SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY

GRADE 12

2022 WINTER CLASSSES

CLIMATOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY

TEACHER AND LEARNER CONTENT MANUAL

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 GEOGRAPHY PROGRAMME FOR THE 2022 WINTER CLASSES

PAPER 1 PAPER 2
MARKS MARKS
WEEK 1 TOPICS DURATION (hrs) WEEK 2 TOPICS DURATION (hrs)

Climatology and Weather 4 (3) Settlement 4(3)

60 X 2 60 X 2
Geomorphology 4 Economic Geography of SA 4

Geographical Skills and

2 30 Geographical Skills and Techniques 2 30
Techniques

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CONTENTS PAGE
TOPIC 1: MID - LATITUDE CYCLONE

➢ Topic
1.1 Characteristics of Mid - latitude Cyclone
1.2 Areas where Mid - latitude Cyclones form
1.3 Conditions necessary for the formation
1.4 Stages of development and related weather conditions
1.5 Cross Sections of Mid latitude cyclone, Cold front, Warm front, Cold
front occlusion and Warm front occlusion
1.6 Reading and interpreting satellite images and synoptic weather maps
1.7 Impacts/ effects of Mid latitude Cyclones
➢ Worked examples
➢ Activities
TOPIC 2: TROPICAL CYCLONE

➢ Topic
2.1 Characteristics of Tropical Cyclone
2.2 Areas where Tropical Cyclones form
2.3 Factors necessary for the formation of Tropical Cyclone
2.4 Stages of Development
2.5 Weather patterns associated with Tropical Cyclone
2.6 Reading and interpretation of Satellite images and Synoptic maps
2.7 Impact of Tropical Cyclones on Human activities and the
Environment and Strategies to prepare and manage the effects of
Tropical Cyclones
➢ Worked examples
➢ Activities
TOPIC 3: SUBTROPICAL ANTICYCLONE (HIGH PRESSURE CELLS)
➢ Topic
3.1 Location of High pressure cells that affect South Africa
3.2 General characteristics of Anticyclones
3.3 Anti - cyclonic air circulation and its influence on Weather and
Climate
3.4 Travelling disturbances associated with Anticyclonic Circulation:
Moisture front, Line thunderstorms, Coastal low pressure, South
Africa’s Berg winds
3.5 Reading and interpreting Satellite images and Synoptic weather
Maps associated with Anticyclonic conditions

➢ Worked examples
➢ Activities
TOPIC 4: VALLEY CLIMATES
➢ Topic
4.1 Micro-climate of valleys and effect of slope aspect
4.2 Development of Anabatic and Katabatic winds, inversions, frost
pockets and radiation fog
4.3 The influence of local climates on Human activities such as settlement
and Farming
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 4.4 Reasons for differences between Rural and Urban climates
4.5 Urban Heat island – Causes, effects and Solutions
4.6 Pollution dome – Causes, effects and Strategies to reduce the heat
island effect

➢ Worked examples
➢ Activities
TOPIC 5: DRAINAGE SYSTEMES IN SOUTH AFRICA
➢ Topic
5.1 Drainage basin, catchment area, river system, watershed, tributary,
river mouth, source, confluence, water table, surface run-off and
groundwater
5.2 Types of Rivers
5.3 Drainage patterns
5.4 Drainage density
5.5 Stream orders
5.6 Discharge of a River
➢ Worked examples
➢ Activities
TOPIC 6:
➢ Topic
6.1 River Profiles: Transverse and Longitudinal profile and their
relationship to the different stages of a river:
6.2 Fluvial landforms: Meanders, Oxbow lakes, Braided streams,
Floodplain, Natural Leveé, Waterfall, Rapids, Delta
6.3 River grading
6.4 Rejuvenation
6.5 River capture
. 6.6 Superimposed and Antecedent drainage
➢ Worked examples
➢ Activities
TOPIC 7: FLUVIAL PROCESSES
➢ Topic
7.1 Importance of Managing Drainage basins and Catchment areas
7.2 Impact of People on Drainage basins and Catchment areas.
7.3 Catchment and Drainage basin Management
➢ Worked examples
➢ Activities

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TOPIC 1: Mid – latitude Cyclone
Duration: ….

1. CONTENT TOPIC: Climatology

1. Topic: Mid – latitude Cyclone
CYCLOGENESIS (this refers to the process that creates or develops a new cyclone)

• Low pressure in centre

• Wind blows from high pressure to low pressure
• Wind deflected by Coriolis force – left/ clockwise in southern hemisphere
and to the right/anticlockwise in northern
hemisphere
• Air converges at surface and rises
• Air diverges in upper air

1.1 Characteristics of Mid - latitude Cyclone

• System where cold polar and warm subtropical air masses meet
• Boundary between air masses = cold front
• Has Cold front and Warm front
• Pressure at centre about 995hPa
• Diameter about 1500 – 3000km
• Occur in families
• Travel at 50 – 60 km per hour and cover 1200km per day
• Last between 4 – 14 days

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 Mid – latitude Cyclone in the Mid – latitude Cyclone in the Northern
Southern Hermisphere Hermisphere

1.2 Areas where they occur:

• 40° - 60° North and South

• Travel in Westerly wind belt 6|Page
 • Cold fronts pass over Southern Cape in winter and may extend over exterior
• In summer, when Pressure belts and Wind systems move South, so does Mid-
latitude cyclone
• Winter rain in South Western part of country
• Cold snaps(spells) over interior of country (Sudden unexpected Cold over the
interior)

1.3 Conditions necessary for the formation of Mid – latitude Cyclone

• Warm moist air meeting cold drier air
• Upper air diverge
• Something to trigger development e.g. a mountain range that disturbs the air flowing
over it

1.4 Stages of development of Mid – latitude Cyclone and related Weather conditions

Initial Stage
• Warm tropical air meets cold polar air at polar front
• Winds blow in opposite directions

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8|Page
 Families of Mid – latitude Cyclone

Dissipated Stage
• The entire warm sector is above the ground – no more warm air on surface
• No cold or warm fronts present
• Isobars no longer have pattern of mid-latitude cyclone
• Light gust of cold air on ground

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Weather changes caused by Mid - Latitude Cyclones

• As the COLD FRONT moves over an area;

• A sudden DECREASE in the Temperature.
• Air Pressure INCREASE on the surface.
• Wind Direction changes from North West to South West. (Backing and Veering)
• Wind Speeds will be very Strong to Gale Force.
• Cumulonimbus and Cumulus Clouds will be formed.
• Cumulonimbus Clouds will lead to Heavy Rainfall and Thunderstorms.
• Humidity starts to Decrease.

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Typical weather conditions on the surface of a Warm front:

Change in wind direction (the wind backs in the S.H. and veers in the
N.H.);typically the wind changes from N.E. to N.W.
• Increase in dew point temperature.
• Increase in temperature.
• Cloud type: nimbostratus
• Air pressure drops.
• Increase in cloud cover.

Typical weather conditions on the surface of a Cold front:

• Wind backs; typically, a warm N.W becomes a cool S.W
• Gusty wind associated with a squall line. Typical
conditions of a squall: sudden increase in wind speed;
changes in wind direction; a line of low darkclouds;
thunderstorm activity; sharp drop in temperature.
• Decrease in temperature: the lowest temperature
takes several hours. Thecold front itself is a transition
zone and not a sharply defined boundary.
• Decrease in humidity: cold air does not contain as
much moisture than warmair.
• Air pressure drops at the point of thunderstorm activity and then rises.
• Cumulonimbus clouds.

1.5 Cross Sections of Mid – latitude Cyclone, Cold front, Warm front, Cold front occlusion
and Warm front occlusion

Cross Section of Mid – latitude Cyclone

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 Cross Section of a Cold Front

Cross Section of a Warm Front

Cross Section of a Cold Front Occlusion

Cold front occlusion
• Forms when the cold air BEHIND the cold front is colder that the cold air ahead of
the warm front.

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 Cross Section of a Warm Front Occlusion
Warm front occlusion
• Forms when the cold air ahead of the warm front is COLDER than the cold air
BEHIND the cold front

1.6 Synoptic Weather Maps and Station Model

Station Model

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 Synoptic Weather Map

Air Circulation within the Mid-latitude cyclone and of the whole system:

• Movement is clockwise in the Southern hemisphere because of

C.F. ie deflection is to the left in the S.H.

• Cyclone moves eastwards because it develops in the westerly winds

(PrimaryAir Circulation)

• Air converges around the L.P centre because there is an

imbalance in airpressure (P.G.F).

• In the L.P. centre air rises (warm air rises above cold air).

Note the following table below. These are generally identified changes
associatedwith the passing of a cold front:

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 North- West-south
northwest west

The reason for the focus on cold frontal conditions on the surface is due to
the fact that it is cold fronts which affect SA weather mainly in winter.

1.7 Impact/ Effects of Mid – latitude Cyclones

Negative Impacts/ Effects:

• Very cold conditions leading to power cuts as people will be using more power to
warm themselves.
• South westerly winds can create very strong conditions and gale force winds that
will be dangerous to ship and the harbour.
• Heavy rain in the Western Cape leads to poor visibility and accidents.
• Can cause snow in the Western Cape that can lead to closing of mountain passes.
• Heavy rainfall in the Western Cape lead to floods that will destroy peoples’ houses,
crops, and livestock destroyed.
• Food insecurity due to a decrease in crop production (creates poverty).
• Loss of profit by South Africa’s farmers.
• There is an in the imports than exports (balance of trade).
• Causes a decrease in the GDP, which leads to expensive food.
• Pre frontal - Berg Winds

Positive Impacts/ Effects:

• Winter rainfall in the Western Cape brings more yields on crops, especially grapes
(e.g: wine industry).
• Winter rainfall fills up the dams and brings more water for irrigation, industrial and
domestic use.
• More profit to farmers due to more yields.
• Food security (availability of food).
• Creates employment.
• Increases the GDP of the country. 15 | P a g e
• Improves the marine eco-systems.

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 Worked Example 1

1 FIGURE 1.1: STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MID-LATITUDE CYCLONE

x
Polar
front
x

[Source: Examiner's own sketch]

1.1 Study FIGURE 1.1, based on stages in the development of a mid-latitude
cyclone.

1.1.1 Which line of latitude, 20°S, 60°S or 80°S, is represented by line A?

1.1.2 Is a mid-latitude cyclone a high-pressure system or a low-pressure
system?

1.1.3 Describe the circulation of the air, as shown in stage 2.

1.1.4 Name the zone of separation between the westerly and easterly
winds.

1.1.5 Name the stage of development during which fronts form.

1.1.6 Define the term cold front, seen in stage 3.

1.1.7 Which stage (1, 2, 3 or 4) shows the mid-latitude cyclone in the occlusion
stage?

1.1.8 Give ONE point of evidence in the diagram that indicates that this cyclone
occurs in the Southern Hemisphere. (8 x 1) (8)

Answer:
1.1.160°S✓ (1)

1.1.2 Low✓ (1)

1.1.3 Clockwise✓ (1)

1.1.4 Polar front✓ (1)

1.1.5 Warm sector stage/Mature stage/(Polar front/initial stage) ✓ (1)

1.1.6 Front section of the cold moving air mass✓ (1)

1.1.7 Stage 4✓ (1)

1.1.8 Clockwise rotation of air (1) OR Westerlies lie north of polar front and
easterlies lie south of the polar Front✓ (1) (8 x 1) (8)

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Activity 1

Scenario/Context/Table/etc..

FIGURE 1.1: A CROSS-SECTION OF A MID-LATITUDE CYCLONE

[Adapted from http://isu.indstate.edu/ebermudez/hlth210/lessoneightc.html]

1.1 Study FIGURE 1.1, a cross-section of a mid-latitude cyclone.

1.1.1 Name front A. (1 x 1) (1)

1.1.2 (a) Name cloud type B. (1 x 1) (1)

(b) Account for the type of cloud at B which is associated with

this weather system. (1 x 2)

1.1.3 Why does the warm front (D) seldom influence the weather of
South Africa? (1 x 2)

1.1.4 Tabulate TWO differences between a mid-latitude cyclone

and a tropical cyclone regarding place of origin and the major wind
belt steering it. (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.5 Explain why the next stage of development of this mid-latitude

cyclone will be a warm front occlusion. (2 x 2) (4)

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Activity 2

2.1 FIGURE 2.1: MID-LATITUDE CYCLONE

[Adapted from Geography of Africa by WJ Minns]

2.1 FIGURE 2.1 shows a mid-latitude cyclone.

2.1.1 What evidence in the diagram shows that Cape Town is

experiencing winter? (1 x 1) (1)

2.1.2 Does front X or front Y have the greater effect on the weather of
Cape Town? (1 x 1) (1)

2.1.3 The weather service forecasts severe weather conditions for

CapeTown. State TWO of these expected weather conditions. (4)

2.1.4 Explain how the severe weather conditions will affect people living
in informal settlements in Cape Town. (2 x 2) (4)
2.1.5 Explain why there will be a difference in the weather experienced at
Cape Town and at Mossel Bay. (2 x 2) (4)

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2. Topic: Tropical Cyclone

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 2.1 Characteristics of Tropical Cyclone

• Moves from East to West.

• The system moves with the speed of 20 km/h to 25 km/h.
• The wind moves/blows with the speed of about 200 km/h to 300 km/h.
• It has an EYE with a diameter of 30 km to 50 km (the pressure in the eye is below
1000 hPa).
• It has an Eye wall with tall Cumulonimbus clouds around the eye.
• The diameter of the tropical cyclone is 500 km.
• Has left hand quadrant in the Southern Hemisphere (most dangerous part of the
system).
• Has a life span of more than a week.
• Tropical cyclones are named alphabetically, starting with alphabet “A”.
• Tropical Cyclones are called Different names in Different parts of the world:
Hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico
Typhoons in Japan and Eastern China
Willy – willies in Australia
Cyclones in Southern Africa
2.2 Conditions necessary for the Formation of a Tropical Cyclone
• 5° N and S of Equator
• Develop Only over the Ocean
• Ocean must be warmer than 26.5 °C and above
• Hot moist air because of evaporation
• Unstable air results in condensation
• Surface air Convergence
• Upper air Divergence

2.3 Stages of Development of a Tropical Cyclone

Formative Stage

• Convergence of air towards a low pressure

• Creates a vortex
• Air pressure about 1002hPa
• Wind speed up to 60 km/h

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Immature Stage

• Intensity of storm increases as air continue to converge and rise in LP centre

• Divergence takes place in upper atmosphere Air pressure drops below
990hPa
• Wind speed increases to about 120 km/h
• Eye forms in centre of LP
• Huge Cumulonumbus clouds forms around the eye and swirls to form a vortex
Mature Stage

• Storm reach its maximum intensity

• Pressure drops to about 950 hPa
• Wind speed exceed 180 km/h
• Fully developed eye
• Eye is clear, cloudless due to cooler subsiding air Vortex well developed
• Wind speed and up to 600 km in diameter
• Torrential rain, thunder and lightning experienced

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Dissipating/ Decay/ Degerating Stage

• Air cools down when entering the temperate latitudes

• Cooler air flows into the cyclone increasing the pressure
• When moving inland, supply of moisture is cut of and surface friction slows it down
• Dry air enters the system

Cross- Section of a Tropical Cyclone

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In summary:

• When a cyclone’s strongest winds do not exceed 61km per hour it is called a

tropical depression.

• When sustained winds are between 61 and 119km per hour the
cyclone iscalled a tropical storm.

• Tropical storms then become tropical cyclones. It is given a name

(named alphabetically at the beginning of the cyclone season).

2.6 Category Stages of Tropical Cyclones

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Impact of Tropical Cyclone on Human and Environment
HUMANS ENVIRONMENT

Loss of lives Storm surges – sudden rise in sea levels

Outbreak of water borne diseases like Flooding caused by storm surge, heavy
cholera since floods have damaged rains swollen rivers.
sewages.

Disruption of tourism, trade, agriculture and Damage infrastructure like roads, bridges,
industry. homes, and sewage communication.

Loss of profit to farmers. Fertile soil and crops are eroded away

Power lines are uprooted. Trees are uprooted.

Food insecurity (less availability of food). Destruction to the marine biodiversity.

Unemployment increases and exports Destruction to the eco-system of the

decrease (decrease in the GDP of the affected area.
country).

2.7Precautionary Measures to be taken Before the Tropical Cyclone

• Putting early warning systems in place.

• Evacuation plans in place.
• Sand bags set on the beach line.
• Outreach programs/campaigns (educational).
• Extra health services available.
• Extra fire and rescue services available.
• Extra police and security services available.
• Tracking the system throughout the whole time.
NB: THESE ARE THE SAME FOR BOTH DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES;
THEY BOTH DO THE SAME THING

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 2.8 MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AFTER THE SYSTEM HAS TAKEN PLACE
NB:
❖ DEVELOPED COUNTRIES CAN DO THE FOLLOWING IN A VERY SHORT PERIOD OF
TIME, DUE TO SUFFICIENT FUNDS.
❖ DEVELOPING COUNTRIES WILL TAKE MUCH LONGER TO PERFORM THE
FOLLOWING STRATEGIES, DUE TO INSUFFICIENT FUNDS.

• Placement of people in the refugee camps/temporary shelters.

• Distribution of medication to casualties.
• Distribution of clean water.
• Distribution of sanitary towels.
• Availability of sanitation.
• Health officials (Doctors and nurses) visiting campsites.
• Distribution of food and clothes.
• Construction projects start to rebuild infrastructure.
Activity 1
Worked Example 1 Arial 18

1.1 Context/Scenario:

3 FIGURE 1.1: PATH OF A TROPICAL CYCLONE

xx

[Source: http://about.metservice.com/assets/Learning-Centre/Mariners-Met-
Pack-South-
West-Pacific-ch5-Tropical-Cyclones.pdf]

1.1 Refer to FIGURE 1.1 showing the path of a tropical cyclone.

1.1.1 In which general direction do tropical cyclones move? (1 x 1) (1)

1.1.2 What evidence suggests that this tropical cyclone is found in the
Southern Hemisphere? (2 x 1) (2)

1.1.3 What causes the dangerous quadrant/semicircle to form? (1 x 2) (2)

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1.1.4 Give ONE reason for the possible re-curvature (change of direction)
of the tropical cyclone.

1.1.5 In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, outline the associated

weather with the dangerous quadrant/semicircle and its likely impact on
coastal areas. (4 x 2) (8)

Answer:
1.1.1 West (1)
Westerly (1)
Westwards (1)
East to West/Southwest (1) [ANY ONE] (1 x 1) (1)

1.1.2 10°S/south of the equator (1)

Path of the Tropical Storm is east to southwest (1)
Dangerous quadrant is in the bottom left/southwestern quadrant of the
system (1)
Clockwise circulation of ascending air (1) [ANY TWO] (2 x 1) (2)

1.1.3 The forward movement of the system and wind direction in the system is
moving in the same direction and combines (2)
The intense winds of the cyclone meets with the force of the entire cyclone
moving forward in this quadrant/semi-circle (2) [ANY ONE] (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.4 Deflected by the Westerlies (2)

Anticyclonic circulation in Southern Hemisphere will deflect the cyclone (2)
Weakening of tropical easterlies (2)
Changes/differences in sea temperatures (2) [ANY ONE] (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.5 EXPECTED WEATHER AND ITS IMPACTS ON COASTAL AREAS

Torrential (heavy) rainfall:
- flooding of coastal areas (2)
- infrastructural damage (2)
- destruction of crops/livestock (2)
- injury/loss of life (2)
- devastation of coastal communities/economies (2)
- fertile top soil washed away (2)
- create difficulties for ships in docking in harbours (2)

Gale/hurricane force winds/storm surges:

- increases damage to roofs (2)
- destroy vegetated areas along coastline regions (2)
- increase the likelihood of storm surges (2)
- creates a likelihood of power failures and other service disruptions on
coastal regions (2)
- High level of water will make swimming impossible (2)

Storm conditions:
- will have an adverse effect on ecosystems (2)
- will have negative effect on tourism (2) Positive:
- Torrential rainfall is a source of water for coastal areas (2)
- Wind clears air pollution/smog
[ANY FOUR IMPACTS EXPLAINED] (4 x 2) (8)

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Activity 3

FIGURE 3.1: MATURE STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT OF A TROPICAL

CYCLONE

[Source: Examiner's own sketch]

3.1.1 State the type of precipitation at A.

3.1.2 State where the highest wind speed is recorded in the graph.

3.1.3 Name the main cloud type that surrounds area B.

3.1.4 Give the term that describes air movement towards B.

3.1.5 Give a reason for the air movement at B.

3.1.6 In which area does the tropical cyclone experience the lowest
pressure?

3.1.7 Why does air descend in area B?

(7 x 1) (7)

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Activity 4

FIGURE 4.1: PASSAGE OF A TYPHOON

Winds of
Super 160 mph
Typhoon (260 km/h);
Usagi equal to a
Category 5
3 p.m. hurricane
Mon. 3 p.m.
Sun. 3 p.m.
Sat.
South 3 a.m.
China Sat.
400 km Sea

[Source:
http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2013/09/24/article-0-181DB13C00000578-
229_634x341.jpg]

4.1 Refer to FIGURE 4.1 based on the passage of a typhoon.

4.1.1 (a) In which area/region of the world does Typhoon Usagi occur? (1 x 1)

(b) State ONE visible characteristic in the diagram that confirms that
Typhoon Usagi is in the mature stage. (1 x 1) (1)

4.1.2 (a) Give a reason for the direction of movement of the typhoon. (1 x 1) (1)

(b) How many typhoons have been experienced before Typhoon Usagi in
this region during this season? (1 x 2)

4.1.3 State ONE condition that could have led to Typhoon Usagi developing
into a super typhoon? (1 x 2) (2)

4.1.4 A typhoon is influenced by the availability of energy during its life cycle.
Write a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines in which you explain
how energy is made available and taken away from the system during
the mature and dissipating stages. (4 x 2) (8)

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3. Topic: Subtropical Anticyclones (High Pressure Cells) and associated
Weather Conditions

3.1 Location of Subtropical Anticyclones( High Pressure Cells) that affect South Africa

Information that you need to remember from Grade 11:

mP air mass Cold air from the Dense, more stable, tendency
poles to sink, moves fast
mT air mass Warm air from the Less dense, unstable, tendency
tropics of air to rise
air movement over ocean Long sea track:
more moisture
can be picked air mass
and carried by
air mass
Air movement within the centre of Sinking air, stable air
a HP Cell
Air movement around and away Diverging, anticlockwise direction, air can
from the centre of a HP Cell unstable
Winter and summer planetaryshift In winter the HP Cells strengthen and shift
North and westwards, closer to land
In summer the HP Cells weaken and shifts 5 ̊
south &
eastwards, and is found at higher altitudes

3.2Characteristics of Subtropical Anticyclone(High Pressure Cells)

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 • Their rotation is anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere.
• They are associated with subsiding air.
• Subsiding air warms up adiabatically.
• They tend to bring clear, calm weather conditions.
• They are found between Tropic of Cancer/Capricon (40 degrees N/S).

3.3 The influence of the Anticyclones on the Weather of South Africa

South Atlantic Anticyclone:

• This system lies further South in summer.
• When the system ridges to the south of the country ahead of the frontal depression,
it deflects the depression in a South East direction and prevents it from reaching the
land.
• When the system ridges in behind the cold front it reinforces the SW air flow behind
the front, and pushes it across the land.
• If this High pressure cell ridges into the south of the country and extends far east, it
may result in a Black South Easter (winds that causes Torrential rainfalls).
• This system is responsible for dry weather conditions on the west coast, due to:
• The descending which warms adiabatically.
• The anticlockwise circulation of the air around this anticyclone causes South
Westerly winds, hence the formation of fog.

Kalahari Anticyclone:
• This anticyclone exists over the interior, and dominates weather conditions in South
Africa.
• This anticyclone is higher in the atmosphere in summer and is lower and stronger in
winter.

Summer Conditions:
• The plateau is warm and the air above it rises.
• The inversion layer lies above the escarpment.
• Most air from the Indian Ocean can rise above the escarpment on to the plateau.

Winter Conditions:
• This system causes cloudless, dry conditions during winter.
• The descending air from the anticyclone warms adiabatically and all moisture
evaporates.
• The plateau is cold and there is no rising air to lift the descending air of the
anticyclone.
• Frost is very common on the High Veld due to;
• A – the long cloudless nights, resulting in Terrestrial radiation.
• B – calm conditions.
• C – low humidity.

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3.4 Travelling disturbance associated with Anticyclones:
Moisture front
• The South Atlantic HP pushes in cool, dry air from the south-west.
• The South Indian High pushes in warm, moist air from the north-east.
• In summer, the Kalahari High lifts as temperatures increase.
• This allows the cool, dry air to meet the warm, moist air and a moisture front
develops over the interior. 33 | P a g e
 • The moisture front runs as a diagonal line across South Africa’s interior.
• Line thunderstorm develop along the moisture front, where cool air lifts the warm air.
• Warm air rises and form cumulonimbus clouds which produce heavy rain and
sometimes hail in late afternoons or evening.
• Line thunderstorms move eastward over country.

COASTAL LOW AND BERG WINDS

COASTAL LOW PRESSURE BERG WINDS

These are low pressure cells that often Berg winds are Hot dry winds that blow
travel ahead of cold fronts. from the interior towards the coast and are
warmed up adiabatically as they descend
1° C/100m.
They form off the west coast and travel High pressure develops in the interior and
east along the coast and change the low pressure over the coast.
coastal weather.
Rotation is clockwise with onshore winds Temperature drops fast by the cold air
on the western side that bring rain and fog. behind the front, and the difference in the
Offshore winds on the eastern side with pressure between the interior and the coast
warm, dry conditions and they bring drizzle ceases (stops).
(misty).
They occur in winter.
They cause veld fires.
i.e – solution for VELD FIRES is the Fire
fighters and the approaching Cold front.
Ahead of the coastal low the offshore wind (from the land to the sea) is warmand dry
Behind the coastal associated low the onshore wind (from the sea to the land) is cooler & moist
Onshore winds with moistunstable conditions (light rain)
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BERG WINDS COASTAL LOW

3.5 SYNOPTIC WEATHER MAPS SHOWING ANTICYCLONES

WINTER AND SUMMER CONDITIONS (PLAN VIEW AND CROSS SECTIONS)

WINTER CONDITIONS (CROSS SECTION)

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SUMMER CONDITIONS (PLAN VIEW)

SUMMER CONDITIONS (CROSS SECTION)

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Worked Example 1
FIGURE 1.1: ANTICYCLONES OVER SOUTHERN AFRICA

1.1.1 Name high pressure cell B.

1.1.2 Why does high pressure cell B dominate the interior of South Africa in
winter? (2)

1.1.3 Give a reason for the lack of rainfall associated with high pressure cell A.
(2)

1.1.4 Explain the change in the position of the anticyclones over South
Africa between summer and winter.

1.1.5 Explain why the South Indian High Pressure Cell feed more moist air over
the interior in summer than in winter. (6)
Total = [15]
Answers:
1.1.1 B Kalahari High/Continental High (1) (1 x 1) (1)

1.1.2 Lower temperatures over the interior causes the air to subside and create a
high pressure (2)
Less heating of land surface decreases convection (2)
[ANY ONE] (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.3 Subsiding/descending air heats up and does not allow for condensation to
take place (2)
Subsiding/descending air does not release moisture (2)
It is located over a cold ocean (2) (1 x 2) (2)
[ANY ONE]

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1.1.4 In summer they occupy a southerly position because the sun is over the
Tropic of Capricorn and all pressure systems move south with the apparent
movement of the sun (2)
In summer due to the intense heating of the land the high pressure systems
move further out to sea (2)
In winter they occupy a more northerly position as the sun is overhead the
Tropic of Cancer and all pressure systems move north with the apparent
movement of the sun (2)
In winter they are close to the land because the land is cold (2)
[ANY TWO] (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.5 Inversion layer is above the escarpment and allow the moisture to feed over
the interior (2)
Allows warm moist air to rise and condense on the windward side of the
escarpment (2)
Intense low pressure over the land in summer leads to the convergence of
air
Moist air from the South Indian High feeds into this low pressure over the
land (2)
Increased evaporation due to higher temperatures over the Indian in summer
and this moisture feeds into the land (2)
South Indian High is away from the coastline and the onshore winds have a
greater fetch resulting in more moisture over the land (2)

Activity 5

Refer to Figure 5.1 of Berg Winds

FIGURE 5.1: BERG WIND CONDITIONS

5.1.1 The sketch shows a (day/night) situation.

5.1.2 The inversion layer is found at a (higher/lower) altitude
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 during the night.

5.1.3 The inversion layer (increases/decreases) pollution

concentration over the city
during the night.
5.1.4 The heating of the city at B is the result of (multiple
reflections of heat/terrestrial radiation).

5.1.5 The channeling of wind between tall buildings

(increases/decreases) the wind speed.

5.1.6 Temperature (increases/decreases) from B to C.

5.1.7 The influence of evapotranspiration on cooling the air will be
(less/more) at B
compared to C.

5.1.8 Area B is associated with (more/less) cloud coverage

compared to area C. (8 x 1)

Activity 6

6.1. FIGURE 6.1 shows a Coastal low pressure cell (L) associated with
travelling disturbances( Coastal Low)
FIGURE 6.1: A COASTAL LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM
xx

[Source: South African Weather Service

]
6.1.1 Use the isobars to prove that L is a low-pressure system.

6.1.2 Where does low-pressure cell L originate?

6.1.3 In which direction does low-pressure cell L travel between Langebaan
and Cape Town?
6.1.4 What type of precipitation is associated with low-pressure cell L
along the West Coast?
6.1.5 Name the air temperature associated with the onshore flow of
low-pressure cell L at Langebaan.

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 6.1.6 How does air rotate around low-pressure cell L?

6.1.7 With which travelling disturbance is the hot, dry north-easterly wind
associated? (7 x 1) (7)

4. Topic: Valley Climates and City Climates

4.1 Micro Climate of Valleys and effect of Slope Aspect
• ASPECT - the direction in which the slope faces/ An angle at which the sun as rays
strike the earth surface
• IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE - people choose the North facing slope, this is
because that is the warmer side and it receives direct sun’s rays.
• MIDDLE OF THE SLOPE - these are also preferred because they are warm and
receive direct sun’s rays.

4.2 Development of Anabatic and Katabatic winds, inversions, frost pocket and radiation
fog
Two types of Winds:
ANABATIC WINDS - these are:
• Winds that blow up the valley slopes during the DAY.
• WARM and they RISE.
• Less dense and moist.

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KATABATIC WINDS - these are;
• Winds that blow down the slope during the NIGHT.
• COLD and they SINK.
• More dense and dry.

Inversions
• Temperature usually decreases with height, but if temperature increases with
height, it is called an Inversion layer.
• In Winter on a cloudless and windless night, the sides of the valley losses its
heat through terrestrial radiation. It is windless so the cold air does not mix
with the hot air.
• The heavy cold air on the mountain slopes sinks down to the valley floor,
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 replacing the warm air and pushing it up.
The warmer air forms a Thermal belt in the middle of the valley.

Frost Pocket
• Inversions layers make the sides of the valley warmer – hence thermal belt.
• If the cold layer at the bottom of the valley becomes thick enough, frost or fog will
form.
• Frost forms if dew point is below 0˚C. The coldest air collects in hollows in the
ground and are called frost pockets. Temperatures in frost pockets are lower than
surroundings.

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4.3 The influence of local climates on Human activities( Settlement and Farming)
The influence of Aspect on Human activities
• People prefer to build on sunnier, north facing slopes.
• Farmers plant sun-loving crops such as certain grapes on sunnier slopes.
• Farmers avoid planting winter crops in the shadow zone which do not get direct sun
at all.

The influence of Frost Pockets

• Most crops grow better when planted above frost pocket.
• Farmers in a frost prone valley must plant frost resistant crops – cabbage and
beetroot, or they must use methods to protect their plants from frost.
• In Western Cape, apple and pear trees are planted lower down a slope than peach
trees which are more sensitive to frost.
• In USA, farmers heat valleys to protect their crops from frost.

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The influence of Temperature Inversion on Human activities
• The cold air in bottom of valley makes it unpleasant to live there – people build in
thermal belt.
• Warm layer above cold air creates stable conditions – air cannot rise and is trapped
below inversion layer.
• Air pollution in valley from industries, veld fires and motor vehicles does not rise
and move out of valley.
• On foggy days, smog (mixture of smoke and fog) forms.
• A pollution plume/dome is a layer of pollution that is prevented from rising – instead
it spreads horizontally beneath the inversion layer.
• Inversion layer results in high concentration of pollutants in valley which is harmful
to the health of people who live there.

Urban/ City Climate

Micro Climate of a City
4.4 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN URBAN AND RURAL CLIMATES

ELEMENT RURAL URBAN

TEMPERATURE These are COLDER, due These are WARMER, due to
to the fact that there are the fact that there are a lot
very little artificial of artificial surfaces and
surfaces here. human activities
(economical activities).

WIND SPEED More wind speeds in Less wind speeds in these

these areas, because areas, because there are a
there is nothing blocking lot of tall buildings that
or deflecting them. deflect wind and act as wind
breakers.

HUMIDITY High quantities, because Less quantities, because is

there is a lot of very little vegetation, less
vegetation and open water sources and very little
water sources. There is open space.
a lot of open space.

CLOUDS AND Less clouds and More clouds and

PRECIPITATION precipitation, due to less precipitation, due to more
artificial surfaces to artificial surfaces to
promote evaporation. promote evaporation and
condensation that leads to
precipitation.

SUNSHINE More sunshine, due to Less sunshine, due to more

less obstruction. There obstruction from tall
are no tall buildings to buildings in the city.
block the sun.

FOG AND SMOG Less fog due to low More fog due to more heat
evaporation and less from artificial surfaces and
smog due to low more smog due to high
pollution rates. rates of pollution.

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4.5 Urban Heat Island- Causes, effects and solutions

Urban Heat Island: are higher temperatures in the cities than its surrounding rural
areas.

This phenomenon happens during the DAY.

Causes:
• It is hugely influenced by HIGH rate of artificial surfaces in the CBD and its
surroundings, respectively.
• Temperatures are higher where there is more artificial surfaces and lower where
there is very little artificial surfaces.
• Daily human influxes (incomings) and economical activities also influence this
phenomenon in the CBD, making it WARMER.
• Pollution also aids to this phenomenon by trapping heat and making the CBD
warmer.
• The heat rises and gets released higher into the atmosphere.
Solutions:
• Plant more vegetation on surfaces and roof tops.
• Encourage people to use public transport.
• Encourage Industrial Decentralization.
• Amend city policies to encourage FLEXI BUSINESS HOURS.
• Encourage industries to have very tall chimneys that will release the pollution hire in
the atmosphere.

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4.6 Pollution dome – Causes, effects and strategies to reduce Pollution dome

A Pollution Plume/Dome is a layer of pollution that is prevented from rising – instead it

spreads horizontally beneath the inversion layer

• Acid rain forms when by-products from combustion of fossil fuels (sulphur dioxide
and nitrogen oxide) mix with rainwater to form a weak acid – It corrodes buildings
and damage crops.
• Valley pollution is particularly a problem when heavy industries are located on flat
land close to a river to make use of water supplies.

STRATEGIES TO REDUCE POLUTION DOME:

• Introduce GREENBELTS along the city barrier (they absorb carbon dioxide and
release oxygen).
• Usage of energy saving strategies like SOLAR PANELS.
• Create more recreational areas in the city.
• Use bright colours to colour buildings and other artificial surfaces.
• Introduce roof gardens and pass them as a law or policy.
• Industrial decentralization.
• Use of public transport.

Acid rain Corrodes Buildings and Damage Crops

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Worked Example 1

FIGURE 1.1: SLOPE WINDS

Answer:
x✓

1.1 Study FIGURE 1.1 showing slope winds.

1.1.1 Name wind A and wind B. (2 x 1) (2)

1.1.2 State ONE factor that is responsible for the reversal of wind direction, as
shown by winds A and B. (1 x 1) (1)

1.1.3 Apart from air movement, state TWO other differences between winds A
and B. (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.4 Give a reason why temperature increases with height in valley D. (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.5 Evaluate how the slope winds (A and B) can have both a positive and
negative influence on humans and human activities. (3 x 2) (6)

Answers
1.1.1 A: Anabatic/upslope wind (1)
B: Katabatic/downslope (1) (2 x 1) (2)

1.1.2 Pressure differences (1)

Temperature differences (1)
Surface heating/cooling (1)
[ANY ONE]

1.1.3 Differences A B
Time Day time Night time (2)
(2)
Air temperature Warmer air Colder air

1.1.4 The cold air sinks downslope and forces the warm air up (2)
Warm air is displaced upwards and lies above cold air (2) (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.5 POSITIVE IMPACT

Anabatic winds/A disperses pollution from the valley (2)
Anabatic winds/A are important for recreational purposes like paragliding (2)
Katabatic winds/B help cause frost on the valley floor means frost resistant
crops can be grown (2)
Katabatic winds/B and the upward movement of the inversion layer favours the

47 | P a g e
 planting and ripening of non-frost resistant crops (2)
Katabatic winds/B help frost to kills insects and pests on the valley floor (2)

NEGATIVE IMPACT
Katabatic winds/B restricts what can be planted on the valley floor (2)
Katabatic winds/B trap pollution in the valley (2)
Katabatic winds/B allow smoke to reduce visibility in the valley (2)
Katabatic winds/B can have a negative impact on health (2)
[ANY THREE. EITHER ONE POSITVE AND TWO NEGATIVE OR TWO POSITIVE AND
ONE NEGATIVE] (3 x 2) (6)

Activity 7

FIGURE 7.1: URBAN HEAT ISLAND

[Adapted from StuartMcMillencartoons.recombinant.records]

7.1 Study FIGURE 7.1 showing a cartoon on an urban heat island.

7.1.1 Complete the statement describing an urban heat island in A:

An urban heat island describes the phenomenon where … (1 x 1) (1)

7.1.2 Refer to B and give TWO reasons for the heat generated in the city. (2)

7.1.3 What impact will the increased temperatures have on people living in
the city? (2 x 2)

7.1.4 In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, provide sustainable

methods that can be implemented in an attempt to control the
temperature in the city. (4 x 2) (8)

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FIGURE 8.1: DIMENSIONS OF AN URBAN HEAT ISLAND

(3 km)

Updraught

[Adapted from http://www.asdu.edu.co.za]

8.1 FIGURE 8.1 is a Schematic representation of the dimensions of an urban

heat island.

8.1.1 Give a possible reason for the asymmetrical (unbalanced) shape of the
thermal plume of the urban heat island. (1 x 1) (1)

8.1.2 Give TWO points of evidence that suggest that FIGURE 2.4 represents
Daytime conditions.

8.1.3 Draw a labelled diagram to show changes to the shape of the urban heat
island during the night. (2 x 1) (2)

8.1.4 State why the area in the city centre (CBD) is associated with stronger
updraughts. (1 x 2) (2)

8.1.5 In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, explain how the building

density of the CBD and building materials used in the CBD cause the
formation of the intense (strong) urban heat island. (4 x 2) (8)

49 | P a g e
CONTENT TOPIC: Geomorphology
5. Topic: Drainage Systems in South Africa
5.1 Concepts:
✓ Drainage Basin – an area drained by a river and its tributaries.
✓ Catchment area – an area over which rain falls and is caught by the drainage area.
✓ Source – the area where a river begins.
✓ Mouth – the area where a river meets/joins the sea.
✓ Watershed – a high lying area that separates two drainage basins.
✓ Tributary – temporary short streams that join the main river.
✓ Confluence – point where the tributary joins the main river.
✓ Interfluve – ridges of high lying ground between stream channels.
✓ Surface run off – rain water flowing over the land/ground/surface.
✓ Infiltration – absorption of water by the soil.
✓ Groundwater – water found under the ground/surface.
✓ Groundwater flow – water flowing through underground rocks.
✓ Water table – the upper level of groundwater.
✓ Base flow – groundwater that seeps into a river.
✓ Porous – spaces found in rocks and soil through which water can pass.

Drainage basin is an area drained by a river system (the main river with its tributaries).
Factors influencing surface run off and infiltration:

• Relief: Steep slope - more surface run off and less infiltration.
Gentle slope – more infiltration and less run off.

• Soil type: Thin soil – more surface run off and less infiltration.
Thick soil – less surface run off and more infiltration.

• Rock type: Impermeable and non-porous – more surface run off and less
infiltration.
Permeable and porous – more infiltration and less surface run off.
• Soil moisture: Saturated soil/wet soil – more surface run off and less infiltration.
Unsaturated soil/dry soil – less surface run off and more infiltration.
50 | P a g e
 • Vegetation: Little/no vegetation – more surface run off and less infiltration.
More vegetation – more infiltration and less surface run off.

MAIN SOURCE OF WATER FOR A DRAINAGE BASIN:

• Rainfall
• Groundwater/Base flow
• Snow
5.2 Types of Rivers:

• Permanent: - flows all year around and associated with high rainfall areas.
• Periodic/seasonal: - flows only during the rainy season.
• Episodic: - flows only after heavy rainfall or thunderstorms.
• Exotic: - originates from areas of high rainfall but flows through dry areas (flows
through two different climates).
NB!! – Main rivers are usually permanent rivers.

❖ Tributaries are usually temporary rivers.

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5.3 DRAINAGE PATTERNS: refers to the way in which streams are arranged in a drainage
basin (the pattern they form).

NB!! They are hugely influenced by their underlying rock structures.

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5.4 DRAINAGE DENSITY

This is the total length of streams per unit area, normally expressed in kilometres per
square kilometre (km/km²).

Factors that influence the drainage density:

- Climate: density is usually higher in places that experience wet climates.

- Rock type: the more impermeable the rock, the higher the drainage density.
- Relief: steeper slopes increase surface run off and as a result there may be fewer
channels. 53 | P a g e
 - Vegetation: more vegetation results in less drainage density.

5.5 STREAM ORDER: is a way of classifying streams so that the sizes of the drainage
basins can be compared.

5.6 Discharge of a River: is the Volume of water moving down a stream or river per unit of
time.

NB: Water in a river flows as Laminar flow and Turbulent flow.

Erosion by a River
Erosion of a Channel can be in a form of:

• HEADWARD EROSION > is when erosion occurs backward / towards the source of
the river. the channel become longer.

• VERTICAL EROSION / DOWNWARD EROSION> is when erosion occurs downwards

54 | P a g e
 of a river bed. the channel becomes deeper.

• LATERAL EROSION/ SIDEWAYS EROSION > is when erosion occurs sideways of

a channel. the channel become wider.

Worked Example 1
FIGURE 1.1: RIVER FLOW PATTERNS

1.1 Refer to FIGURE 1.1 showing river flow patterns. Indicate whether
each of the following statements refer to turbulent or laminar flow
in a river. You may use the same answer for more than one
question.

1.1.1 Associated with a river bed that is level and even

1.1.2 Associated with an irregular and swirling flow

1.1.3 Effective in eroding and transporting sediment

1.1.4 Commonly occurs in the upper course of a river

1.1.5 Water flows in thin layers

1.1.6 Associated with a higher river velocity

1.1.7 Occurs where rapids are visible in the river's course

1.1.8 Has a larger stream load-carrying capacity (8 x 1)

Answer:
1.1.1 Laminar (1)

1.1.2 Turbulent (1)

1.1.3 Turbulent (1)

1.1.4 Turbulent (1)

1.1.5 Laminar (1)

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1.1.6 Laminar (1)

1.1.7Turbulent (1)

1.1.8 Laminar (1) (8 x 1) (8)

Activity 9

FIGURE 9.1: DRAINAGE BASINS

9.1 Study FIGURE 9.1, which is based on drainage basins.

9.1.1 Define the term drainage basin. (1 x 1) (1)

9.1.2 Does drainage basin A (north of the watershed) or drainage basin

B (south of the watershed) have the higher drainage density?(1 x 1)

9.1.3 State ONE factor that could have contributed to the high drainage
density of the drainage basin identified in QUESTION 1.5.2. (1 x 2)

9.1.4 Determine the stream order at Z in drainage basin B. (1 x 2) (2)

9.1.5 Refer to drainage basin A and state the relationship between

stream order and the:

(a)Length of streams (1 x 2) (2)

(b)Number of streams (1 x 2) (2)

1.5.6 Evaluate the effect of a prolonged period of drought on the stream

order at point Y in drainage basin A. (2 x 2) (4)

56 | P a g e
Activity 10

7 FIGURE 10.1: DRAINAGE PATTERNS

BB

B
[Adapted fromkgs.ku.edu
]

10.1 FIGURE 10.1 is a sketch showing two drainage patterns.

10.1.1 What is a drainage pattern? (1 x 1) (1)

10.1.2 Name drainage patterns A and B. (2 x 1) (2)

10.1.3 Give evidence from the diagrams to support your choices in

QUESTION 10.1.2. (2 x 2) (4)

10.1.4 Compare the underlying rock structures of drainage patterns A and

B in the sketch. (2 x 2) (4)

10.1.5 Draw a simple, labelled plan view sketch of a drainage pattern that
will develop in a folded landscape. (2 x 2) (4)

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6. Topic: Fluvial Processes
6.1 RIVER PROFILES
There are Two (2) types of River Profiles:

1. LONGITUDINAL PROFILE > it shows the length of a river from its source/ upstream
(mountain to its mouth/ downstream (sea level).
2. TRANSVERSE/ CROSS PROFILE > it shows the shape of the valley across
the river valley.
PICTURE OF LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE PROFILE

TEMPORARY BASE LEVEL > changes in gradient along the course of a river where vertical
is slowed down temporarily.

Examples of temporary base levels: Rapids, Waterfall, Lakes and Dams.

PERMANENT BASE LEVEL / ULTIMATE BASE LEVEL > the lowest level to which a river will
erode its’ land (sea land).

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PERMANENT BASE LEVEL AND TEMPORARY BASE LEVEL

TRANSVERSE PROFILE ALONG A RIVER COURSE

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6.2 Fluvial Landforms:

1. LEVEES > these are raised banks of the river that form when the river floods.

2. FLOOD PLAINS > are flat valley floor (fertile soil known as alluvium).

3. ALLUVIAL FANS > deposition as the river flows off the mountains on to the flatter plains.

4. BRAIDED STREAMS > deposition of alluvium forms an island in the middle of the
channel, splitting the river into separate channels.

5. MEANDERS / MEANDERING CHANNEL > bends in the river channel.

6. OXBOW LAKES > a meander that is cut off when the river takes a new course across the
neck of a meander loop.

7. MEANDER SCARS > a dried up oxbow lake.

8. DELTAS > formed when the deposited material builds up and extends into the lake.

FLUVIAL LANDFORMS

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6.3 RIVER GRADING:

1. GRADED RIVER > a river that has reached its equilibrium between its gradient, volume
and channel shape.
Graded river has sufficient energy to flow with erosion rates in balance with the deposition
rates.

2. OVERGRADED RIVER > a river that have excess energy and erode their channels. They
carry a heavy load and flow quickly.

3. UNDERGRADED RIVER > a river that do not have enough energy to flow and to transport
their load. They deposit some of their material.

6.4 REJUVINATION OF RIVERS:

REJUVINATION > is when a river gains renewed energy and erode downwards again.

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A REJUVINATED RIVER is an Overgraded River.

THE FOLLOWING LANDFORMS ARE FORMED DUE TO REJUVINATION:

1. INCISED OR ENTRENCHED MEANDERS.

2. KNICKPOINT WATERFALLS.
3. VALLEYS WITHIN THE VALLEYS
4. TERRACES.

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6.5 RIVER CAPTURE - It occurs when a river with more energy intercepts another river and
captures the water of the other river.

FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH RIVER CAPTURE

1. CAPTOR OR PIRATE STREAM > the river with more energy that capture another river.
2. CAPTIVE STREAM > the river that has been captured.
3. MISFIT OR BEHEADED STREAM > the river that lost its headwaters.
4. WIND GAP > the part of the old valley of the captured river. It is now dry and filled with
sand and gravel.
5. KNICKPOINT WATERFALL > the steep gradient down which the captive stream flowed as
it flowed into the captor.

THE RESULTS OF CAPTURE:

• The captor gains water, has more energy and be erosive
• Captive/ captured stream loses its water.

THE EFFECTS OF CAPTOR ON PEOPLE DEPENDING ON CAPTURED STREAM:

• There will be lack of water for domestic use.

• Lack of water for irrigation that could lead to food insecurity.
• Shortage of water for industries.
• Reduction in crop yield.
• Food insecurity will lead to food being expensive.

6.6 SUPERIMPOSED and ANTECEDENT DRAINAGE PATTERN

SUPERIMPOSED DRAINAGE PATTERN > a river develops a pattern on a

surface that has eroded over time. Now the river is flowing on the rocks/ uncovered
structure.

ANTECEDENT DRAINAGE PATTERN > after the river formed, folding or faulting occurred.
But the river maintained its pattern, cutting a gorge through the uplifted land.
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SUPERIMPOSED AND ANTECEDENT DRAINAGE PATTERN:

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Worked Example 1
8 FIGURE 1.1: TYPES OF RIVERS

Water table during the wet season

Water table during the dry season

[Source: Examiner's own sketch]

1.1 Study FIGURE 1.1 showing three types of rivers named X, Y and Z.

1.1.1 Which river (X, Y or Z) is episodic?

1.1.2 Which river (X, Y or Z) flows only in the rainy season?

1.1.3 Which river (X, Y or Z) is dependent on surface water only?

1.1.4 Which river (X, Y or Z) flows throughout the year?

1.1.5 Which river (X, Y or Z) flows only for a very short period of time?

1.1.6 Name the river (X, Y or Z) in which the water table intersects the channel
throughout the year.

1.1.7 Which river (X, Y or Z) displays the biggest change in water levels
between seasons? (7 x 1) (7)

Answer:
2.2.1 X (1)

2.2.2 Y (1)

2.2.3 X (1)

2.2.4 Z (1)

2.2.5 X (1)

2.2.6 Z (1)

2.2.7 Y (1) (7 x 1) (7)

65 | P a g e
Activity 11

FIGURE 11.1: RIVER GRADE AND LONGITUDINAL PROFILES OF A

RIVER

Source

Original sea
level

First fall in
sea level

Second fall in
sea level

Knickpoints
Mouth

Source
Waterfall erosion will exceed deposition
until the feature retreats and disappears

Lake

Waterfall
Mouth
Eventual possible graded profile

Source

Smooth concave profile decreasing in

angle and gradient towards the mouth

Mouth

[Adapted from alevelgeography.com]

11.1.1 Give a geographical term to describe the irregular shape of
longitudinal profile B.

11.1.2 Name a temporary base level evident in longitudinal profile B. (1)

11.1.3 What evidence suggests that rejuvenation has taken place in

longitudinal profile A? (1 x 2)
(2)

11.1.4 Describe, with reasons, the changes a river meander will undergo
after rejuvenation. (2 x 2) (4)

11.1.5 In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, explain the

processes that assisted the graded river in profile C to have a steep
gradient in the upper course and a gradual gradient in the lower course.

(4 x 2) (8)

66 | P a g e
Activity 1
FIGURE 12.1: FORMATION OF A LEVEE

[Adapted from http://www.nasa.goc/slang]

12.1 Along the course of a river, various features such as levees and
deltas are found.

12.1.1 Refer to the formation of a levee in FIGURE 12.1.

(a) What is a levee? (1 x 1)

(1)

(b) Give reasons for the difference in size between the sediment
deposited at C and the sediment deposited at D in FIGURE 12.1. (4)

(c) Explain why levees can be both advantageous and

disadvantageous to farming on the adjacent flood plain. (2 x 2) (4)

12.1.2 The following questions refer to deltas.

(a) Where are deltas found in a river? (1 x 2) (2)

(b) Give a reason for the large quantities of deposited material

found where a delta is formed. (1 x 2) (2)

(c) Why are deltas rare in South African rivers? (1 x 2) (2)

67 | P a g e
7. Topic: Catchment Management
7.1 The Importance of Water/ Managing Drainage basins and Catchment:

• For domestic use (cooking, drinking and household use).

• For irrigation.
• For Hydro-Electricity.
• For use in businesses. E.g industries.
• For animals.

7.2 Impact of People on Drainage Basins and Catchment areas:

• Pollution by human activities. E.g industries, mining and recreational activities.

• Excessive use of fertilizers by farmers.
• Water pollution by leakage of ships/ spilling of oil.
• Land pollution by industries and mines through the release of oil/ chemicals to the
land that will end up to the sea.
• Killing of marine life.
• Disturbing ecosystem and bio diversity.

7.3 Catchment and Drainage Basin Management:

• Fine be imposed to industries that pollute water.

• Educate people about the importance of water.
• Awareness campaign to be conducted.
• Educate/ train farmers on better farming methods.
• Buffering the catchment areas.
• Conservation and restoration of wetlands.
• Avoid construction and settlement on the floodplain.
• The clearing of vegetation(deforestation) and planting of alien trees must be
controlled.

NB!! Be able to differentiate between the Importance and Management of Drainage

basins and Catchment areas.

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Worked Example 1
FIGURE 1.1: IMPACT OF PEOPLE ON RIVERS

[Source: http://www.groundup.org.za]

1.1 Refer to FIGURE 1.1, a photograph showing the impact of people on rivers.

1.1.1 What does the term river management mean? (1 x 1) (1)

1.1.2 Which government department is responsible for the health and sustainable
use of rivers? (1 x 1) (1)

1.1.3 What evidence in the photograph indicates poor river management? (2 x 1) (2)

1.1.4 Recommend TWO ways in which the municipality can reduce the impact of
informal settlements on rivers. (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.5 Write a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines in which you give reasons
why it is crucial (very important) to maintain the health (or quality) of rivers in
South Africa. 4 x 2) (8)

Answer:
1.1.1 Ungraded profile (1) (1 x 1) (1)

1.1.2 Lake (1)

Waterfall (1)
Knickpoint (1)
Rock outcrops (1)
[ANY ONE] (1 x 1) (1)

1.1.3 A drop in the original sea level (2)

Presence of knick points/waterfalls (2)

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 A sudden change in gradient (2)
[ANY ONE] (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.4 Description/Change
The meander will become incised/entrenched (2)
The meander will develop steeper sides (2)
Will form a cut-off meander/ox bow lake (2)
[ANY ONE CHANGE]

Reason
The amount of energy of the river would increase (2)
The velocity of water flowing within the meander increases (2)
The rate of downward/vertical erosion in the meander will increase (2)
A stronger flow will result in the river cutting through the meander neck (2)
[ANY ONE REASON] (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.5Processes creating the steep gradient in the upper course

Headward/Backward erosion of knickpoints will increase the steepness of the
slope (2)
Downward erosion creates a steep gradient (2)
In the upper course water flow is mostly turbulent (2)
The stream has enough energy to carry larger particles (2)
Larger particles increase downwards erosion (2)

Processes creating the gradual gradient in the lower course

Lateral erosion will lead to a more gradual gradient (2)
Sediments are deposited in the lower course (2)
In the lower course water flow is laminar (2)
The carrying capacity is reduced due to the wider river channels (2) This
increases the friction on a river bed and sides and slows water flow
resulting in greater deposition rates (2)
[ANY FOUR. MUST REFER TO BOTH STEEP GRADIENT AND GRADUAL GRADIENT]
(4 x 2) (8)

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Activity 13

FIGURE 13.1: RIVER CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT

MTHATHA RIVER SYSTEM

Mthatha is a major urban region in the Mthatha river catchment area.

Activities such as agriculture, hydro-power generation, urbanisation and
industry put a strain on the river system and ground water supply.

Alien trees encroach on the riparian zone (area between river and land)
which reduces the natural vegetation along the river banks. Hydroelectric
power releases water that scours (scrapes) the river banks and untreated
sewage is discharged directly into the river.

Source: Adapted from Study and Master

13.1 Refer to FIGURE 13.1, on river management.

13.1.1 Define the term catchment area. (1 x 1) (1)

13.1.2 State how the uncontrolled growth of alien vegetation along

the Mthatha river will decrease the potential of hydo-electric power
generation in the future.
(1 x 2) (2)

13.1.3 Explain how human activities upstream along the Mthatha river, could
impact on agricultural activities further downstream. (2 x 2) (4)

13.1.4 In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, discuss sustainable

measures that could be implemented to improve water quality in the
Mthatha river catchment area. (4 x 2) (8)

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Activity 14
FIGURE 14.1: CATCHMENT AND RIVER MANAGEMENT

CASE STUDY ON CATCHMENT AND RIVER MANAGEMENT:

WORKING FOR WETLANDS

Covering many South African river basins, the Working for

Wetlands programme operates in all major catchments.

Half the wetlands lost

65% of South Africa receives less than 500 mm average annual

rainfall, meaning that drought is an ever-present risk.

Future projections indicate that by 2025 the country's water

requirements will outstrip supply, unless urgent steps are taken
to manage the resource more sustainably.

There are already major problems of supply and quality, with an

estimated 8 million South Africans currently having no access to
drinkable water.

It is against this background that the South African government,

working in partnership with WWF and others, has initiated
catchment management programmes. These include the control
of water-thirsty alien plant infestations and wetland restoration
across the country.
[Source:
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/about_freshwater/rivers/irb
m/cases/ southafrica_river_case_study_cfm/]

14.1 FIGURE 14.1 is a case study on catchment and river

management. Read the article carefully before answering the
questions that follow.

14.1.1 Name TWO initiatives that the Working for Wetlands

programme has
put in place for sustainable river management in South Africa.
(2)

14.1.2 Why have catchment management programmes been

introduced for
South African rivers? (1 x 2) (2)

14.1.3 Explain the role of wetland restoration in maintaining a good

water
supply in South African rivers. (2
x 2) (4)

14.1.4 Discuss the negative impact of human activities on catchment

areas in South Africa. (3 x 2)
(6)
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TOPIC 8: GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS AND
TECHNIQUES
Duration: 40 min
Outcomes: At the end of the session learners/ teachers must:
• Interpreting Topographic and Orthophoto Map and Aerial Photograph
• Being able to do Calculations
• Applying GIS in Geography

Examination guideline
Mapwork Techniques
• Contour lines, contour interval and height and conventional signs
• Compass direction
• True bearing
• Magnetic declination and magnetic bearing
• Map scale – types of scales and comparing the scales of topographic
maps, orthophoto maps and aerial photographs
• Calculating straight-line distance in reality
• Calculating area of regular features
• Map reference numbers/Map index
• Alphanumeric reference/Grid reference
• Map coordinates/Fixing position – stating the coordinates
• Calculation and interpretation of gradient
• Cross-sections – drawing of cross-sections, indicating position of
features on cross-sections and identifying features represented by cross-
sections
• Intervisibility
• Calculating vertical exaggeration

Topographic Maps
• Use of 1 : 50 000 topographic maps:
o To identify and interpret physical features, e.g. relief, drainage,
climate and vegetation and how they influence settlement and land-
use
o To identify and interpret cultural features, e.g. settlement, land-use
and transport networks
• Application of Grade 12 Paper 2 content on Settlement and Economic
Geography to mapwork
• Interpreting of settlement and economic statistics, graphs and tables that
are related to the 1 : 50 000 topographic map and the 1 : 10 000
orthophoto map being assessed

Aerial Photographs and Orthophoto Maps

• Oblique and vertical aerial photographs – identifying landforms and

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 features
• Use of size, shape, tone, texture, shadow and patterns to identify features
and activities on photographs and orthophoto maps
• Orientation of orthophoto map with topographic maps
• Compare orthophoto map to topographic maps

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

• GIS (definition)
• Components of GIS
• Sources of information for GIS
• Concepts (definition, identification and application) of:
o Remote sensing
▪ Resolution
▪ Pixels o Spatial resolution o Spatial and attribute data o
Vector and raster data o Spatial objects
▪ Points/Nodes
▪ Lines
▪ Area/Polygons
• Data layering/thematic layering of information Data layers
(identification and interpretation) Data manipulation and analysis: o
Data manipulation o Data integration o Buffering
o Querying o Statistical analysis
• Data standardisation
• Data sharing
• Data security
• Application of GIS by the:
o Government o Private sector
• Developing a 'paper GIS' from existing maps, photographs and other
sources of information on layers of tracing paper
• Identifying and interpreting concepts using given data such as satellite
images, topographic maps, orthophoto maps, aerial photographs,
pictures and statistics indicated on graphs and tables

LOCATING EXACT POSITION

(a) Alphanumerical grid/ Block reference

A grid that uses a letter and a number to identify a feature on a map .

(b) Co-ordinates
Latitude and longitude are used to give exact position of a feature or place using
degrees, minutes, and seconds.
Latitude is given first and longitude is given last.

LOCATING RELATIVE POSITION

A point is defined with reference to another point.
(a) Direction – uses 16 points of the compass to describe direction.

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 ( b) True Bearing - is an accurate way of expressing direction in degrees.
©Magnetic Declination – is the angle between true north and magnetic north.
(d) Magnetic Bearing – is an angle measured clockwise from magnetic north
It is calculated using the following formula: MB =TB + MD

What is a Topographical map?

Topography – means relief or how the land is (the lay of the land) – whether it is
steep, hilly, gentle, flat, undulating and so on.

Topographical maps (in colour) include:

• Contours (lines showing equal height / altitude). The contour lines indicate the type
of slope or landform formed, e.g. gentle or steep, hill or valley.

CROSS SECTIONS are drawn to see how a feature will look in reality. We use
contour lines to draw cross sections.
• Contours occur at 20m intervals (contour interval).
• A small scale of 1 : 50 000 (shows a larger area in less detail).
• Natural features like rivers, mountains and forests.
• Cultural features (man-made) like dams, buildings, recreational grounds, roads, rail,
airports, sewerage works, industries, etc.
• Uses signs and symbols – P, PS, W, Hosp., +++, S, R102. Use the map reference or
key to identify features on the map or orthophoto map. Because symbols are used to
represent reality, such orthophotos are not real.
Orthophoto Maps (in black and white):
• Also show contour lines but at 5m intervals.
• Scale is larger – 1 : 10 000 (shows a smaller place / area but in more detail).
• Is a real photo of an area (true representation).
• Some photos have a high resolution (very clear) while others are not clear and
objects may be blurred because of inferior quality cameras (such images are referred
to as low resolution images).
• The direction of the shadows (of objects like trees and buildings) can indicate when
the photograph was taken (in the morning or afternoon).
MAP ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
MAP TITLE / MAP CODE
• First TWO numbers represent lines of Latitudes.( LA)
• Second TWO numbers represents lines of Longitudes.(LO)
• (LALO)
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• Last TWO letters represent Actual block.
 • First letter represents a Big block.
• Second letter is a Small block in a Big block

Draw the cross section

free-hand.
From the cross section one
can also calculate:
a. Intervisibility
b. Vertical Exaggeration
(VE)

HOW DO WE KNOW WHETHER THE MAPPED AREA RECEIVE SEASONAL OR

RAINFALTHROUGHOUTTHE YEAR?
If the mapped area receives Seasonal rainfall there will be :
• More dams (people construct dams to store water during rainy season,which they
will use during dry season)
• Non – perennial rivers ( indicated by doted lines)

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If the mapped area receives rainfall throughout the year there will be:
• Few dams
• Perennial rivers ( indicated by solid lines)

EVIDENCE OF NATURE CONSERVATION

• Presence of nature reserves
• Protected areas
• Row of trees

ROLE PLAYED BY ROW OF TREES

• Limit flooding or soil erosion
• Beautify the environment
• Act as windbreaks
• Fruits can be sold to generate income

STEEP SLOPE
• Contour lines are close to each other
• Is not good for farming and settlement

GENTLE SLOPE
• Contour lines are far apart
• Is good for farming and settlement

HEIGHT INDICATORS
• Trigonometrical station
• Bench mark
• Spot height
• Contour line

GEOGRAOHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

Is a computer based technology and method for collecting, analyzing, managing, modeling,
and presenting geographic information for a wide range of uses.
COMPONENTS OF GIS
✓ People or users
✓ Hardware –physical equipment that GIS requires to operate.
✓ Software – computer programs
✓ Data – raw facts
✓ Procedure or method

USES OF GIS
EXAMPLE USES OF GIS
Meteorology A meteorologist might study the paths of tropical cyclone and predict
where and when they might occur in the future.
Crime The police analyst use GIS to identify high crime areas, where to deploy
prevention police, to predict crime patterns.
Retail industry Pic n pay can use GIS to determine the location of stores based on
population size and demand.
Department of Can use GIS to determine where to build a new school based on
education population density distribution.
IEC Use GIS to determine where to place voting stations based on
population distribution

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DATA STORAGES
Data in GIS can be stored as either vector or raster
Vector data: the real features are Raster data: the real world features are
represented by points, lines and polygon. represented by grid cells called pixels
Topographic map is an example of vector Orthophoto map is an example of raster
because: the real world features are because: it have pixels
presented by points, lines and polygon

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RESOLUTION
Resolution refers to the degree of detail and clarity of an image
Resolution may be good/high or poor/ low

GOOD/ HIGH RESOLUTION POOR/ LOW RESOTION

✓ Have clear image ✓ Have poor image

✓ Have smaller pixels ✓ Have larger pixels
✓ Have many pixels ✓ Have fewer pixels
Orthophoto map have high resolution because : Topographical map have low resolution because:
➢ It have a large scale ➢ It have a small scale
➢ The features are made bigger ➢ The features are made smaller
➢ Shows more detail ➢ Shows less detail
➢ Shows more clarity of images ➢ Shows poor clarity emage

SPATIAL RESOLUTION: Refers to the degree of detail and clarity of an image in terms of the
location and shape of a geographic featutures.

REMOTE SENSING: Involves capturing data of an objects on earth from distance usually
outer space

ADVANTAGES OF REMOTE SENSING

• Data can be collected for inaccessible areas
• Large areas can be captured as an images

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 • Data can be made available at short notice
• It can be used to track the changes and development in an area over time

DISADVANTAGES OF REMOTE SENSING

• Expensive to build and operate
• Accuracy of measurement is not certain
• Resolution is often poor
• Data interpretation can be difficult

DATA LAYERING OR OVERLAYERING

This involves placing maps showing different types of data one on top of another
• It can be used to compare different sets of data
• Can be used to analyse different sets of data

LAYERS A FARMER CONSIDERS WHEN EXPLANATION

HE/SHE WANTS TO DEVELOP A FARM
Drainage layer Water supply for irrigation purposes
Relief/ topography layer Suitable slope for cultivation
Transport layer Transportation of farm inputs and outputs
to the nearby markets
Geology layer Suitable soil for cultivation and fertility

DATA ACQISITION: Refers to the collection of information.

Primary source: data is collected directly via observation and measurement e.g obtaining
temperature data with a thermometer.
Secondary source: data is collected indirectly, e.g from people, maps, books, etc.
Advantages of secondary data Disadvantages of secondary data
Easily available May not be accurate and reliable
Cheaper to obtain Data may be outdate
Not time consuming Information may be baised

Attribute data : Refers to the descriptive characteristics of a feature. for example a road can
be described in terms of its type( national, or regional) number of lanes, surface
cover(gravel, concrete, tar).

Spatial data : Describes the location of a geographic feature using coordinates.

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Spatial objects: These are objects that have location, shape, and symbol. eg, road, dam, etc

BUFFERING : Involve creating a zone of a specified width around a point, line, or polygonal
area.

The river has a buffer zone around it To prevent pollution from pesticides and industrial
wastes being deposited.
The buffer zone indicates where no agriculture or industries can locate.

DATABASE: It is an electronic filling system that enables one to store, modify and extract
information, e.g computer software in a library that keeps records of all books and detail of
borrowers.

DATA MANIPULATION: It is an ability to manoeuvre raw data so that the system can
perform a wide range of function, e.g. creation of maps in GIS, searching for flood prone
areas, crime statistics.

DATA INTEGRATION: This is the process of combining different types of data on a single
map for a purpose of decision making.

DATA STANDARDISATION: It is a process where data that is captured conforms to a

predetermined agreed format, e.g. In South Africa all ID numbers have 13 digits.
Advantages of data standardisation
• Helps to prevent errors
• Can be used to compare data
• Can group data in a meaningful way

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Worked Example 1

Use Topographical Map and Orthophoto of Cullinan:

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Activity 15

15.1 Refer to the extract from a topographic map and answer

the questions thatfollow.

15.1.1The area at A represents the (river system/drainage basin).

15.1.2 Differentiate between high lying areas B and C.

15.1.3 Refer to D

(a)In which direction does the mainstream at D flow?

(b)Provide TWO reasons for your answer to QUESTION 15.3.3(a).

15.1.4 At which point E or F are the chances of flooding higher? Motivate

your choice (1 + 2) (3)

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Activity 1

16.1 Calculation of GRADIENT – refer to formula – VI / HE

Calculate the average gradient between . 1472 and Δ58. Show all working.

VI =
HE =
Gradient =

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Activity 17

17.1 Calculation of AREA – formula: Length x Breadth [use the map extract
above in Activity 16]
L=
B=
Area (km²) =

L=
B=
Area (m²) =

Activity 18

18.1.1 Use the Information from the Topographic Map to Calculate Magnetic
Declination for the 2022

Formula: MMD = MD +- (MAC x Difference in years)

Difference in years = ________________________________
MAC = ________________________________
Total Change = ________________________________
MD for current year = MD (on map) +- total change (what you calculated)

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 =
__________________________________________________
=
__________________________________________________*
Rule: 60’ = 1 degree

Activity 19

19.1 A PAPER GIS – putting different sets or layers of information togetner to make a
map.

19.1.Define the following Concept:

19.1.1 Buffering
19.1.2 Data layering
19.1.3 Data Manipulation
19.1.4 Briefly explain the importance of Data manipulation

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Bibliography

1. Dilley L, et al 2013, Focus Geography Grade 12, Maskew Miller Longman(Pty) Ltd,
Cape Town
2. DBE Geography National Question Papers 2014– 2019
3. Gauteng DBE Geography Provincial Question Paper September 2019
4. Gauteng Climatology notes
5. Grade 12 Climate Notes
6. Geography Geomorphology Self Study
7. Kwazulu Natal DBE Geography Provincial Question Paper September 2018 - 2019
8. Learn Extra Exam Revision
9. Mapwork Handouts
10. Mind the Gap

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