exponent which indicates the rate at which the path loss increases
with distance,
𝑑𝑜 : reference distance which is determined from measurements close to the
transmitter,
𝑑: T-R separation distance. More is the distance d more is the path loss 𝑃𝐿
• The bars in equations denote the ensemble average of all possible path loss
values for a given value of d.
• When plotted on a log-log scale, the modeled path loss is a straight line with a
slope equal to 10n dB per decade.
• The value of n depends on the specific propagation environment. For example,
in free space, n is equal to 2, and when obstructions are present, n will have a
larger value.
7.2. Log-Normal Shadowing Path Loss Model
• Log-distance path loss gives only the average value of path loss. It does
not consider the shadowing effects.
• Surrounding environment may be vastly different at two locations having
the same T–R separation d.
• More accurate model includes a random variable to account for change
in environment.

and
• The log-normal distribution describes the random shadowing effects
which occur over a large number of measurement locations which have
the same T-R separation. This phenomenon is referred to as log-normal
shadowing.
• Q function or error function (erf) can be used to determine the probability
that the received signal will exceed (or fall below) a particular level.
Outage probability:

• The probability that the received signal level (in dB power unit) will
exceed a certain value 𝜸 can be calculated from the cumulative density
function as:

• The probability that the received signal level will be below 𝜸 can be
calculated from:
7.3. Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area
II. Small-Scale Fading
Introduction to Small-scale fading
• Small-scale fading, or simply fading, is used to describes the rapid
fluctuation of the amplitudes, phases, or multipath delays of a radio signal
over a short period of time or travel distance.
• Fading is caused by interference between two or more versions of the
transmitted signal (out of phase) which arrive at the receiver at slightly
different times.
• These waves, called multipath waves, combine vectorially at the receiver
antenna to give a resultant signal which can vary widely in amplitude and
phase, produce a fade or distortion.
• At a receiver the radio waves generated by same transmitted signal may
come
I. From different directions
II. With different propagation delays
III. With different amplitudes
IV. With different phases
 1. Small-scale multipath propagation
• Multipath in the radio channel creates small-scale fading effects.
• The three most important fading effects are
I. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval.
II. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different multipath
signals
III. Time dispersions (echos) caused by multipath propagation delays

• In built-up urban areas, fading occurs because:

I. the height of the mobile antennas are well below the height of the surrounding
structures (So NLOS to the base station)
II. Even in LOS exists, reflection from the ground and surrounding structures
III. Even when a mobile receiver is stationary, the received signal may fade due to a non-
stationary nature of the channel (reflecting objects can be moving)
2. Factors Influencing Small-scale Fading
• The following physical factors in the radio propagation channel influence small-
scale fading:
I. Multipath propagation:
• The presence of reflecting objects and scatterers in the space between
transmitter and receiver creates a constantly changing channel environment
that dissipates signal energy in amplitude, phase, and time.
• Causes the signal at receiver to fade or distort.
II. Speed of the mobile receiver:
• The relative motion between the transmitter and receiver results in a random
frequency modulation due to different Doppler shifts on each of the
multipath signals. (The shift in received signal frequency due to motion is
called the Doppler shift)
• Doppler shift may be positive or negative depending on whether the mobile
receiver is moving toward or away from the base station.
3. Speed of the surrounding objects:
• If the objects in the radio channel are in motion, they introduce a time
varying Doppler shift on multipath components.
• If the speed of surrounding objects is greater than mobile, then this effect
dominates the small-scale fading.
• If the surrounding objects are slower than the mobile, then their effect can be
ignored.
4. The transmission bandwidth of the signal:
• Coherent bandwidth: bandwidth of the multipath channel.
• The received signal will be distorted if the transmission bandwidth is greater
than the channel coherent bandwidth.
3. Doppler shift
• Due to the relative motion between the mobile receiver and base station, each
multipath wave experiences an apparent shift in frequency.

• The shift in received signal frequency due to motion is called the Doppler shift.

• It is directly proportional to
1. the velocity of the mobile and
2. the direction of motion of the mobile with respect to the direction of arrival
of the received wave.
• Consider a mobile moving at a constant velocity v, along a path segment having
length d between points X and Y.
• The mobile receives signals from a remote source S as illustrated in figure.
• The difference in path lengths traveled by the wave from source S to the mobile
at points X and Y is called path length difference.

where ∆t is the time required for the mobile to travel

from X and Y
θ angle of arrival of the wave,
is assumed to be same at X and Y since the
source is very far away from.
• The phase change in the received signal due to the path length differences is
therefore:

• And the apparent change in frequency, or Doppler shift, is given by fd:

∴ ∆∅=∆w x ∆t
∆∅=∆2πf x ∆t

• If mobile is moving towards the direction of arrival of the wave, the Doppler
shift is positive (apparent received frequency is increased i.e. fc+fd).
• If mobile is moving away from the direction of arrival of the wave, the Doppler
shift is negative(apparent received frequency is decreased i.e. fc-fd).
Example: A vehicle is travelling at 60km/hr towards a BS of height 30m. The MS is
at 1 km from BS and the frequency of operation is 900 MHz. What is the received
frequency at the MS?
Example: If the geometric distance between the top of the tower and mobile is 25km
and the tower height is 90 meter, find the received frequency at the mobile for the
following cases assuming that the operative frequency is 920MHz and velocity of the
mobile is 20km/hr.

A) mobile is moving towards the direction of arrival of the wave

B) moving away from the direction of arrival of the wave
C)at an angle of 45 degrees to the direction of arrival of the wave
4. Parameters of mobile multipath channels
• Multipath channel parameters are used to compare different multipath
channels and to develop some general design guidelines for wireless
systems.
• Power delay profiles are:
i. used to derive many multipath channel parameters
ii. represented as plots of relative received power (𝑎𝑘2 ) as a function of
excess delay (τ) with respect to a fixed time delay reference.
• Instantaneous multipath power delay profile is given by

• The total receiving power is related to the sum of the powers in the
individual multipath components.
• Power delay profiles are found by averaging instantaneous power delay
profile measurements over a local area in order to determine an average
small-scale power delay profile.
• Assuming that the received power from the multipath components forms a
random process where each component has a random amplitude and
phase at any time t, the average small-scale received power is:
The average small-scale received
power is simply the sum of the
average powers received in each
multipath component
Parameters of mobile multipath channels
1. The time dispersion parameters:
• These mobile multipath channel parameters can be determined from a
power delay profile. The time dispersion mobile multipath channels are:

i. mean excess delay (𝜏)ҧ

ii. rms delay spread (𝜎𝜏 )
iii. excess delay spread (X dB)

• The time dispersive properties of wide band multipath channels are most
commonly quantified by their mean excess delay (𝜏)ҧ and rms delay spread
(𝜎𝜏 )
i. Mean excess delay:
• The mean excess delay (𝜏)ҧ is the first moment of the power delay profile and is
defined as

Where

• The central moment is the moment of probability distribution of a random

variable about its mean.
ii. RMS Delay Spread:
• The rms delay spread (𝜎𝜏) is the square root of the second central moment
(variance) of the power delay profile and is defined to be

Where

• The rms delay spread parameter is used to characterize the multipath

channel in time domain
• The mean excess delay and rms delay spread are measured relative to the first
detectable signal arriving at the receiver at 𝜏0 =0.

• 𝜏ҧ and 𝜏 2 do not rely on the absolute power level, but only the relative amplitudes
of the multipath components.

• Typical values of rms delay spread are on the order of

i. microseconds in outdoor mobile radio channel
ii. nanoseconds in indoor radio channels
iii. Maximum Excess Delay
• The maximum excess delay (X dB) of the power delay profile is defined to be the
time delay during which multipath energy falls to X dB below the maximum.

• If 𝜏0 is the first arriving signal and 𝜏𝑋 is the maximum delay at which a multipath
component is with X dB of the strongest multipath signal (which does not
necessarily arrive at 𝜏0 ), then the maximum excess delay is defined as
Example of an indoor power delay profile; rms delay spread, mean excess delay,
maximum excess delay (10dB), and the threshold level are shown
ii. Coherence Bandwidth

• The rms delay spread parameter is used to characterize the multipath channel in
time domain, coherence bandwidth is used to characterize the multipath
channel in frequency domain.
• The rms delay spread and coherence bandwidth are inversely proportional to
one another, although their exact relationship is a function of the exact
multipath structure.
• Coherent bandwidth, Bc, is a statistic measure of the range of frequencies over
which the channel can be considered to be “flat”.
• In other words, coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which
two frequency components have strong correlation between amplitudes.
• Flat channel means a channel which passes all frequency components with
approximately equal gain and linear phase.
• Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than Bc are affected quite
differently by the channel.

• If the coherent bandwidth is defined as the bandwidth over which the frequency
correlation function is above 0.9, then the coherent bandwidth is approximately

where 𝜎𝜏 is the rms delay spread

• If the definition is relaxed so that the frequency correlation function is above 0.5,
then the coherence bandwidth is approximately

Important

• This is called 50% coherence bandwidth.

Example:
For a multipath channel, rms delay spread 𝜎𝜏 is given as 1.37ms. Then what is the
50% coherence bandwidth?
Solution: 146kHz.
• This means that, for a good transmission from a transmitter to a receiver, the
range of transmission frequency (channel bandwidth) should not exceed 146kHz,
so that all frequencies in this band experience the same channel characteristics
(gain and linear phase).
iii. Doppler Spread and Coherence time

• RMS delay spread and coherence bandwidth parameters describe the time
dispersive nature of the channel in a local area.

• However, they do not offer information about the time varying nature of the
channel caused by relative motion of transmitter and receiver.

• Doppler Spread BD and Coherence time Tc are parameters which describe the
time varying nature of the channel in a small-scale region.

• Time varying nature of channel caused either by relative motion between BS

and mobile or by motions of objects in channel are categorized by BD and Tc
• Doppler Spread BD is a measure of spectral broadening caused by motion.
• When a pure sinusoidal tone of fc is transmitted, the received signal spectrum,
called the Doppler spectrum, will have components in the range fc-fd and fc+fd,
where fd is the Doppler shift.
• The amount of spectral broadening depends on Doppler shift fd. And fd is a
function of the relative velocity of the mobile, and the angle of arrival of the
scattered waves
• Coherence time Tc is the time domain dual of Doppler spread and is used to
characterize the time varying nature of the frequency dispersiveness of the
channel in the time domain.

fm : maximum Doppler shift given by fm= v/λ = fdmax

v : speed of the mobile λ: speed of the light

• If the coherent time is defined as the time over which the time correlation
function is above 0.5, then
Ex. 2. Calculate coherence time if it is defined as the time over which the time
correlation function is above 0.5 and Doppler spread if carrier frequency 1900MHz
and velocity of mobile receiver is 50meters/sec.
Solution:
5. Types of Small-Scale Fading
• Type of fading depends on the nature of the transmitted signal (such as
bandwidth, symbol period etc.) with respect to the characteristics of the channel
(such as rms delay spread, Doppler spread etc.)

A. Multipath delay spread: leads to time dispersion and frequency selective fading.

B. Doppler spread: leads to frequency dispersion and time selective fading.

• Multipath delay spread and Doppler spread are independent of one another.
6. Fading effects due to multipath delay spread

• Time dispersion due to multipath delay spread leads to flat fading or frequency
selective fading.

1. Flat Fading:
• If the channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth
which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal, the received
signal will undergo flat fading.
• The multipath structure of the channel is such that the spectral characteristics
of the transmitted signal are preserved at the receiver.
• However, the received signal strength changes with time due to fluctuations in
the gain of the channel caused by multipath.
Flat fading channel characteristic:
• Flat fading channel is also called amplitude varying channel.
• Also called narrow band channel: bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow as
compared to the channel bandwidth.
• A signal undergoes flat fading if

Common rule of thumb

2.Frequency-Selective Fading
• If the channel possesses a constant-gain and linear phase response over a
bandwidth that is smaller than the bandwidth of transmitted signal, then the
channel creates frequency-selective fading on the received signal.
• The received signal includes multiple versions of the transmitted signal which are
attenuated (faded) and delayed in time, and hence received signal is distorted.
Frequency selective fading channel characteristic:

• Frequency selective fading channels are also known as wideband channels

since the bandwidth of the signal is wider than the bandwidth of the channel
impulse response
• As time varies, the channel varies in gain and phase across the spectrum of
transmitted signal resulting in time varying distortion in the received signal.
• Frequency-selective fading is due to time dispersion of the transmitted
symbols within the channel.
– Waveform is distorted by inter-symbol interference (ISI)
– Equalization is required
• For frequency-selective fading

Common rule of thumb

• Frequency-selective fading channels are much more difficult to model than

flat fading channels.
B. Fading Effects Due to Doppler Spread
• Depending upon how rapidly the transmitted baseband signal changes as
compared to the rate of change of the channel, a channel may be classified
either as a fast fading or slow fading channel.
1. Fast Fading
• In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse response changes rapidly within
the symbol duration. i.e. the coherent time (Tc) of the channel is smaller than
the symbol period (Ts) of the transmitted signal.
• This causes frequency dispersion (also called time selective fading) due to
Doppler spreading, which leads to signal distortion.
• A signal undergoes fast fading if
2. Slow Fading

• In a slow fading channel, the channel impulse response changes at a

rate much slower than the transmitted baseband signal. i.e. The
Doppler spread of the channel is much less then the bandwidth of the
baseband signal.
• A signal undergoes slow fading if