Tribhuvan University

Institute of Engineering
Engineering Hydrology
Chapter 4: Surface Runoff, (8 hours, 18%)
Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha
[email protected]; 9851006010

April 14, 2024

 4.0 Surface Runoff- Process
• Precipitation
• Infiltration
• Percolation
• Sub-surface flow
• Interflow
• Surface flow – runoff
• Sheet flow
• Concentrated flow – rivulet, brook, stream, river
 Runoff

Streams

Rivers
Precipitation
Evaporation

Transpiration

Interception
Evaporation

Throughfall
Stem Flow

Runoff
Uptake
Infiltration Subsurface Flow
 4.1 Drainage Basins and its Quantitative Characteristics
• A drainage basin (river catchment) is an area of land drained by a river
and its tributaries; when it rains in this area, the water goes towards the
main river and ends up at the river’s mouth.
• Quantitative Characteristics:
1. Catchment area and hypsometric curve
2. Catchment Centroid (x, y) in degrees/meters or northing/easting, z in meters (mamsl)
3. Catchment Slope, maximum and minimum elevations of the catchment divide
4. Land use/Land Cover (LULC) and local depression areas
5. Average infiltration for different return-period rainfall events, and Runoff Coefficient
6. Length and Slope of the Main River and major tributaries
7. Drainage Density and order of the tributaries
8. Surface soil type and the area of each soil type
9. Spatial distribution of rainfall in the catchment
10. Time series data of rainfall in the catchment (average, maximum and minimum)
11. Evapotranspiration from the catchment
12. Time series data of radiation, temperature, humidity, pressure, and wind speed
13. Intensity-Duration-Frequency and Depth-Area-Duration curves of the catchment
14. Groundwater recharge rate and volume in the catchment
15. Long term flow, peak flood flow, minimum flow from the river mouth of the catchment
16. Sediment type and discharge of each sediment type out of the catchment
Additional info: http://www.ijstm.com/images/short_pdf/1415296455_P39-50.pdf
 4.2 Factors Affecting Runoff from a Catchment

Kaligandaki River
 4.2 Factors Affecting Runoff from a Catchment
• Catchment factors Meteorological Factors:
• Basin size, shape, slope • Storm Characteristics
• Nature of the valley: wide, narrow • Initial loss
• Elevation • Evapotranspiration
• Drainage density

• Infiltration factors
• Land-use and land-cover Basin Catchment
• Soil type & geological conditions
• Depression storages

• Channel characteristics
• Cross section
• Roughness:
– river bed, river banks
• Storage capacity
 4.3 Rainfall-Runoff Relationship
• Various forms of rainfall-runoff relations can be
developed based on specific rainfall and associated
runoff data
• Linear relationship: Q = a P + C
• Non-linear relationship: Exponential/Power/
Polynomial
– Q = discharge (weekly, monthly) from Direct Runoff
Hydrograph
– P = Precipitation

A rainfall-runoff models using effective rainfall

 4.3 Rainfall-Runoff Relationship
Linear type relation
• R = a P + b; R = runoff, P = precipitation, a and b are linear regression constants
• a = [N(SPR) – (SP)(SR)]/[N(SP2)-(SP)2]
• b = [SR – a(SP)]/N
*N(SPR) – (SP)(SR)+
• 𝑟= ; 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
*N(SP2)−(SP)2+ *N(SR2)−(SR)2+
Exponential type relation
• R = bPm or
• ln R = m ln P + ln b
Multiple Regression
Y = b0 + b1 x1 +b2 x2 + b3 x3 + b4x4
Y = runoff, x1 = baseflow, x2 = autumn precipitation, x3= snow water equivalent, x4 = spring
precipitation, and bi = regression coefficients.
Unless base flow can be separated and effect of snow melt can be established (if applicable), the
relation between daily data cannot be made. Normally relation between monthly, seasonal or
annual data is made. The ratio of runoff to rainfall is Runoff Coefficient.
Steps:
Convert weekly/monthly/annual flow into depth or volume.
Convert weekly/monthly/annual precipitation into depth or volume (of same duration).
Plot the data and find the relation using appropriate regression method.
 Similar Rainfall-
Runoff Relationship
are established on
monthly or seasonal
basis to quickly
estimate the runoff
from rainfall data.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/3190
37166_Water_balance_study_of_Beas_river_Hi
machal_Pradesh_using_ARCGIS_technique_upt
o_Pong_dam/figures?lo=1
 4.4 Stream Gauging
Runoff gauged indirectly through staff gauging (stage monitoring).
Discreet
• Staff Gauge
• Sectional Staff Gauge
• Crest Gauge
Automatic/Continuous
• Laser/Radar Gauge (RLS)
• Automatic Staff Gauge
• Pressure Gauge
• Bubble Gauge
Continuous data required for generation and analysis of hydrograph.
The updated number of rivers and rivulets in Nepal, Energy Development
Commission (June 2016), is 11614.
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/06/nepal-seeks-investors-for-
10-gw-of-electricity-by-2026.html
 Discharge[m3 /s] Discharge[m3 /s]

200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400

200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400

0
2017/ 2005/
Jan Jan
2005/
2017/ Apr
Apr 2005/
Jul
2017/ 2005/
Jul Oct
2006/
2017/ Jan
Oct 2006/
Apr
2018/ 2006/
Jan Jul

rain
2006/

calc.Q
2018/ Oct
Apr

Measured Q
Snow Depth
2007/
obs.Q by H-Q Jan
2018/ 2007/
Jul Apr
2007/
2018/ Jul
Oct
2007/
Oct
2019/
2008/
Jan
Jan
Sample annual gauge

2019/ 2008/
Apr Apr
2008/
Jul
river gauge versus date/year

2019/
Jul 2008/
Oct
0

0
300

700
600
500
400
200
100

300

700
600
500
400
200
100

dail;y Rainfall [mm/day] dail;y Rainfall [mm/day]

This technology is gradually getting obsolete, replaced by radar/laser water level sensors.
However, its use for the calibration purpose is still intact.
This technology is gradually getting obsolete, replaced by radar/laser water level sensors.
Bubble Gauge

This technology is gradually getting obsolete, replaced by radar level sensors (RLS).
RLS for continuous river gauging
SW84.1 Kaliachori, Bangladesh
SW277.3 Nilkamal, Bangladesh; 60 feet cantilever truss, wide river, river course change in low flow.
 4.4 Stream Gauging (Stage Monitoring)
staff gauge, sectional staff gauge, automatic staff gauge: pressure type, float
type, laser

Staff and Crest Gauge

Crest Gauge

Automatic Gauge recorder Laser type Automatic Gauge recorder Automatic Gauge recorder
 4.4 Site Selection (for establishing gauge site)
The U.S. Geological Survey (Rantz et al., 1982) have developed nine criteria for an "ideal" gaging
site. The criteria are:
1. The stream course is straight for about 300 feet upstream and downstream of the gage site.
2. At all stages, the total flow is confined to a single channel. There is also no subsurface or
groundwater flow that bypasses the site.
3. The streambed in the vicinity of the site is not subject to scour and fill. It is also free of
aquatic plants.
4. The banks of the stream channel are permanent. They are free of brush and high enough to
contain floods.
5. The stream channel has unchanging natural controls. These controls are bedrock outcrops or
stable riffle for low flow conditions. During high flows, the controls are channel constrictions or
a cascade or falls that is not submerged at all stages.
6. At extremely low stages, a pool is present upstream from the site. This will ensure the
recording of extremely low flows and avoid the high velocities associated with high stream
flows.
7. The gaging site is far enough removed from the confluence with another stream or from tidal
effects to avoid any possible impacts on the measurement of stream stage.
8. Within the proximity of the gage site, a reach for the measurement of discharge at all
stages is available.
9. The site is accessible for installation and operation and maintenance of the gaging site. The
selection of a gaging site is again a compromise between these criteria.
 Site Selection (for establishing gauge site)
Characteristics of an ideal site for river gauging:
Parameter Reason
Straight reach
No turbulence
No drops
No sharp bends
No backwater effect
Accessible/visible
No direct impact from flow
Stable water surface
Stable cross section
Stable river bed
 4.5 Stream Flow Measurement by V-A methods

4.5.1 Current Meter: vertical axis, horizontal axis

4.5.2 Surface Float
4.5.3 Velocity Rods
• Chemical – dilution, salt dilution
• Hydraulic Structures
• Electromagnetic
• Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler
(ADCP)
 4.5.1 Current Meters
← Vertical Axis Current Meter
Horizontal Axis Current Meter ↓
 4.5.2:
4.5.3: Velocity Rod

Average stream velocity (V)

V = a * surface velocity
a = 0.85 (commonly used)

For natural rivers :

For water depth less than 2 meters: consider using α = 0.8 with an uncertainty
of about +/- 15 % at 90% confidence level.
For greater water depth, consider using α = 0.9 with an uncertainty of about
+/- 15 % at 90% confidence level.
For artificial concrete channel, consider using α = 0.9 with an uncertainty of
about +/- 15 % at 90% confidence level. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20184006015
4.5.1 Stream Flow Measurements: Cup type current meter
 Stream Discharge Measurements using cup-type current meter

Head phone to count number of revolutions Lead weight to keep hand-line vertical and
current meter stationary

Cable car for Q measurement in bigger rivers Stilling well for stage hydrograph
 Stream Discharge Measurements

Winch to control position of cable car

A-frame to elevate cable of cable car

Surface velocity measurement

Acoustic Doppler
Current profiler
(ADCP)
 Discharge (m3/s, cumec)
• Discharge = cross sectional area of flow × average river flow velocity
• Q = V × A [unit: m2 * m/s = m3/s] cusec?
V = ƒ (number of rotation, time) (traditional cup-type or propeller type
current meter); higher the velocity higher the rotation speed

Stream Flow Measurement methods (Direct and Indirect):

• Current Meter: vertical axis, horizontal axis (based on the axis along
which the cups/blades of current meter rotates)
• Surface Float: Average flow velocity = surface velocity * K
• Chemical – dilution, salt dilution: mostly for small rivers with high
turbulence. Why?
• Electromagnetic
• Acoustic/Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCP)
• Hydraulic (or gated) Structures: Q = ƒ (h) = C hn (weir/ notch)
• Slope Area Method (Section 4.6)
Some newer types of current meters display the flow velocity directly, without having to
count the number of revolutions. However, regular calibration of the current meters is
needed to ensure accuracy of the discharge measurement.
 Total Discharge = 7.065 m3/s
Total area = 20.6 m2
If distance from edge of 3rd section is 6m (not 5m), Q = ? Average Velocity = 0.343 m/s
 Numerical example of a stream discharge measurement calculation.
Distance
from bank Width Effective Depth No. of Time Area Velocity Discharge
(m) W(m) Width (m) (m) Revolution (sec) (m2) (m/sec) (m3/sec)
0.0 0
0.6 0.6 0.675 1 15 50 0.675 0.29 0.196
1.2 0.6 0.70 4 39 55 2.8 0.674 1.887
2.0 0.8 0.90 5.5 50 50 4.95 0.85 4.208
3.0 1 0.90 6.5 56 50 5.85 0.946 5.534
3.8 0.8 0.75 4.5 39 50 3.375 0.674 2.275
4.5 0.7 0.60 2.5 35 50 1.5 0.61 0.915
5.0 0.5 0.602 1 20 50 0.602 0.37 0.223
5.6 0.6 0 0
19.75 0.77 15.237

Effective width (1st) = (W1 + (W2/2))2/(2W1)

Effective width (last) = (Wn+ (Wn-1/2))2/(2Wn) Correct answer:
V = aN+b, a = 0.016, b = 0.05 Q = 1.27 m3/s
Average (stream flow) velocity = SQ / SA V = 0.064 m/s
Stream Flow Measurement using current meter, 0.6d method
V=aN+b a = 0.8 b = 0.04
Distance
from left
water Depth No. of Time Width Avg. Vel Area Discharge
edge (m) (m) Revolution (s) (m) N (m/s) (m2) (m3/s)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.6 0.3 15 45 0.92 0.33 0.31 0.28 0.08
1.5 1.2 100 90 0.95 1.11 0.93 1.14 1.06
2.5 2.1 120 80 1 1.50 1.24 2.10 2.60
3.5 2.6 130 80 1.25 1.63 1.34 3.25 4.36
5 2.2 140 80 1.25 1.75 1.44 2.75 3.96
6 1.7 90 80 1 1.13 0.94 1.70 1.60
7 1.4 70 90 1.00 0.78 0.66 1.40 0.93
7.5 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
14.59
V= a N + b
a = 0.0113; b = 0.0059
N= no. of revolution in 60 sec
(in this example)
Sample Discharge measurement and
calculation sheet.
 Surface Velocity method
Float travel distance (in m) = 10
Distance Surface Velocity Coefficient = 0.6
from Initial Effective Surface Mean
Point Water Depth Width Area of Velocity Velocity
(m) (cm) (m) flow (m2) Time Sec. (m/s) (m/s)
0.00 9.00 0 0 t1 13.00 0.769 0.46
0.50 16.00 0.56 0.09 t2 14.10 0.709 0.43
1.00 30.00 0.50 0.15 t3 13.60 0.735 0.44
1.50 31.00 0.50 0.16 t4 15.10 0.662 0.40
2.00 35.00 0.50 0.18 t5 16.50 0.606 0.36
2.50 37.00 0.50 0.19 t6 21.20 0.472 0.28
3.00 41.00 0.50 0.21 t7 15.50 0.645 0.39
3.50 42.00 0.50 0.21 t8 15.00 0.667 0.40
4.00 36.00 0.50 0.18 t9 13.70 0.730 0.44
4.50 17.00 0.50 0.09 t10 14.10 0.709 0.43
4.80 14.00 0 0 Average 0.40 m/s
Total Flow Area = 1.44 Discharge 0.58 m3/s

Surface velocity is converted to mean velocity by using surface velocity coefficient.

Discharge = average of the mean velocity * total area of flow
 4.6 Stream Flow Computation by Slope Area Method
Indirect method of flow estimation, assuming uniform flow, using Manning’s Formula
Energy equation: 𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟐
𝒁𝟏 + 𝒚𝟏 + = 𝒁𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + + 𝒉𝑳
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
Z + y = h (water surface elevation above the datum; hL = hf + he
𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟐
𝒉𝟏 + = 𝒉𝟐 + + 𝒉𝒆 + 𝒉𝒇 → 𝒉𝒇 = 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 + − − 𝒉𝒆
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈

𝒉𝒇 𝑸𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
= 𝑺𝒇 = 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = 𝟐 ; 𝑲 = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒚𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑨𝑹 𝟑
𝑳 𝑲 𝒏
Average K for the reach = (k1*k2)0.5
hf = fall + (V12/2g - V22/2g) when he ≈ 0

𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟐
𝒉𝒆 = 𝑲𝒆 −
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈

Ke = 0.3 for gradual expansion and

0.1 for gradual contraction

https://pubs.usgs.gov/twri/twri3-a2/pdf/twri_3-A2_a.pdf
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/water/river-training/slope-area-method-concept-and-selection-of-reach/60961
Numerical Exercise on Slope Area method: During a flood flow the depth of water in a 10m
wide rectangular channel was found to be 3.0 m and 2.9 m at two sections 200 m apart. The
drop in the water-surface elevation was found to be 0.12 m. Taking Manning's coefficient to be
0.025, estimate the flood discharge through the channel.
L= 200 m W= 10 m
h1 = 3m h2 = 2.9 m
head loss= 0.12 m Manning's n = 0.025 Flood discharge = ?
A1 = 30 A2 = 29 A=Wh
P1 = 16 P2 = 15.8 P=W+2h
R1 = 1.875 R2 = 1.835 R = A/P
K1 = 1824.7 K2 = 1738.9 K = (1/n) A R2/3
Average K for the reach = (k1*k2)0.5 = 1781.3
hf = fall + (V12/2g - v22/2g) = 0.12 + (V12/2g - V22/2g); don’t change value 0.12 w/ iteration

Trial hf Sf = hf/L Q V12/2g V22/2g hf Q2/K2 = Sf

1 0.12 0.00060 43.63 0.1078 0.1154 0.1124 V = Q/A
2 0.1124 0.00056 42.23 0.1010 0.1081 0.1129
3 0.1129 0.00056 42.32 0.1014 0.1086 0.1129
Note: hf value for Trial 1 is obtained from head loss value of 0.12m. For
subsequent trials, it is copied from the last column. The final Q value is
achieved when hf values does not change.
 4.7 Rating Curve for Stream:
Relation between Stream Discharge and Stage
Measuring flood discharge using conventional
hydrometric methods is impossible, especially
for mountainous rivers. High velocities and
floating objects makes the river too dangerous
to be directly gauged by human operators. Using
current meters or Acoustic Doppler Current
Profilers (ADCP) in such extreme conditions is
too risky and the high suspended sediment
load avoids using tracer dilution methods.
Riverbed instability due to rapid scouring and
deposition during flooding makes measurement
of cross-section bathymetry very difficult.
As a consequence, the rating curves must be
extrapolated for high flows. Even if this
extrapolation is based on hydraulic assumptions,
it brings a lot of uncertainty and the flood
discharge series can be unreliable, impacting
drastically flood forecasting, the sizing of
structures like dam spillways, and so people’s
safety.
https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20184006015
 4.7 Rating Curves for
Streams

• Rating Curve: relationship

between stage and discharge
• Developed by conducting a
series of stream discharge
measurement
• The curve can change if the
cross section of the river change
due to scouring, river bed
aggradation, or bank cutting

Hysteresis in rating curve: different discharge for same gauge

height and vice versa, When a flood wave propagates through a river
corresponding to same stage higher discharges are observed during
rising stage than in falling stages resulting in looped rating curves. This
affect is popularly known as hysteresis in stage–discharge relationship
 6
Data to plot rating curve of a river GH= 0.6453Q0.2946
5.5
R² = 0.9831
SN Discharge GH 5
4.5
1 40.604 1.94 4

2 54.55 2.11 3.5

G.H (m)
3
3 59.84 2.14
2.5
4 62.005 2.18
2
5 73.688 2.28 1.5
6 76.06 2.27 1
7 80.112 2.29 0.5
8 86.485 2.40 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
9 89.808 2.44 Discharge (m3/sec)
10 100.621 2.53
11 116.85 2.64 10
12 129.443 2.73
13 155.85 2.92 GH= 0.6453Q0.2946
R² = 0.9831
14 221.501 3.28
15 559.32 3.80
16 599.478 4.00
G.H (m)

17 654.761 4.40
18 919.534 5.28

1
1 100
Discharge (m3/sec)
 4.8 Estimation of Monthly Flows from Rainfall
• Rainfall-runoff relations
• Empirical formula developed for Indian conditions (not tested/
validated in Nepal yet)
Khosla’s formula (1960): Rm = Pm – Lm; Lm = 0.48 Tm for Tm > 4.5°C
Rm = monthly runoff in cm; Pm = monthly rainfall in cm; Lm = monthly loss in cm
Tm = mean monthly temperature of the catchment in °C
Example: Given the mean monthly temperature and rainfall of a catchment in UP,
India, estimate monthly runoff and annual runoff coefficient.
Khosla's Formula to obtain monthly runoff from monthly rainfall data
Rm = Pm - Lm; Lm = 0.48 Tm for Tm > 4.5°C R = runoff, P = rainfall, L = loss

Runoff Coeff.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total
Temp °C 12 16 21 27 31 34 31 29 28 29 19 14
Rainfall (cm) 4 4 2 0 2 12 32 29 16 2 1 2 106
Loss (cm) 4 4 2 0 2 12 14.9 13.9 13.4 2 1 2
Runoff (cm) 0 0 0 0 0 0 17.1 15.1 2.6 0 0 0 34.8 0.33
Temp °C 4.5 -1 -6
Note: If Lm > Pm, set Lm = Pm; for Tm ≤ 4.5 use → Loss (cm) 2.17 1.8 1.5
 Self Practice:
1. The following data are obtained in a stream gauging operation. A current meter with a
calibration equation v = 0.32N + 0.032 m/s where, N = revolution per seconds. The velocity
is measured at 0.6 depth. Calculate the stream discharge and average stream velocity by mid-
stream method. Due to high velocity at the section with depth more than 2 m, the vertical
angle in the wire was 30 degrees; apply appropriate correction.
Distance from LWE (m) 0 2 4 6 9 9 12 15 18 20 22 23 24
Depth (m) 0 0.5 1.1 1.95 2.2 2.2 1.85 1.75 1.65 1.5 1.25 0.7 0
No. of Revolution 0 80 83 131 190 185 121 114 109 92 85 70 0
Time (sec) 0 180 120 100 90 90 120 120 120 120 120 90 0
2. Taking the rating of current meter as V = 0.03 + 0.8 N, where V is in m/sec and N is the
number of revolutions/sec, compute the stream flow (Q) from the given data. If the rating
curve of the river section can be approximated by log Q = 1.1 log S + 0.2, calculate the
discrepancy (%) in measurement, given the river stage (S) during flow measurement is 1.6 m.
Distance from bank (m) 0.0 0.6 1.5 2.5 5.0 7.0 7.5
Depth (m) 0 0.3 0.75 1.2 1.2 0.3 0
Revolution 0 9 25 15 30 16 30 16 5 0
Time (sec) 0 45 90 80 100 90 100 80 40 0

In exam, some of these numbers may be linked with your CRN/ERN.

Numerical exercises:
3. The following table shows the observed rainfall and corresponding annual runoff of a
catchment. Develop a rainfall-runoff correlation equation for the catchment and find the
expected annual runoff for an annual rainfall of 300 cm. [286]
Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Annual rainfall (cm) 191 212 185 175 202 209 222 232 201 208 216
Annual runoff (cm) 172 200 175 162 199 210 211 222 186 200 201
Year 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Annual rainfall (cm) 219 201 181 172 204 265 208 255 174 189 168
Annual runoff (cm) 201 178 179 161 191 259 182 235 165 171 155
 5. During a flood flow the depth of water in a 10m wide rectangular channel was found to
be 3.0 m and 2.9 m at two sections 200 m apart. The drop in the water-surface elevation
was found to be 0.12 m. Taking Manning's coefficient to be 0.025, estimate the flood
discharge through the channel.
6. Given the stage (GH) versus discharge (Q) data, develop a rating curve equation and
calculate the discharge when GH = 3.5 m.
GH
1.94 2.11 2.14 2.18 2.28 2.27 2.29 2.40 2.44 2.53 2.64 2.73 2.92 3.28 3.80 4.00 4.40 5.28
(m)
Q
40.6 54.6 59.8 62 73.7 76.1 80.1 86.5 89.8 100.6 116.8 129.4 155.8 221.5 559.3 599.5 654.8 919.5
m3/s

(7) The average monthly temperature and monthly rainfall data of a catchment is given.
Estimate monthly runoff using Kholsa’s method, and calculate runoff coefficient

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
What are
Temp °C the reasons
14 17for a hysteresis
22 28 loop 30 in35a rating
33 curve
28 of 27
a river
26section?
20 12
Rainfall (cm) 5 3 3 0 3 22 33 30 18 12 3 2

Discuss the practical uses of rating curve of a river section. How is a rating curve
developed? Why a same river section can have multiple rating curves? What results
in a hysteresis loop in a rating curve?
Expected skills from this chapter:
1. Develop rainfall-runoff relation (equation) from a set of rainfall
and runoff data.
2. Select the best site for establishing hydrometric station in a river.
3. Stream discharge measurement using a current meter.
4. Stream discharge measurement using a float method.
5. Calculate stream discharge from discharge measurement data
(distance from edge, depth, number of revolutions and time).
6. Stream discharge calculation from Slope-Area method.
7. Develop rating curve from given set of stage and discharge data,
using MS Excel’s Solver facility.
8. Estimate monthly flow out of a catchment from rainfall and
temperature data.
9. Develop infiltration capacity curve from a given set of time vs.
depth data.
Expected numerical skills from Chapter 4:
1. Develop rainfall-runoff correlation (equation) from a set of rainfall and runoff data and
predict runoff from rainfall data.
2. Calculate stream discharge from discharge measurement data (distance from edge, depth,
number of revolutions and time) conducted using current meter.
3. Calculate river discharge conducted by using salt dilution method and surface float method.
4. Develop calibration constants from current meter calibration data.
5. Calculate minimum weight of the sounding weight for river discharge measurement.
6. Calculate river discharge from slope area method when required data are provided.
7. Develop rating curve of a river section from given set of stage and discharge data, using MS
Excel’s Solver facility.

Expected general skills from Chapter 4:

1. List out the data needed for hydrological analysis of a project, including the catchment
characteristics data and time-series data
2. Design river stage monitoring network for a project; and select the site for establishing river
gauge station.
3. Select the type of river stage monitoring method suitable for the river type and flow nature.
4. Select the discharge measurement method based on flow nature and channel cross-section.
5. Measure stream discharge in the field using current meter method, surface float method and
salt dilution method.
6. Calibrate a current meter in a laboratory. Prepare conceptual design for a current meter
calibration.
7. Collect data from field required for application of slope area method to estimate discharge