CHAPTER 5: A PRESSURE

MEASUREMENT
ORIENTATION
5.1 Pressure measurement Basics
5.2 Applications and Technologies Selection
5.3 Transmitters and Indication
5.4 Pressure Measurement System Errors
Pressure Sensors
The measurement and control of fluid pressure has to be one of the most common
in all process industries. Because of the great variety of conditions, ranges, and
materials for which pressure must be measured, there many different types of pressure
sensor designs.
Pressure Principles

Pressure – force per unit area that fluids exerts on its

surroundings.
• If it is a gas, then the pressure of the gas is the force per
unit area that the gas exerts on the walls of the container
that holds it.
• If it is a liquid, then the pressure of the liquid is the force
per unit area that the liquid exerts on the walls of the
container in which it is contained.
Pressure of a gas will be uniform.
In a liquid, the pressure will vary, zero on top and
maximum at the bottom.
Pressure Principles
Static Pressure
The above statements are explicitly true for fluid that is not
moving in space, that is not being pumped through pipes or
flowing through a channel. The pressure in cases where no
motion is occurring is referred to static pressure.

Dynamic Pressure
If a fluid is in motion, the pressure that it exerts on its
surroundings depends on the motion. The measured
pressure of water in a hose will be different if the nozzle is
closed and when the nozzle is opened. For this reason, a
through description of pressure must note the circumstances
under which it is measured.
Pressure Principles
Units
Pressure is force per unit area – N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
1N/m2 = 1 Pa

Other units – psi, torr – very low pressure (vacuum systems),

– bar
– atmosphere pressure, at
1 psi ≈ 6.895 kPa
1 bar = 100 kPa
1 atm ≈ 101.325 kPa ≈ 14.7 psi
Pressure Principles

Gauge Pressure
It is the pressure relative to the atmospheric pressure (at)
and it is given by;

Pg = Pabs – Pat
where Pg = gauge pressure
Pabs = absolute pressure
Pat = atmospheric pressure

In the English system of units, the abbreviation psig is used

to represent the gauge pressure.
Relationship between absolute and gauge pressures

Pabs=Pgauge+Pat
Pressure Principles
Head Pressure
For liquids, the expression head pressure, or pressure head, is
often used to describe the pressure of the liquid in a tank or
pipe. This refers to the static pressure produced by the
weight of the liquid above the point at which the pressure is
being described. If the liquid is contained in a tank, the
pressure at the bottom of the tank is given by
p = ρgh (Equation 31)
where p = pressure in Pa (pascal)
ρ = density in kg/m3
h = depth of liquid in m
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2 )
Pressure Principles

The relationship between pressure and depth becomes (Equation 32);

p = ρω h
Where p = pressure in lb/ft²
ρω = weight density in lb/ft³
h = depth of liquid in ft
Exercise 1.0
Pressure Sensors (p > atmosphere)

Most pressure sensors used in process control result in the transduction of

pressure information into a physical displacement.
Measurement of pressure requires techniques for producing the
displacement and means for converting such displacement into a
proportional electrical signal.
Pressure Sensors (p > atmosphere)
Diaphragm
It is a thin, flexible piece of metal)
which is used to convert pressure
information into a physical
displacement.
If a pressure p1 exists on one side
of the diaphragm and p2 on the
other, then the net force exerted is
given by
F = (p2 - p1) A
The extent of the deflection is a
measure of the pressure difference.
 PRESSURE SENSOR

C a n be divided into three types:

1. Deflection type

2. Strain gauge type

3. Piezoelectric type
Typical Pressure Detector System
 1. DEFLECTION TYPE PRESSURE SENSOR

• This sensor uses an elastic material to convert pressure to

displacement e.g. stainless steel, or brass.
• The displacement will be proportionate to the value of
pressure exerted.
• Suitable to be used in an automatic control system.
• The main element used is in the shape of a Bourdon
tube, bellow, or diaphragm.
• The secondary element is the element that will convert the
displacement to electrical signals where the displacement can
be detected through resistivity change, inductance, or
capacitance.
The Main Typical Element Used In A Deflection Type Pressure Sensor
Basic Form of Mechanical Pressure Sensors
 Example :
i. Bellow-resistance pressure sensor
• The pressure is proportionate to the resistivity.
• The resistance change is detected by
displacement of sliding contact in the resistance
element.

ii. Bellow-inductance pressure sensor

• The pressure is proportionate to the inductance
change which is detected from the displacement of
the core in the wire coil.
• The core movement will produce A C signal output
which will give the value and direction of inductance.
• LV D T (linear variable differential transformer)
demodulator is used to convert the A C output to D C .

iii. Diaphragm-capacitance pressure sensor

• The pressure is proportionate to the capacitance
change at the output through dielectric change.
• Pressure from the sensor element causes the
diaphragm to move towards the plate and produces
dielectric change.
It is another device much like the diaphragm that converts a pressure
differential into a physical displacement. The accordion-shaped sides of the
bellows are made from thin metal. An LVDT can be used to measure the
displacement of the bellow.

A Bellows – Resistance Pressure Sensor

LVDT ( Linear Variable Differential Transformer),
used to measure mass displacement employed the
inductive principle. The LVDT core itself is the seismic
mass. This accelerometer generally has a natural
frequency of less than 80Hz and is commonly used for
steady-state and low-frequency vibration

A Bellows – Inductance
Pressure Sensor
A Diaphragm – Capacitance Pressure Sensor
 Resistance Type

Capacitance Type
Example 1.1
2. STRAIN GAUGE PRESSURE
SENSOR
• Strain gauge is a type of resistive
transduction.
• Pressure measurement is obtained from
displacement of elastic element.
• Pressure is measured through force that is exerted
on the diaphragm where the force will be detected
by the strain gauge and resistance change will be
produced.
• Wheatstone Bridge circuit is used to detect the
change in pressure and an amplifier is used to
amplify the small output signals.
Strain Gauge Pressure Sensor
 3. PIZOELECTRIC
PRESSURE SENSOR
• This sensor consists of a piezoelectric crystal
(made from quartz) which functions as a force-
sensitive voltage source where the piezoelectric
material will be in between two plates (see the
following figure).
• Pressure exerted on the crystal surface is
proportionate to the voltage produced by the
crystal.
• This sensor does not require any voltage supply.
• This sensor is suitable for fast changing
pressure measurement (dynamic pressure).
Based on the property exhibited by certain crystals where a voltage is generated
across the crystal when stressed. Here, a crystal is spring-loaded with a test
mass in contact with the crystal. When exposed to acceleration, the test mass
stresses the crystal by a force (F = ma), resulting in a voltage generated across
the crystal. A measure of this voltage is a measure of acceleration.
Mechanical Stress

Piezoelectric
Material
Output
Voltage

Plate Mechanical Stress

Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor

 A pressure difference of 1.1 psi occurs across a
constriction in a 5-cm-diameter pipe. The constriction
constant is 0.009m3/s per kPa.

(i) Find the flow rate in m3/s

(ii) Find the flow velocity in m/s.

Example 1.3
 What is the pressure
transmitter measurement
error?
1: Pressure transmitter measurement error due to
improper Zero Reference
• The instrument may not have a proper
zero reference, which could lead to
inaccurate readings.
• The zero point of the transmitter moves
away from its original position.
Nowadays pressure transmitters are
electronic devices, and the zero-
reference signal may drift over time due
to temperature, pressure, or change in
ambient conditions.
• In order to avoid this type of error, it is
important to choose a pressure
transmitter that offers long-term
stability.
• Otherwise, the transmitter needs to be
calibrated more regularly.
2: Pressure transmitter measurement error due to
shift of the Full span
• Second, the shift occurs when the full
span of the transmitter moves away
from its original position.
• There are several factors that can
contribute to span shift, including
temperature changes, vibration, and
electrical interference in the process,
or perhaps the operating range of the
process has changed.
• To avoid this type of error, it is
important to have a good understanding
of the process and the conditions under
which it operates.
• Full-span shifts can be compensated for
by periodically recalibrating the
transmitter.
3: Pressure transmitter measurement error due
to improper range
• Third, one of the most common
causes of pressure transmitter
measurement error is improper
range selection.
• The measuring range for each
transmitter is determined according
to its cell type.
• This particular error is caused by
using a cell range that is too small or
too large for the application.
• To avoid this type of error, it is
important to select a pressure
transmitter with an appropriate
turndown ratio for the application.
 4: Pressure transmitter measurement error due
to incompatibility with the process conditions
• Fourth, the transmitter may not be
compatible with the process conditions.
For example, some devices may not be able
to withstand the high temperatures or
pressures found in certain industrial
processes.
• The pressure transmitter may simply be
incompatible with the specific process being
monitored.
For example, a process may currently
operate in the range of 0 to 30 bar, but
changes in operation will require it to run in
the range of 0 to 300 mbar.
• To avoid this type of error, it is important to
carefully consider the transmitter’s
capabilities in regard to the process
conditions before selecting one for a
particular application.
5: Pressure transmitter measurement error due
to Mechanical Wear or Damage
• Fifth, errors in sensor measurement may
occur because of mechanical wear, or
diaphragm damage.
• The transmitter may have been damaged
during installation, operation or
maintenance.
• Usually, this type of error will require repair
or replacement of the pressure transmitter.
• In order to avoid this type of error, proper
installation, commissioning, operation, and
maintenance of pressure transmitters are
essential.
• Check regularly for mechanical wear or
damage on your pressure transmitters to
rule out this error.