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Introduction To Psychology - Lesson 2

Sensation and Perception

Perceptual Process

Stages of perception:

Selection - We Organization - Interpretation - How We Perceive Others Perception of ourselves

choose stimuli. We mentally sort We attach Evaluations outside of our Made up of our self concept, self-
Focus on the ones and arrange the meaning to the awareness that cause automatic esteem.
that stand out to stimuli stimuli judgments of positive and
our senses (information) negative reactions toward others.

Psychophysics and Psychophysics is the area of psychology that addresses

Sensory Adaptation
Thresholds the topics of sensation; the topic includes the levels of
intensity in detecting stimuli and how psychological
factors influence our ability to sense stimuli. Sensory neurons are engineered to respond to a
Signal detection theory
Noticing a stimulus will vary due to constant stimulus by decreasing their activity. This
psychological factors, including diminishes sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus
Absolute Threshold Difference Threshold
motivation, past experiences, and and is called sensory adaptation.
expectations. Typically thought of as the The smallest difference a
intensity necessary for a person can detect Sensory adaptation is adaptive, for it frees our senses
Sensation and perception may blend stimulus to be detected between two similar from the constant and the mundane, allowing them to
together, psychologists do 50% of the time it’s stimuli is called the just pick up informative changes in the environment that
distinguish between them. The presented. noticeable difference or could be important to our well-being or survival.
sensation is the stimulus detection the difference threshold.
process by which our sense organs
respond to and translate According to Weber's Law, the difference threshold
environmental stimuli into nerve increases in proportion to the intensity and
impulses that are sent to the brain. magnitude of a stimulus.

Vision Color Vision

The Visual Stimulus The trichromatic theory

The normal stimulus for vision is electromagnetic Around 1800 it was discovered that any color in the
energy, or light waves, which are measured in visible spectrum could be produced by some
nanometers (nm), or one billionth of a meter. combination of the wavelengths that correspond to
Light-sensitive visual receptor cells are in the the colors blue, green, and red.
retina. The rods are brightness receptors, and
the less numerous cones are color receptors. Opponent-process theory
Light energy striking the retina is converted Proposed that each of the three cone types
into nerve impulses by chemical reactions in responds to two different wavelengths. One type
the rods and cones' photopigments. responds to blue or yellow, another to red or green,
Feature detectors analyze visual stimuli in and a third to black or white.
the primary visual cortex, and the stimulus
elements are then restructured and Color vision is a two-stage process having both
interpreted in light of input from the visual trichromatic and opponent-process components.
association cortex.

The eye structure and function The retina contains two types of light- Hearing
Light waves enter the eye through the cornea sensitive receptor cells called rods and
Behind the cornea is the pupil, an adjustable cones.
opening that can dilate or constrict to control the Rods are found throughout the retina except Auditory Stimulus
amount of light that enters the eye. in the fovea, a small area in the retina center The stimuli for hearing are soundwaves. Sound is
Behind the pupil is the lens, an elastic structure that contains no rods but many densely pressure waves in the air, water, or some other
that becomes thinner to focus on distant objects packed cones. conducting medium.
and thicker to focus on nearby objects. Rods and cones send their messages to the Sound waves have two characteristics: frequency,
The eye's lens focuses the visual image on the brain via two additional layers of cells. measured in terms of cycles per second or hertz (Hz);
retina, a multilayered light-sensitive tissue at the The rods and cones have synaptic and amplitude, measured in terms of decibels (dB).
rear of the fluid-filled eyeball. connections with a thin layer of ganglion cells, The other theory known as the place theory of pitch
whose axons are collected into a bundle to perception suggests that the specific point in the
form the optic nerve. cochlea where the fluid wave peaks and most strongly
bends the hair cells serves as a frequency coding cue.
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The ear structure and function
The ear's transduction system is made up The inner ear contains the cochlea, a coiled snail-shaped The organ of Corti rests on the basilar
of tiny bones, membranes, and liquid-filled tube filled with fluid, and contains the basilar membrane, membrane which contains about 16,000
tubes designed to translate pressure a sheet of tissue that runs its length. tiny hair cells that are the actual sound
waves into nerve impulses. receptors. The tips of the hair cells are
attached to another membrane, the
At a speed of about 75 mph, sound waves tectorial membrane.
travel into an auditory canal leading to the When sound waves strike the eardrum, the
eardrum, a membrane that vibrates in pressure created at the oval window by the
response to sound waves. hammer, anvil, and stirrup of the middle ear
sets the fluid inside the cochlea into
The middle ear- a cavity housing three motion.
tiny bones: the hammer (malleus), anvil
(incus), and the stirrup (stapes) This bending of the hair cells caused by the
amplifies the sound waves more than fluid waves vibrating in the basilar and
30 times. The oval window forms the tectorial membrane triggers
boundary between the middle ear and neurotransmitters' release into the synaptic
the inner ear. space between the hair cells and the
neurons of the auditory nerve, resulting in
nerve impulses being sent to the brain.

Taste Smell

Gustation Olfaction
- a chemical reaction which is the sense of is the sense of smell. The smell receptors
taste. are long cells that project through the lining
of the upper part of the nasal cavity and
Our sense of taste responds to only four into the mucous membrane.
qualities: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter.
Every other taste experiment combines Olfactory receptors fire sending their input
these qualities with other senses such to the olfactory bulb, a forebrain structure
as smell, temperature, and touch. immediately above the nasal cavity.
Taste buds are chemical receptors Each odorous chemical excites only a
concentrated along the tip, edges, and limited portion of the olfactory bulb, and
back surface of the tongue. odors are apparently related perceptions,
An additional taste sensation, called statements, or coded in terms of the
umami, increases the intensity of other specific area of the olfactory bulb that is
taste qualities. excited.

Skin Senses Basic Perceptual

Phenomena
The skin and body senses include the Pain
sense of touch, kinesthesis (muscle Pain receptors are found in all body tissues To create our perceptions, the brain carries out two
movement), and equilibrium. The last two except for the brain, bones, hair, nails, and different kinds of processing functions.
are called body senses because they nonliving parts of the teeth.
In top-down
inform us of the body’s position and
processing, sensory information is
movement. Free nerve endings in the skin and internal organs
interpreted in light of existing
Touch and temperature respond to intense mechanical, thermal, or
knowledge, concepts, ideas, and
Humans are sensitive to at least four tactile chemical stimulation and then send nerve
expectations.
sensations: pressure (touch), pain, warmth, impulses into the spinal cord, where sensory
tracts carry pain information about pain intensity In bottoms up processing, the
and cold. Receptors convey these
and location is relayed by the thalamus to the system takes in individual
sensations in the skin and our internal
somatosensory and frontal areas of the cerebral elements of the stimulus and
organs.
cortex. then combines them into a
unified perception.
Mixtures of these four sensations form
the basis for all other common skin Other tracts from the thalamus direct nerve
impulses to the limbic system, involved in Movement perception is a complex process, sometimes
sensations.
motivation and emotion. requiring the brain to integrate information from several
The primary receptors for pain and
Thus pain has both a sensory and an different sources.
temperature are the free nerve
endings, simple nerve cells beneath the emotional component.
The Gate control theory proposes that the
Patterns
skin’s surface that resemble bare tree Recognizing a stimulus implies that we have a
branches. experience of pain results from the opening
perceptual schema; a mental representation or
and closing of gating mechanisms in the
image containing the critical and distinctive features
Basket cell fibers situated at the base of nervous system.
of a person, object, event, or another perceptual
hair follicles are receptors for touch and The nervous system has its own built in
phenomenon.
light pressure—kinesthesis functions by analgesics of pain impulses from the spinal
means of nerve endings in the muscles, cord to the brain with opiate-like properties.
tendons, and joints. The natural opiates are called endorphins and Constancies
The sense organs for equilibrium are in the exert some sort of pain killing effects by Allow us to associate familiar stimuli under varying
vestibular apparatus of the inner ear. inhibiting neurotransmitters' release involved conditions. In a vision, several constancies are
in the synaptic transmission. important.
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Phenomena

Depth Perception Gestalt principles of organization

The retina receives information in only two dimensions (length and width), but Gestalt psychologists formulated rules by which the brain pieces together
the brain translates these cues into three-dimensional perceptions. meaningful experiences out of sensation fragments.
Monocular cues to The Gestalt theorists emphasized the importance of figure-ground
Binocular disparity A second binocular
judge distance and relations, our tendency to organize stimuli into a central or foreground
occurs as slightly distance cue,
depth include light and figure and a background.
different images are convergence, is produced
shadow patterns, linear Gestalt theorists were interested in how to separate stimuli come to
viewed by each eye and by feedback from the
perspective, be perceived as parts of larger wholes.
acted on by feature muscles that turn your
interposition, height in detectors for depth. eyes inward to view a
the horizontal plane, close object.
texture, clarity, relative
size, and motion
parallax.

The Law of proximity The Law of similarity

Says that elements that are near Says when parts of a configuration
Illusions each other are likely to be are perceived as similar, they will
Our analysis of perceptual schemas, hypotheses, and constancies allows us to perceived as belonging together. be perceived as belonging together.
understand some interesting perceptual experiences known as illusions,
compelling but incorrect perceptions.
Such perceptions can be understood as erroneous perceptual hypotheses
about the nature of a stimulus.

The Law of closure

The Law of continuity
People tend to close the open edges
Holds that people link individual
of a figure or fill gaps in an
elements together, forming a
incomplete figure so that their
continuous line or pattern that
identification of form is more
makes sense.
complete than what it is.

Influences on Extrasensory
Subliminal Perception
Perception Perception
Perceptual development involves both physical Not all stimuli register in awareness. A ESP is mostly called the "sixth sense."
maturation and learning. subliminal stimulus is a weak or brief one It is the sensory information that an individual
Some perceptual abilities are innate or develop received by the senses but can not be perceived receives beyond the ordinary five senses; sight,
shortly after birth, others require experiences consciously. hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
early in life in order to develop. It can provide the individual with information
Cultural factors can influence certain aspects Although subliminal stimuli cannot control about the present, past, and future, as it seems
of perception, including picture perception and consumer behavior, research suggests that such to originate in a second or alternate reality.
susceptibility to illusions. stimuli affects more subtle phenomena such as
Visual deprivation studies, manipulation of perceptions and behavior. The term "ESP" was used in 1870 by Sir
visual input, and studies of restored vision have
Richard Burton. A French researcher, Dr.
shown that the perceptual system's normal
Paul Joire, in 1892, used the term ESP to
biological development depends on certain
describe the ability of a person who had
sensory experiences at early periods of
been hypnotized or was in a trance state to
development.
sense things without using their ordinary
senses externally.

The argument rest on the hypothesis that

two realities exist, the physical one and a
second one. ESP can occur when there is
an integration between both realities.

Consciousness, Thinking,
and Intelligence

Lifespans

there are Lifespan Maximum Lifespan Average Lifespan Life Expectancy

three types The process and everything which The period of time a member of a The average age is reached by The number of years a
of lifespans: occurs between birth and death. species can live. members of a given population. person is expected to live.
 Change Occurs in
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Biosocial Domain Cognitive Domain
Many Contexts

Potential Development Example Cognitive domain deals with several Culture is one of the main contexts
A child living in the United States, a developed areas of cognition: of Developmental Psychology.
country, will grow and develop more effectively It is important to remember that sensitivity is needed when
because of the advantages of good foods and 1. Thought working with those who have different cultural backgrounds or
better nutritional options. A child living in an needs.
underdeveloped country may only have access 2. Perception
to contaminated water with no true fresh fruits
and vegetables. 3. Language Socioeconomic
Actual Development Example Context
4. Other mental activities
Researchers have studied the effects of
children within poor environments and not- so- Socioeconomic status encompasses more than just financial
When researching the cognitive status. It also includes education level, income, geographic
poor environments to see how they are
domain, residence, and employment status.
affected mentally and physically.
the following questions are asked: People are placed in different socioeconomic statuses.
How do children acquire Some examples include:
language? Financial status
How is perception influenced Educational level
during cognitive development? Geographical location

States of
Consciousness

Key Terms Behaviors

Consciousness - moment-to- Selective attention - The Altered states of
moment awareness of process that focuses Unconscious Conscious Deliberate consciousness
ourselves and our environment. awareness on some stimuli Automatic Behaviors Behaviors Different conditions from the
Characteristics- subjective and to the excursion of others.
normal waking state of a person.
private; dynamic and ever- EX: The unconscious EX: Texting your boss to There are five states based on the
changing; self-reflective and anxiety you feel about clarify a task he induction method:
central to our sense of self; and whether your boss assigned to you Pharmacological, Psychological,
intimately linked to selective approves of your work Physical, Pathological,
attention. Spontaneous.

Sleep Cycle vs
Biological Rhythms
Sleep-Wake Cycle

Sleep Cycle Sleep-wake cycle In general, our alertness is lowest in the early morning
hours.
90-minute cycle that has five different Corresponds to our circadian rhythm or Jet lag, night shift work, and seasonal affective disorder
stages. Throughout the night these cycles biological clock. involve circadian disruptions.
can last up to 120 minutes. While Follows a 24 hours cycle Treatments include controlling one’s exposure to light,
sleeping we go through four to 6 cycles. Behavioral, physical and mental changes taking oral melatonin, and regulating one’s daily activity
Sleep cycles can be different depending occur in response to light (sleeping at schedule.
on the person, and factors such as habits, night, staying up in the day) Most circadian rhythms are regulated by the brain’s
consumption and age. Our circadian rhythm influences whether suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) located in the hypothalamus,
we are a morning person or night owl.
known as the master circadian clock.

Sleep A person goes through between four and six sleep cycles per night, these cycles change as
the night goes on. At the start they tend to be 90 minutes but will reach up to 120 per cycle.

Roughly every 90 minutes while

Stage One Stage Two Stage Three Stage Four Stage Five
asleep, we cycle through different
stages in which brain activity and Drowsy Light Sleep Moderate Sleep Deep Sleep REM (Rapid Eyes
other physiological responses change First 5 - 10 min. Lasts 20 min. Lasts 10 - 20 min. Lasts 30 min. Movement)
in a generally predictable way. The body is in complete
‘Dozing off’ Sleep spindles - 1-2 Sleep spindles are Stronger, more
As sleep begins, your brainwave temporary paralysis
Easily wake up second bursts of rapid still present consistent delta
patterns become more irregular. except for the eyes and
Experience vivid brain wave activity Muscles relax waves
Polysomnography (sleep study) breathing. Dreams
images, sudden Harder to wake up deeply, breathing Immune system
monitors an individual’s cycle, stage, occur, heart rate
body jerks, and Muscles more relaxed, slows down strengthens and the
or pattern of sleep. The test records increases, blood
dreams breathing, and heart More difficult to body repairs itself in
brain waves, SpO2, HR, breathing, and pressure increases and
rate is slower, dreams wake up. this stage
eye/leg movements during a thus breathing becomes
may occur
scheduled sleep appointment. faster and more shallow
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According to the restoration model, sleep recharges our run
Dream
down bodies and allows us to recover from physical and mental interpretations
fatigue.
Immune system boosting will occur and cognitive functions
Psychoanalytic Activation- Psychotherapeutic
such as learning and creativity will be optimized after rest.
Evolutionary/circadian sleep models emphasize that sleep’s Theory Synthesis Theory Theory
main purpose is to increase a species chance of survival in
Freud said that dreams REM sleep activates brain, We dream so that we can
relation to its environmental demands.
manifest our repressed and synthesizes into confront our emotions in a
Activation synthesis theory views dreaming as the brain’s
sexual desires something meaningful, safe environment. If you
attempt to fit a story to a random neural activity.
resulting in dreams are running away from
Manifest content: External stimuli can form something in your dream,
Content of the dreams part of a dream, instead of it can signal that you are
waking you up. scared of something in
Latent content: real life.
Repressed desires

Sleep Disorders Hypnosis

Narcolepsy Insomnia Hypnosis is a procedure in which one It is Hypnotic

Extreme daytime sleepiness person (the subject) is guided by another characterized by induction is a
Chronic difficulty falling asleep
and sudden sleep attacks that (the hypnotist) to respond to suggestions deep relaxation process that
or experiencing quality sleep
may last up to a minute or an for changes in subjective experience, and heightened creates a context
hour alterations in perceptions, sensation, suggestibility. for hypnosis.
Sleep Apnea emotion, thought, or behavior.
REM-sleep behavior Repeated stopping and
disorder restarting of breathing during Theodore Barber and Nicholas
Milton Erickson
Absence of the loss of muscle sleep
Hypnotists communicate with the Spanos
tone that allows REM sleep
unconscious mind. He would use indirect Communication is with the conscious mind
Night terrors Sleepwalking suggestions instead of commandments. and direct suggestions should be used.
Occurs during stage 3 and 4 of
Frightening dreams that cause
slow-wave sleep.
a state of panic. Not the same Hypnotherapy can be used to treat phobias, pain, and addictions.
Sleepwalkers often stare
as nightmares – which are just Some people can be led to experience hypnotic amnesia (during the session itself)
blankly and are unresponsive
bad dreams that everyone and posthypnotic amnesia (after coming out of hypnosis).
to other people
experiences

Psychoactive
Drugs
Psychoactive drugs produce a state
Stimulants Depressants Hallucinogens Narcotics
of consciousness that is different
from normal consciousness by Increase activity of central Alter reality or view of Numbing or paralyzing
Reduce stimulation and
mimicking, inhibiting, or nervous system. themselves or surroundings properties for pain.
arousal, calm nerves,
stimulating neurotransmitters' Caffeine, cocaine, LSD, DMT Opiates
relaxed muscles.
activity. nicotine. Hallucinations Slowed activity
Xanax, alcohol, valium.
Sensory experiences Drowsiness
Physiology of drug effects - Drugs A feeling of euphoria Warped perception of Vomiting, nausea
Drowsiness or sleep
enter the bloodstream and are Overly talkative time Flushing, constipation
Relaxation
carried throughout the brain by Reduced appetite Increased heart rate and Physical dependence
Decreased inhibition
small blood vessels called Increased alertness energy
capillaries.

The Risks of Psychoactive Drugs

Tolerance Addiction Withdrawal Adverse health effects
When the drug stops giving the (Substance use disorder) - inability Combination of mental and physical Psychoactive drugs can lead to changes
same level of effects after repeated of a person to stop using a effects a person will experience after in the body, many being negative
use. This often leads to higher substance even if it is causing harm the discontinuation of a substance
dosage consumption

Penalties Death Overdose

Possession of some drugs is illegal Misusing psychoactive drugs can Occurs when too much of a drug is
and can lead to criminal charges result in death. ingested
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Thinking and
Intelligence

Cognition

The mental activities involved in solving problems: thinking, language, memory, The conscious mind is your awareness now.
and intelligence. A variety of thought processes either facilitate or impede The subconscious mind consists of accessible information.
problem-solving. The unconscious mind, consisting of primitive, instinctual wishes
as well as information that we cannot access.
Elements of Cognition Concepts
Basic units of semantic memory-
Much of our thinking occurs in the • We do not have easy access to the unconscious mind's information,
mental categories where we place
form of propositions, statements although our behaviors may show the unconscious driving forces.
objects, activities, abstractions, and
that express ideas. All propositions
events that have common essential
consist of combined concepts. • During our childhood, we acquired countless memories and
features.
experiences that formed who we are today. However,
Prototypes Schema we cannot recall most of those memories. They are
Many concepts are defined by Mental framework, an organized unconscious forces (beliefs, patterns, subjective
prototypes, the most typical and pattern of thought about some maps of reality) that drive our behaviors.
familiar members of a category or aspect of the world.
class.

Thinking and Types of

Consciousness Reasoning It helps us acquire knowledge, make sound
decisions, solve problems, and avoid the hazards
Thinking may seem to be the mind's Reasoning is one aspect of intelligent thinking. and time-consuming trial and error efforts.
internal language and includes
several mental activities.
Deductive Inductive Algorithmic Heuristic Dialectical
Propositional thought - Mode of ‘Supporting a Making generalized Making a step-by- Any approach used to Arriving at the
thoughts that we say in our generalized conclusions based off step procedure to solve problems or do conclusion or truth
minds as verbal statements. statement with of specific scenarios. solve a specific self-discovery. Also through contrasting
Imaginal thought, consists of specific scenarios. E.g. Last year, my problem. seen as a mental and comparing
images that we can see, hear, or E.g. Quadrilaterals psych professor was shortcut used to different solutions
feel in our mind. have four sides, thus beautiful, this year, my solve things quickly.
Motoric thought, is related to a rectangle is a psych professor is also
motor movements' mental quadrilateral beautiful. All psych
representations, such as professors are
throwing an object. beautiful!

Cognitive Biases

Affect Heuristic Availability Heuristic Fairness bias

The ability to reason effectively is a key
The affect heuristic is a mental Is another heuristic in which "Doing the right thing" describes
factor in critical thinking, making sound
decisions, and solving problems. shortcut that allows people to make people base judgments and the 'fairness bias' or that most
Unfortunately, several key factors may decisions and solve problems decisions on how easily people are instinctively motivated
impair effective reasoning. quickly and efficiently, in which information is available in memory. to do the right thing.
current emotion—fear, pleasure, A mental shortcut that relies on
Cognitive biases are tendencies to surprise, etc.—influences decisions. immediate examples that come Avoiding loss bias
think in certain ways, can lead to It is a type of heuristic in which to mind. Tendency to prefer avoiding losses
systematic deviations from a standard emotional response, or "affect" Operates on the notion that to acquiring gains strongly. Some
of rationality or good judgment and in psychological terms, plays a anything recalled must be studies suggest that losses are twice
are often studied in psychology and lead role. important. as powerful, psychologically, as
behavioral economics. It is a subconscious process Subsequently, people tend to gains.
that shortens the decision- heavily weigh their judgments
making process and allows toward more recent Confirmation bias
people to function without information, making new Tendency to look for evidence
completing an extensive search opinions biased toward that confirms what one currently
for information. latest news. believes rather than looking for
It is shorter in duration than a evidence that could disconfirm the
mood, occurring rapidly and Hindsight bias beliefs.
involuntarily in response to a Tendency to overestimate your own Mental sets
stimulus. ability to have predicted or foreseen
When we are solving problems, we
an event after learning about the
often tend to fall back on solutions
outcome.
that have worked out in the past.
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Cognitive Dissonance Intelligence

In psychology, cognitive dissonance is the Ulric Neisser and his team came up with a broader definition
Is the ability to acquire knowledge,
mental stress or discomfort experienced think, and reason effectively, and of intelligence:
by an individual who holds two or more “The ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the
deal adaptively with the
contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of
environment. Intelligence is about
the same time or is confronted by new reasoning and to overcome obstacles by taking thought.”
how well you solve problems.
information that conflicts with existing
beliefs, ideas, or values. Charles Spearman General Global Specific
supported Neisser’s idea. He Intelligence (S)
Intelligence (G)
When there is a discrepancy studies grades of students.
between beliefs and behaviors, He compared variability over “Relatively constant Where a student
something must change in order to several tasks, named factor level of mental might excel in one
eliminate or reduce the dissonance. analysis. performance across subject such as math
diverse mental tasks”. or science. Being
People tend to seek consistency in their He devised a 2-factor theory Ability to perform over intelligent in a
beliefs and perceptions. of intelligence. all tasks. specific field.

Three important standards reliability, validity

Intelligence Testing for psychological tests are: and standardization
History of Intelligence

Most modern intelligence tests Alfred Binet Henry Goddard Historically, two scientists, Sir Francis
measure an array of mental abilities, "Doing the right thing" describes Tried to limit people from Galton and Alfred Binet, had entirely
including global IQ and verbal and the 'fairness bias' or that most immigrating to the U.S. by doing different agendas played seminal roles in
performance IQs. people are instinctively motivated intelligence tests at Ellis Island. studying and measuring mental skills.
Other scales provide separate scores Their contributions set the stage for later
to do the right thing. 40-50% of immigrants did not pass
for crystallized and fluid attempts to measure intelligence and
Sir Francis Galton the test, but this could be due to
intelligence and for analytical, discover its causes.
language, and many other factors
practical, and creative intelligence. Came up with eugenics meaning Galton’s studies of heredity genius and
Achievement tests measure what “good genes”. It refers to improving David Wechsler Binet’s methods for measuring differences
has already been learned, whereas a population by eliminating bad Did not approve of Binet’s in children’s mental skills were important
aptitude tests measure the genes. Intelligence tests were used intelligence tests. He focused on historical milestones in intelligence study.
potential for future learning and to find those “inferior genes”. not just measuring a single
performance. William Stern quantity, rather making tests that
Most intelligence tests measure He developed the Intelligence included verbal- and non-verbal
combinations of achievement and Quotient (IQ). questions.
aptitude.

Intelligence

Intelligence may be Robert Sternberg proposed that Three Types of Howard Gardner believed there were other types of
influenced by: Intelligence (Triarchic Theory of Intelligence) as intelligence (Multiple Intelligences Theory):
Shared family environment assessed in school-aged children:
Educational experiences
Cultural and ethnic differences Academic Creative Practical Linguistic Spatial Interpersonal
Genetic and environmental factors Intelligence Intelligence Intelligence
Logical- Body-
Measured by IQ Measured by Measured by Intrapersonal
The Flynn effect references to the
tests and mathematical Kinesthetic
imaginative everyday
phenomenon of a persistent increase in
achievement pursuits. interactions and
intelligence test scoring. It is not clear Musical Naturalistic Philosophical
tests. actions.
whether this is due to biological or
environmental reasons.

Cognitive Approaches Creativity

Animal Intelligence Is the ability to produce something that is both new and valuable.
Animal cognition is the study of the mental capacities of animals.
Divergent thinking Expertise
Influenced by: Coming up with many solutions to a This encourages creativity. Studies
comparative psychology behavioral ecology single problem. It departs from the show that experts usually come up
animal conditioning and learning research in ethology norm, where we apply concepts or with creative ideas in their field
evolutionary psychology propositions from one domain onto
another unrelated domain that
An important proponent of this shift in thinking was Donald O. Intrinsic interest
produces new insights
Hebb, who argued that the "mind" is simply a name for processes People who are experts and
in the head that control complex behavior and that it is both Analytical Intelligence creative in a field often are there
necessary and possible to infer those processes from behavior. Based on those who are good at because they want to be, not
answering questions with only one because they are pushed or forced
Animals came to be "goal-seeking agents" that acquire, store, correct answer to be there
retrieve, and internally process information at many levels of
cognitive complexity.