TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

COURSE CODE- RCI4C002

Prepared By:
Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das
Assistant Professor (Civil)

GCE, Keonjhar, Odisha

(A CONSTITUENT COLLEGE OF BPUT, ODISHA)

*
Under revision
 SYLLABUS
Module-I (10 hrs)
Modes of transportation, importance of highway transportation, history of road construction. Principle
of highway planning, road development plans, highway alignments requirements, engineering surveys
for highway location. Geometric design- Design controls, highway cross section elements, cross slope
or camber, road width, road margins, typical cross sections of roads, design speed, sight distance,
design of horizontal and vertical alignments, horizontal and vertical curves.
Module-II (10 hrs)
Highway Materials:- Properties of subgrade , sub-base , base course and surface course materials , test
on subgrade soil, aggregates and bituminous materials. Traffic Engineering:- definition , fundamentals
of traffic flow , traffic management, prevention of road accidents , elements of transport planning ,
highway drainage
Module-III (9 hrs)
Design of Highway Pavements: Flexible pavements and their design, review of old methods, CBR
method, IRC:37-2012, equivalent single wheel load factor, rigid pavements, stress in rigid pavement,
IRC design method (IRC:58-2011).
Module-IV (9 hrs)
Highway Construction: Construction of various layers, earthwork, WBM, GSB, WMM, various types
of bituminous layers, joints in rigid pavements, Hot Mix Plants, Construction of Rigid Pavements
Module-V (7 hrs)
Highway Maintenance: Various type of failures of flexible and rigid pavements.
Books:
• Highway Engineering, by S.K.Khanna and CEG Justo, Nem Chand & Bros.
• Transportation Engineering-Highway Engineering by C Venkatramaiah, Universities Press.
• A course in Highway Engineering by Dr. S.P. Bindra, Dhanpat Rai Publications.
• Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis by Mannering Fred L., Washburn Scott S.
and Kilaresk Walter P., Wiley India Pvt. Ltd
• Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning by Kadiyali, L.R.,Khanna Publishers
• Transportation Engineering and Planning by Papacostas, C.S. and Prevedouros, P.D.,Prentice Hall.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to acknowledge various sources from which this lecture

note was prepared. Especially I would like to mention that the lecture
note has been prepared in the light of material available with NPTEL,
Transportation-I prepared by Prof. Tom V. Mathew and Prof. K.V.
Krishna Rao of IIT Bombay and also, from lecture notes available in
VSSUT, Burla site.

*
Under revision
Module I

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 Lecture-1

INTRODUCTION
Overview

From the beginning of history, human sensitivity has revealed an urge for mobility leading to a
measure of Society's progress. The history of this mobility or transport is the history of
civilization. For any country to develop with right momentum modern and efficient Transport as
a basic infrastructure is a must. Transport (British English) or transportation (American
English) is the movement of people and goods from one place to another. The term is derived
from the Latin trans ("across") and portare ("to carry").

Means of Transport

Fig.1.1 Means of Transport

Advantage and Disadvantage Different Modes of Transport

(A) Road Transport
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Less Capital Outlay 1. Seasonal Nature
2. Door to Door Service 2. Accidents and Breakdowns
3. Service in Rural Areas 3. Unsuitable for Long Distance and Bulky
4. Flexible Service Traffic
5. Suitable for Short Distance 4. Slow Speed
6. Lesser Risk of Damage in Transit 5. Lack of Organisation
7. Saving in Packing Cost
8. Rapid Speed
9. Less Cost

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

10. Private Owned Vehicles
11. Feeder to other Modes of Transport

(B) Railway Transport

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Dependable 1. Huge Capital Outlay
2. Better Organised 2. Lack of Flexibility
3. High Speed over Long Distances 3. Lack of Door to Door Service
4. Suitable for Bulky and Heavy Goods 4. Monopoly
5. Cheaper Transport 5. Unsuitable for Short Distance and Small
6. Safety Loads
7. Larger Capacity 6. Booking Formalities
8. Public Welfare 7. No Rural Service
9. Administrative Facilities of Government 8. Under-utilised Capacity
10. Employment Opportunities 9. Centralised Administration

(C) Air Transport

Advantages Disadvantages
1. High Speed 1. Very Costly
2. Comfortable and Quick Services 2. Small Carrying Capacity
3. No Investment in Construction of Track 3. Uncertain and Unreliable
4. No Physical Barriers 4. Breakdowns and Accidents
5. Easy Access 5. Large Investment
6. Emergency Services 6. Specialised Skill
7. Quick Clearance 7. Unsuitable for Cheap and Bulky Goods
8. Most Suitable for Carrying Light Goods of 8. Legal Restrictions
High Value
9. National Defence
10. Space Exploration

Elements of transport

The movement of goods or passenger traffic, through rail, sea, air or road transport requires
adequate infrastructure facilities for the free flow from the place of origin to the place of
destination. Irrespective of modes, every transport system has some common elements:

a) Vehicle or carrier to carry passenger or goods

b) Route or path for movement of carriers
c) Terminal facilities for loading and unloading of goods and passengers from carriers
d) Prime Mover
e) Transit time and cost
f) Cargo

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

These elements influence the effectiveness of different modes of transport and their utility to
users.

• Vehicles: The dimension of vehicles, its capacity and type are some of the factors, which
influence the selection of a transport system for movement of goods from one place to the other.

• Routes: Routes play an important role in movement of carriers from one point to another point.
It may be surface roads, navigable waterways and roadways. Availability of well-designed and
planned routes without any obstacle for movement of transport vehicles in specific routes, is a
vital necessity for smooth flow of traffic.

• Terminal Facilities: - The objective of transportation cant be fulfilled unless proper facilities
are available for loading and unloading of goods or entry and exit of passengers from carrier.
Terminal facilities are to be provided for loading and unloading of trucks, wagons etc on a
continuous basis.

• Prime Mover: - The power utilized for moving of vehicles for transportation of cargo from
one place to another is another important aspect of the total movement system.

• Transit time and cost: - Transportation involve time and cost. The time element is a valid
factor for determining the effectiveness of a particular mode of transport. The transit time of
available system of transportation largely determines production and consumption pattern of
perishable goods in an economy.

• Cargo: - Transportation basically involves movement of cargo from one place to another.
Hence, nature and size of cargo constitute the basis of any goods transport system.

Major disciplines of transportation

Transportation engineering can be broadly consisting of the four major parts:

1. Transportation Planning

2. Geometric Design

3. Pavement Design

4. Traffic Engineering

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 Lecture 2
HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
Overview
Road network provides the arterial network to facilitate trade, transport, social integration and
economic development. It facilitates specialization, extension of markets and exploitation of
economies of scale. It is used for the smooth conveyance of both people and goods.
Transportation by road has the advantage over other means of transport because of its easy
accessibility, flexibility of operations, door-to-door service and reliability. Consequently,
passenger and freight movement in India over the years have increasingly shifted towards roads
vis-à-vis other means of transport.

History of Highway engineering

The history of highway engineering gives us an idea about the roads of ancient times. Roads in
Rome were constructed in a large scale and it radiated in many directions helping them in
military operations. Thus they are considered to be pioneers in road construction. In this section
we will see in detail about Ancient roads, Roman roads, British roads, French roads etc.

Ancient Roads
The most primitive mode of transport was by foot. These human pathways would have been
developed for specific purposes leading to camp sites, food, streams for drinking water etc. The
invention of wheel in Mesopotamian civilization led to the development of animal drawn
vehicles. To provide adequate strength to carry the wheels, the new ways tended to follow the
sunny drier side of a path. After the invention of wheel, animal drawn vehicles were developed
and the need for hard surface road emerged. Traces of such hard roads were obtained from
various ancient civilization dated as old as 3500 BC. The earliest authentic record of road was
found from Assyrian empire constructed about 1900 BC.

Roman roads
The earliest large scale road construction is attributed to Romans who constructed an extensive
system of roads radiating in many directions from Rome. Romans recognized that the
fundamentals of good road construction were to provide good drainage, good material and good
workmanship. Their roads were very durable, and some still exist. The roads were bordered on
both sides by longitudinal drains. A typical corss section is shown in Fig.2.1. This was a raised
formation up to a 1 meter high and 15 m wide and was constructed with materials excavated
during the side drain construction. This was then topped with a sand leveling course. In the case
of heavy traffic, a surface course of large 250 mm thick hexagonal ag stones were provided They

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

mixed lime and volcanic puzzolana to make mortar and they added gravel to this mortar to make
concrete. Thus concrete was a major Roman road making innovation.

Fig.2.1 Roman roads

French roads

The significant contributions were given by Tresaguet in 1764 and a typical cross section of this
road is given in Figure 2.2. He developed a cheaper method of construction than the lavish and
locally unsuccessful revival of Roman practice. The pavement used 200 mm pieces of quarried
stone of a more compact form and shaped such that they had at least one at side s which was
placed on a compact formation. Smaller pieces of broken stones were then compacted into the
spaces between larger stones to provide a level surface. Finally the running layer was made with
a layer of 25 mm sized broken stone. All this structure
structure was placed in a trench in order to keep the
running surface level with the surrounding country side. This created major drainage problems
which were counteracted by making the surface as impervious as possible, cambering the surface
and providing deep side ditches.

Fig. 2.2. French roads

British roads

The British government also gave importance to road construction. The British engineer John

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

Macadam introduced what can be considered as the first scientific road construction method.
Stone size was an important element of Macadam recipe. By empirical observation of many
roads, he came to realize that 250 mm layers of well compacted broken angular stone would
provide the same strength a better running surface than an expensive pavement founded on large
stone blocks. Thus he introduced an economical method of road construction. A typical cross
section of British roads is given in Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.3. British roads

Modern roads
The modern roads by and large follow Macadam's construction method. Use of bituminous
concrete and cement concrete are the most important developments. Development of new
equipments helps in the faster construction of roads. Many easily and locally available materials
are tested in the laboratories and then implemented on roads for making economical and durable
pavements.

Road Development in India

Excavations in the sites of Indus valley revealed the existence of planned roads in India as old as
2500-3500 BC. The Mauryan kings also built very good roads. During the time of Mughal
period, roads in India were greatly improved. Roads linking North-West and the Eastern areas
through gangetic plains were built during this time. The construction of Grand-Trunk road
connecting North and South is a major contribution of the British.

Modern developments

The First World War period and that immediately following it found a rapid growth in motor
transport. So need for better roads became a necessity. For that, the Government of India
appointed a committee called Road development Committee with Mr. M.R. Jayakar as the
chairman. This committee came to be known as Jayakar committee.

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

Jayakar Committee

In 1927 Jayakar committee for Indian road development was appointed. The major
recommendations and the resulting implementations were:

 Committee found that the road development of the country has become beyond the
capacity of local governments and suggested that Central government should take
the proper charge considering it as a matter of national interest.

 They gave more stress on long term planning programme, for a period of 20 years
(hence called twenty year plan) that is to formulate plans and implement those plans
within the next 20 years.

 One of the recommendations was the holding of periodic road conferences to

discuss about road construction and development. This paved the way for the
establishment of a semi-official technical body called Indian Road Congress (IRC)
in 1934

 The committee suggested imposition of additional taxation on motor transport

which includes duty on motor spirit, vehicle taxation, license fees for vehicles
plying for hire. This led to the introduction of a development fund called Central
road fund in 1929. This fund was intended for road development.

 The committee suggested imposition of additional taxation on motor transport

which includes duty on motor spirit, vehicle taxation, and license fees for vehicles
plying for hire. This led to the introduction of a development fund called Central
road fund in 1929. This fund was intended for road development.

Nagpur road congress 1943

A twenty year development programme for the period (1943-1963) was finalized. It was the first
attempt to prepare a co-ordinated road development programme in a planned manner.

The roads were divided into four classes:

 National highways which would pass through states, and places having national
importance for strategic, administrative and other purposes.
 State highways which would be the other main roads of a state.
 District roads which would take traffic from the main roads to the interior of the district.
According to the importance, some are considered as major district roads and the
remaining as other district roads.
 Village roads which would link the villages to the road system.

The committee planned to construct 2 lakh kms of road across the country within 20 years. They

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

recommended the construction of star and grid pattern of roads throughout the country. One of
the objective was that the road length should be increased so as to give a road density of 16kms
per 100 sq.km

Bombay road congress 1961

The length of roads envisaged under the Nagpur plan was achieved by the end of it, but the road
system was deficient in many respects. Accordingly a 20-year plan was drafted by the Roads
wing of Government of India, which is popularly known as the Bombay plan. The highlights of
the plan were:

 It was the second 20 year road plan (1961-1981)

 The total road length targeted to construct was about 10 lakhs.

 Rural roads were given specific attention.

 They suggested that the length of the road should be increased so as to give a road
density of 32kms/100 sq.km

 The construction of 1600 km of expressways was also then included in the plan.

Lucknow road congress 1984

Some of the salient features of this plan are as given below:

 This was the third 20 year road plan (1981-2001). It is also called Lucknow road plan.

 It aimed at constructing a road length of 12 lakh kilometers by the year 1981 resulting in
a road density of 82kms/100 sq.km

 The plan has set the target length of NH to be completed by the end of seventh, eighth
and ninth five year plan periods.

 It aims at improving the transportation facilities in villages, towns etc. such that no part
of country is farther than 50 km from NH.

 One of the goals contained in the plan was that expressways should be constructed on
major traffic corridors to provide speedy travel.

 Energy conservation, environmental quality of roads and road safety measures were also
given due importance in this plan.

2.4 Current Scenario

About 60 per cent of freight and 87 per cent passenger traffic is carried by road. Although
National Highways constitute only about 2 per cent of the road network, it carries 40 per cent of

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

the total road traffic. Easy availability, adaptability to individual needs and cost savings are some
of the factors which go in favour of road transport. Road transport also acts as a feeder service to
railway, shipping and air traffic. The number of vehicles has been growing at an average pace of
around 10 per cent per annum. The share of road traffic in total traffic has grown from 13.8 per
cent of freight traffic and 15.4 per cent of passenger traffic in 1950-51 to an estimated 62.9 per
cent of freight traffic and 90.2 per cent of passenger traffic by the end of 2009-10. The rapid
expansion and strengthening of the road network, therefore, is imperative, to provide for both
present and future traffic and for improved accessibility to the hinterland.

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 Lecture 3
HIGHWAY PLANNING
2.1 Overview

Highway design is only one element in the overall highway development process. Historically,
detailed design occurs in the middle of the process, linking the preceding phases of planning and
project development with the subsequent phases of right-of-way acquisition, construction, and
maintenance. It is during the first three stages, planning, project development, and design, that
designers and communities, working together, can have the greatest impact on the final design
features of the project. In fact, the flexibility available for highway design during the detailed
design phase is limited a great deal by the decisions made at the earlier stages of planning and
project development.

The Stages of Highway Development

Although the names may vary by State, the five basic stages in the highway development
process are: planning, project development (preliminary design), final design, right of way, and
construction. After construction is completed, ongoing operation and maintenance activities
continue throughout the life of the facility.

Fig.3.1 Process of Highway Planning

 Planning
The initial definition of the need for any highway or bridge improvement project takes place
during the planning stage. This problem definition occurs at the State, regional, or local level,
depending on the scale of the proposed improvement. This is the key time to get the public

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

involved and provide input into the decision making process. The problems identified usually fall
into one or more of the following four categories:
1. The existing physical structure needs major repair/replacement (structure repair).
2. Existing or projected future travel demands exceed available capacity, and access to
transportation and mobility need to be increased (capacity).
3. The route is experiencing an inordinate number of safety and accident problems that can
only be resolved through physical, geometric changes (safety).
4. Developmental pressures along the route make a reexamination of the number, location,
and physical design of access points necessary (access).

 Factors to Consider During Planning

It is important to look ahead during the planning stage and consider the potential impact that a
proposed facility or improvement may have while the project is still in the conceptual phase.
During planning, key decisions are made that will affect and limit the design options in
subsequent phases.

Fig. 3.2 Factors to consider in planning.

 Project Development
After a project has been planned and programmed for implementation, it moves into the project
development phase. At this stage, the environmental analysis intensifies. The level of environmental
review varies widely, depending on the scale and impact of the project. It can range from a multiyear
effort to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement (a comprehensive document that analyzes the
potential impact of proposed alternatives) to a modest environmental review completed in a matter of
weeks. Regardless of the level of detail or duration, the product of the project development process
generally includes a description of the location and major design features of the recommended

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

project that is to be further designed and constructed, while continually trying to avoid, minimize,
and mitigate environmental impact.

 Final Design

After a preferred alternative has been selected and the project description agreed upon as stated
in the environmental document, a project can move into the final design stage. The product of
this stage is a complete set of plans, specifications, and estimates (PS&Es) of required
quantities of materials ready for the solicitation of construction bids and subsequent
construction. Depending on the scale and complexity of the project, the final design process
may take from a few months to several years.

The following paragraphs discuss some important considerations of design, including:

• Developing a concept
• Considering scale and
• Detailing the design.

 Developing a Concept

A design concept gives the project a focus and helps to move it toward a specific direction.
There are many elements in a highway, and each involves a number of separate but interrelated
design decisions. Integrating all these elements to achieve a common goal or concept helps the
designer in making design decisions.

Some of the many elements of highway design are

a. Number and width of travel lanes, median type and width, and shoulders
b. Traffic barriers
c. Overpasses/bridges
d. Horizontal and vertical alignment and affiliated landscape.

 Considering Scale

People driving in a car see the world at a much different scale than people walking on the
street. This large discrepancy in the design scale for a car versus the design scale for people
has changed the overall planning of our communities. For example, it has become common
in many suburban commercial areas that a shopper must get in the car and drive from one
store to the next.

The design element with the greatest effect on the scale of the roadway is its width, or cross
section. The cross section can include a clear zone, shoulder, parking lanes, travel lanes,
and/or median. The wider the overall roadway, the larger its scale; however, there are some
design techniques that can help to reduce the perceived width and, thus, the perceived scale
of the roadway. Limiting the width of pavement or breaking up the pavement is one option.

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 In some instances, four lane roadways may look less imposing by designing a grass or
planted median in the center.

 Detailing the Design

Particularly during the final design phase, it is the details associated with the project that are
important. Employing a multidisciplinary design team ensures that important design details
are considered and those they are compatible with community values. Often it is the details
of the project that are most recognizable to the public. A multidisciplinary design team can
produce an aesthetic and functional product when the members work together and are
flexible in applying guidelines.

 Right-of-way, Construction, And Maintenance

Once the final designs have been prepared and needed right-of-way is purchased,
construction bid packages are made available, a contractor is selected, and construction is
initiated. During the right-of-way acquisition and construction stages, minor adjustments in
the design may be necessary; therefore, there should be continuous involvement of the
design team throughout these stages. Construction may be simple or complex and may
require a few months to several years. Once construction has been completed, the facility is
ready to begin its normal sequence of operations and maintenance.

Even after the completion of construction, the character of a road can be changed by
inappropriate maintenance actions. For example, the replacement of sections of guardrail
damaged or destroyed in crashes commonly utilizes whatever spare guardrail sections may be
available to the local highway maintenance personnel at the time.

 Stages of Highway Development

Summaries of the five basic stages in highway planning and development.

Stages Description of Activity

Planning Identification of transportation needs and program project to be built
Within financial constraints.

Project Development The transportation project is more clearly defined. Alternative locations
and design features are developed and an alternative is selected.
Design The design team develops detailed design and specification.
Right-of-way Land needed for the project is acquired.
construction Selection of contractor, who then builds the project.

2.3 Highway Route Surveys and Location

To determine the geometric features of road design, the following surveys must be
conducted after the necessity of the road is decided.

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

A variety of survey and investigations have to be carried out by Road engineers and
multidiscipline persons.
A. Transport Planning Surveys
o Traffic Surveys
o Highway inventories
o Pavement Deterioration Study
o Accident study
B. Alignment and Route location surveys
 Desk study
 Reconnaissance
 Preliminary Survey
 Final location survey
C. Drainage Studies
o Surface run- off : Hydrologic and hydraulic
o Subsurface drainage: Ground water & Seepage
o Cross–drainage: Location and waterway area required for
the cross-drainage structures.
D. Soil Survey
 Desk study
 Site Reconnaissance
E. Pavement Design investigation Soil property and strength, Material Survey

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 Lecture 4
INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRIC DESIGN
4.1. Overview
Geometric design for transportation facilities includes the design of geometric cross sections,
horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, intersections, and various design details. These basic
elements are common to all linear facilities, such as roadways, railways, and airport runways and
taxiways. Although the details of design standards vary with the mode and the class of facility,
most of the issues involved in geometric design are similar for all modes. In all cases, the goals
of geometric design are to maximize the comfort, safety, and economy of facilities, while
minimizing their environ-mental impacts. This chapter focuses on the fundamentals of geometric
design, and presents standards and examples from different modes.
The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the
highway. The features normally considered are the cross section elements, sight distance
consideration, horizontal curvature, gradients, and intersection. The design of these features is to
a great extend influenced by driver behavior and psychology, vehicle characteristics, traffic
characteristics such as speed and volume. Proper geometric design will help in the reduction of
accidents and their severity. Therefore, the objective of geometric design is to provide optimum
efficiency in traffic operation and maximum safety at reasonable cost.
The planning cannot be done stage wise like that of a pavement, but has to be done well in
advance. The main components that will be discussed are:
1. Factors affecting the geometric design,
2. Highway alignment, road classification,
3. Pavement surface characteristics,
4. Cross-section elements including cross slope, various widths of roads and features in the
road margins.
5. Sight distance elements including cross slope, various widths and features in the road
margins.
6. Horizontal alignment which includes features like super elevation, transition curve, extra
widening and set back distance.
7. Vertical alignment and its components like gradient, sight distance and design of length of
curves.
8. Intersection features like layout, capacity, etc.

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 Factors affecting geometric design
 Design speed: Design speed is the single most important factor that affects the
geometric design. It directly affects the sight distance, horizontal curve, and the length
of vertical curves. Since the speed of vehicles vary with driver, terrain etc, a design
speed is adopted for all the geometric design.
 Topography: It is easier to construct roads with required standards for a plain terrain.
However, for a given design speed, the construction cost increases multi form with the
gradient and the terrain.
 Traffic factors: It is of crucial importance in highway design, is the traffic data both
current and future estimates. Traffic volume indicates the level of services (LOS) for
which the highway is being planned and directly affects the geometric features such as
width, alignment, grades etc., without traffic data it is very difficult to design any
highway
 Design Hourly Volume and Capacity: The general unit for measuring traffic on
highway is the Annual Average Daily Traffic volume, abbreviated as AADT. The
traffic flow (or) volume keeps fluctuating with time, from a low value during off peak
hours to the highest value during the peak hour. It will be uneconomical to design the
roadway facilities for the peak traffic flow.
 Environmental and other factors: - The environmental factors like air pollution,
noise pollution, landscaping, aesthetics and other global conditions should be given due
considerations in the geometric design of roads.

Road classification
The roads can be classified in many ways. The classification based on speed and accessibility is
the most generic one. Note that as the accessibility of road increases, the speed reduces. (See
Fig. 4.1). Accordingly, the roads can classified as follows in the order of increased accessibility
and reduced speeds.
 Freeways: Freeways are access controlled divided highways. Most freeways are four
lanes, two lanes each direction, but many freeways widen to incorporate more lanes as
they enter urban areas. Access is controlled through the use of interchanges, and the type

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 of interchange depends upon the kind of intersecting road way (rural roads, another
freeway etc.)
 Expressways: They are superior type of highways and are designed for high speeds(120
km/hr is common), high traffic volume and safety. They are generally provided with
grade separations at intersections. Parking, loading and unloading of goods and
pedestrian traffic is not allowed on expressways.
 Highways: They represent the superior type of roads in the country. Highways are of two
types - rural highways and urban highways. Rural highways are those passing through
rural areas (villages) and urban highways are those passing through large cities and
towns, i.e. urban areas.
 Arterials: It is a general term denoting a street primarily meant for through traffic
usually on a continuous route. They are generally divided highways with fully or
partially controlled access. Parking, loading and unloading activities are usually
restricted and regulated. Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at intersections/designated
pedestrian crossings.
 Local streets: A local street is the one which is primarily intended for access to
residence, business or abutting property. It does not normally carry large volume of
traffic and also it allows unrestricted parking and pedestrian movements.
 Collectors streets: These are streets intended for collecting and distributing traffic to and
from local streets and also for providing access to arterial streets. Normally full access is
provided on these streets. There are few parking restrictions except during peak hours.

Fig.4.1. Speed vs accessibility

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

Roads can be classified based on some other criteria. They are given in detail below.

Based on usage
This classified is based on whether the roads can be used during di erent seasons of the year.

 All-weather roads: Those roads which are negotiable during all weathers, except at
major river crossings where interruption of tra c is permissible up to a certain extent
are called all weather roads.
 Fair-weather roads: Roads which are negotiable only during fair weather are called
fair weather roads.

Based on carriage way

This classification is based on the type of the carriage way or the road pavement.

 Paved roads with hard surface : If they are provided with a hard pavement course
such roads are called paved roads.(eg: stones, Water bound macadam (WBM),
Bituminous macadam (BM), concrete roads)

 Unpaved roads: Roads which are not provided with a hard course of atleast a WBM
layer they is called unpaved roads. Thus earth and gravel roads come under this
category.
Based on pavement surface
Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, they are classified as surfaced and unsurfaced
roads.

 Surfaced roads (BM, concrete): Roads which are provided with a bituminous or
cement concreting surface are called surfaced roads.

 Unsurfaced roads (soil/gravel): Roads which are not provided with a bituminous or
cement concreting surface are called unsurfaced roads.
Other criteria

Roads may also be classified based on the traffic volume in that road, load transported through
that road, or location and function of that road.

 Traffic volume: Based on the traffic volume, they are classified as heavy, medium
and light tra c roads. These terms are relative and so the limits under each class may
be expressed as vehicles per day.

 Load transported: Based on the load carried by these roads, they can be classified as
class I, class II, etc. or class A, class B etc. and the limits may be expressed as
tonnes per day.

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

  Location and function: The classification based on location and function should be a
more acceptable classification since they may be defined clearly.

Highway alignment
Once the necessity of the highway is assessed, the next process is deciding the alignment. The highway
alignment can be either horizontal or vertical and they are described in detail in the following
sections.

Alignment
The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the ground is called the
alignment. Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved paths. Vertical alignment includes
level and gradients. Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment will enhance the
construction, maintenance and vehicle operating cost. Once an alignment is fixed and
constructed, it is not easy to change it due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction
of costly structures by the roadside.
Requirements
The requirements of an ideal alignment are:

 The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as possible be
straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed.
 The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the
operation of vehicles. So to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves should be
provided.
 It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view especially at
slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should have safe geometric features.
 The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only when the initial
cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost is minimum.

Factors controlling alignment

We have seen the requirements of an alignment. But it is not always possible to satisfy all these
requirements. Hence we have to make a judicial choice considering all the factors.
The various factors that control the alignment are as follows:

 Obligatory points: These are the control points governing the highway alignment.
These points are classified into two categories. Points through which it should pass
and points through which it should not pass. Some of the examples are:
 Bridge site: The bridge can be located only where the river has straight and
permanent path and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded. The
road approach to the bridge should not be curved and skew crossing should be
avoided as possible. Thus to locate a bridge the highway alignment may be changed.

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

  Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various alternatives
are to either construct a tunnel or to go round the hills. The suitability of the
alternative depends on factors like topography, site conditions and construction and
operation cost.
 Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an
intermediate town or village nearby.

These were some of the obligatory points through which the alignment should pass. Coming to
the second category that is the points through which the alignment should not pass are:

 Religious places: These have been protected by the law from being acquired for any
purpose. Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.
 Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation which
would result in an increase in initial cost. So the alignment may be deviated not to pass
through that point.
 Lakes/ponds etc: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would also
necessitate deviation of the alignment.

 Traffic: The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the origin-
destination data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new alignment should
be drawn keeping in view the desire lines, traffic flow pattern etc.

 Geometric design: Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, sight
distance etc. also governs the alignment of the highway. To keep the radius of curve
minimum, it may be required to change the alignment of the highway. The alignments
should be finalized such that the obstructions to visibility do not restrict the minimum
requirements of sight distance. The design standards vary with the class of road and the
terrain and accordingly the highway should be aligned.

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 Lecture 5
Cross sectional elements
Overview
The primary consideration in the design of geometric cross sections for highways, run-ways, and taxiways is
drainage. Details vary depending on the type of facility Highway cross sections consist of traveled way, shoulders
(or parking lanes), and drainage channels. Shoulders are intended primarily as a safety feature. They provide for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, emergency use, and lateral support of the pavement. Shoulders may be either
paved or unpaved. Drainage channels may consist of ditches (usually grassed swales) or of paved shoulders with
berms or curbs and gut-ters. Cross section of various roads are given bellow.

Fig.5.1. Two-lane highway cross section, with ditches.

Fig.5.2.Divided highway cross section, depressed median, with ditches.

Pavement surface characteristics

For a safe and comfortable driving four aspects of the pavement surface are important; the
friction between the wheels and the pavement surface, smoothness of the road surface, the light
reflection characteristics of the top of pavement surface, and drainage to water.

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

Friction

Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the design of
horizontal curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also a ect the acceleration and
deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of
vehicles.

Skidding happens when the path traveled along the road surface is more than the
circumferential movement of the wheels due to friction

Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement

along the road. Various factors that a ect friction are:

The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the pavement is the load acting
multiplied by a factor called the coe cient of friction and denoted as f . The choice of the value of
f is a very complicated issue since it depends on many variables. IRC suggests the coe cient of
longitudinal friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on
the speed and coe cient of later friction as 0.15. The former is useful in sight distance calculation
and the latter in horizontal curve design.

Unevenness

It is always desirable to have an even surface, but it is seldom possible to have such one. Even if
a road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is possible to develop unevenness due to
pavement failures. Unevenness affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety,
fuel consumption and wear and tear of tyres.
Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the cumulative measure of vertical
undulation of the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal length of the road. An
unevenness index value less than 1500 mm/km is considered as good, a value less than 2500
mm.km is satisfactory up to speed of 100 kmph and values greater than 3200 mm/km is
considered as uncomfortable even for 55 kmph.

Light Reflection

Drainage

The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage of water into the
pavement layers. Further, both the geometry and texture of pavement surface should help in
draining out the water from the surface in less time.

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

Camber

Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain o rain water from road surface.

Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1 in n or n%
(Eg. 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value depends on the type of pavement surface.

Width of carriage way

Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane
and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the
clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety.

Kerbs

Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
Di erent types of kerbs are (Figure 12:3):

 Low or mountable kerbs :

 Semi-barrier type kerbs :

 Barrier type kerbs :

Road margins
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally called road
margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.

 Shoulders

 Parking lanes

 Bus-bays

 Service roads

 Cycle track

 Footpath

 Guard rails

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 Lecture 6
Sight distance
Overview
Sight Distance is a length of road surface which a particular driver can see with an acceptable
level of clarity. Sight distance plays an important role in geometric highway design because it
establishes an acceptable design speed, based on a driver's ability to visually identify and stop for
a particular, unforeseen roadway hazard or pass a slower vehicle without being in conflict with
opposing traffic. As velocities on a roadway are increased, the design must be catered to
allowing additional viewing distances to allow for adequate time to stop.

Types of sight distance

o Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance
o Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is the defined as twice SSD
o Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation

The computation of sight distance depends on:

1. Reaction time of the driver
2. Speed of the vehicle
3. Efficiency of brakes

PIEV Process
The perception-reaction time for a driver is often broken down into the four components that
are assumed to make up the perception reaction time. These are referred to as the PIEV time or
process.

PIEV Process
• Perception the time to see or discern an object or event
• Intellection the time to understand the implications of the object’s
presence or event
• Emotion the time to decide how to react
• Volition the time to initiate the action, for example, the time to
engage the brakes

Stopping sight distance

Stopping sight distance is defined as the distance needed for drivers to see an object on the
roadway ahead and bring their vehicles to safe stop before colliding with the object. The

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

distances are derived for various design speeds based on assumptions for driver reaction time,
the braking ability of most vehicles under wet pavement conditions, and the friction provided by
most pavement surfaces, assuming good tires. A roadway designed to criteria employs a
horizontal and vertical alignment and a cross section that provides at least the minimum stopping
sight distance through the entire facility.

The stopping sight distance is comprised of the distance to perceive and react to a condition
plus the distance to stop:

V2

SSD = 0.278 Vt + (METRIC)

254 (f ±n)

where SSD = required stopping sight distance, m or ft.

V = speed, kph
t = perception-reaction time, sec., typically 2.5 sec. for design
f = coefficient of friction, typically for a poor, wet pavement
n = grade, decimal.

Overtaking sight distance

The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a
vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against the traffic in the opposite
direction. The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured along the center
line of the road over which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the
top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface.
The factors that affect the OSD are:

 Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and of the vehicle coming in the
opposite direction.

 Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the speed

 Skill and reaction time of the driver

 Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 Lecture 7
Horizontal alignment I
Overview
Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features influencing the efficiency and safety
of a highway. Horizontal alignment design involves the understanding on the design aspects such
as design speed and the effect of horizontal curve on the vehicles. The horizontal curve design
elements include design of super elevation, extra widening at horizontal curves, design of
transition curve, and set back distance.

Design Speed
The design speed as noted earlier, is the single most important factor in the design of horizontal
alignment. The design speed also depends on the type of the road. For e.g, the design speed
expected from a National highway will be much higher than a village road, and hence the curve
geometry will vary significantly.

Factors Affecting Alignment

I. Safety
II. Grades
III. Design speed
IV. Cost of resumption of land
V. Construction costs
Operating speed is influenced by all other factors so it is the critical factor to consider.

Horizontal curve
The presence of horizontal curve imparts centrifugal force which is reactive force acting outward
on a vehicle negotiating it. Centrifugal force depends on speed and radius of the horizontal curve
and is counteracted to a certain extent by transverse friction between the tyre and pavement
surface. On a curved road, this force tends to cause the vehicle to overrun or to slide outward
from the centre of road curvature. For proper design of the curve, an understanding of the forces
acting on a vehicle taking a horizontal curve is necessary.

Fig. 7.1. Effect of horizontal curve

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 Fig.7.2 Analysis of super elevation

P the centrifugal force acting horizontally out-wards through the center of gravity, W the weight
of the vehicle acting down-wards through the center of gravity, and mF the friction force
between the wheels and the pavement, along the surface inward. At equilibrium, by resolving the
forces parallel to the surface of the pavement we get,

P cosθ = W sinθ + FA + FB

= W sinθ + f (RA + RB )

= W sinθ + f (W cosθ + P sinθ)

By solving the above equation we will get,

+ = =

e = superelevation, max. 0.07

f= lateral friction, max. 0.15

v= speed in m/s

V=speed in kmph

R= Radius in m

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 Lecture 8
Horizontal alignment II
Overview
This section discusses the design of superelevation and how it is attained. A brief discussion
about pavement widening at curves is also given.

When being applied to the road need to take into account

• Safety
• Comfort
• Appearance
• Design speed
• Tendency for slow vehicles to track towards centre
• Difference between inner and outer formation levels
• Stability of high laden vehicles
• Length of road to introduce superelevation
• Provision for drainage

Design of super-elevation
For fast moving vehicles, providing higher superelevation without considering coefficient of
friction is safe, i.e. centrifugal force is fully counteracted by the weight of the vehicle or
superelevation. For slow moving vehicles, providing lower superelevation considering
coefficient of friction is safe, i.e.centrifugal force is counteracted by superelevation and
coefficient of friction .

Maximum Superelevation
• Max range from flat to mountainous of 0.06 – 0.12 respectively but most authorities limit
to0.10
• In urban areas limit max values to 0.04-0.05 Minimum Superelevation
• Should be elevated to at least the cross-fall on straights ie 3% (0.03)

Attainment of super-elevation
1. Elimination of the crown of the cambered section by:
rotating the outer edge about the crown
shifting the position of the crown:
2. Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full super elevation by:There are two methods
of attaining superelevation by rotating the pavement

rotation about the center line :

rotation about the inner edge:

Radius of Horizontal Curve

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

The radius of the horizontal curve is an important design aspect of the geometric design. The
maximum comfortable speed on a horizontal curve depends on the radius of the curve. Although
it is possible to design the curve with maximum superelevation and coe cient of friction, it is not
desirable because re-alignment would be required if the design speed is increased in future.
Therefore, a ruling minimum radius Rruling can be derived by assuming maximum superelevation
and coe cient of friction.

v2
Rruling = g(e + f )

Ideally, the radius of the curve should be higher than Rruling . However, very large curves are also
not desirable. Setting out large curves in the field becomes difficult. In addition, it also enhances
driving strain.

Extra widening
Extra widening refers to the additional width of carriageway that is required on a curved section
of a road over and above that required on a straight alignment. This widening is done due to two
reasons:
Mechanical widening
The reasons for the mechanical widening are: When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the
rear wheels follow a path of shorter radius than the front wheels
Psychological widening

Widening of pavements has to be done for some psychological reasons also. There is a tendency
for the drivers to drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves. Some extra space is to be
provided for more clearance for the crossing and overtaking operations on curves. IRC proposed
an empirical relation for the psychological

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 Lecture 9
Horizontal alignment III

Overview
In this section we will deal with the design of transition curves and setback distances. Transition
curve ensures a smooth change from straight road to circular curves. Setback distance looks in
for safety at circular curves taking into consideration the sight distance aspects.

Horizontal Transition Curves

A transition curve differs from a circular curve in that its radius is always changing. As one
would expect, such curves involve more complex formulae than the curves with a constant
radius and their design is more complex.

The need for Transition Curves

Circular curves are limited in road designs due to the forces which act on a vehicle as they travel
around a bend. Transition curves are used to introduce those forces gradually and uniformly thus
ensuring the safety of passenger.

Transition curves have much more complex formulae and are more difficult to set out on site
than circular curves as a result of the varying radius.

 to introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the beginning of
the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle.This increases the comfort of
passengers.
 to enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and security,
 to provide gradual introduction of super elevation, and
 to provide gradual introduction of extra widening.
 to enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.

The use of Transition Curves

Transition curves can be used to join to straights in one of two ways:

- Composite curves

- Wholly transitional curves

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

Types of Transition Curve

There are two types of curved used to form the transitional section of a composite or wholly
transitional curve. These are:

-The clothoid

-The cubic parabola.

Length of transition curve

The length of the transition curve should be determined as the maximum of the following three
criteria: rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, rate of change of superelevation, and an
empirical formula given by IRC.
1. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
2. Rate of introduction of super-elevation
3. By empirical formula

Setback Distance
Setback distance m or the clearance distance is the distance required from the centerline of a
horizontal curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to provide adequate sight
distance at a horizontal curve. The setback distance depends on:

1. sight distance (OSD, ISD and OSD),

2. radius of the curve, and

3. length of the curve.

Curve Resistance
When the vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the direction of rotation of the front and the r ear
wheels are different. The front wheels are turned to move the vehicle along the curve, whereas
the rear wheels seldom turn.

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 Lecture 10

Vertical alignment-I

Overview
The vertical alignment of a transportation facility consists of tangent grades (straight lines in the
vertical plane) and vertical curves. Vertical alignment is documented by the profile. Just as a
circular curve is used to connect horizontal straight stretches of road, vertical curves connect two
gradients. When these two curves meet, they form either convex or concave. The former is called
a summit curve, while the latter is called a valley curve.

Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal.
While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided designing the vertical curve. Before nalizing
the gradients, the construction cost, vehicular operation cost and the practical problems in the
site also has to be considered. Usually steep gradients are avoided as far as possible because of
the difficulty to climb and increase in the construction cost. More about gradients are discussed
below.

Effect of gradient
The effect of long steep gradient on the vehicular speed is considerable. This is particularly
important in roads where the proportion of heavy vehicles is significant. Due to restrictive sight
distance at uphill gradients the speed of traffic is often controlled by these heavy vehicles. As a
result, not only the operating costs of the vehicles are increased, but also capacity of the roads
will have to be reduced. Further, due to high differential speed between heavy and light vehicles,
and between uphill and downhill gradients, accidents abound in gradients.

Representation of gradient
The positive gradient or the ascending gradient is denoted as +n and the negative gradient as n.
The deviation angle N is: when two grades meet, the angle which measures the change of
direction and is given by the algebraic difference between the two grades (n1 ( n2)) = n1 + n2 = 1 +
o o 0
2. Example: 1 in 30 = 3.33% 2 is a steep gradient, while 1 in 50 = 2% 1 10 is flatter gradient.

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

Representation of gradient

IRC Specifications for gradients for different roads

Terrain Ruling Limitings Exceptional

Plain/Rolling 3.3 5.0 6.7

Hilly 5.0 6.0 7.0

Steep 6.0 7.0 8.0

Types of gradient
Many studies have shown that gradient upto seven percent can have considerable effect on the
speeds of the passenger cars. On the contrary, the speeds of the heavy vehicles are considerably
reduced when long gradients as at as two percent is adopted. Although, atter gradients are
desirable, it is evident that the cost of construction will also be very high.

Ruling gradient
 Limiting gradient
 Exceptional gradient
 Critical length of the grade
 Minimum gradient
 Summit curve
Summit curves
Summit curves are vertical curves with gradient upwards. They are formed when two gradients
meet.
1. when a positive gradient meets another positive gradient
2. when positive gradient meets a at gradient.
3. when an ascending gradient meets a descending gradient.
4. when a descending gradient meets another descending gradient.

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

 Lecture 11

Vertical alignment-II

Overview
Valley curve Valley curve or sag curves are vertical curves with convexity downwards. They are
formed when two gradients meet in any of the following four ways:

1. When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient.

2. When a descending gradient meets a flat gradient.

3. When a descending gradient meets an ascending gradient.

4. When an ascending gradient meets another ascending gradient.

Design considerations

Thus the most important design factors considered in valley curves are:

(1) impact-free movement of vehicles at design speed and

(2) Availability of stopping sight distance under headlight of vehicles for night driving.

Fig. 11.1 Types of valley curve

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar

Length of the valley curve

The valley curve is made fully transitional by providing two similar transition curves of equal
length The 2N 3 The length of the valley transition curve transitional curve is set out by a cubic
parabola y = bx where b = 2 3L is designed based on two criteria:

1. Comfort criteria; that is allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is limited to a

comfortable 3 level of about 0.6m/sec.

2. Safety criteria; that is the driver should have adequate headlight sight distance at any part of
the country.

Fig. 11.2 Valley curve, case1, L > S

Fig.11.3 Valley curve, case 2, S > L

Mr. Sitansu Kumar Das, Asst. Prof., GCE, Keonjhar