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BIO471. Evolution lecture note

Introduction to Evolution
Evolution is the process by which nature selects, from the genetic diversity of a population,
those that would make an individual more likely to survive and reproduce in a continuously
changing environment. Over many years and many generations the full diversity of life on
earth is expressed.
Evolution is one of the most fundamental organizing principles of the biological sciences and
as such is the single most dominant theme in biology today. Evolution stresses the relatedness
of all life rather than its differences. It provides a framework (=unifying principle) for the way
that we study and understand the living world. It’s a way of bringing together many diverse
aspects of life’s tremendous complexity
Adaptation vs Evolution
One of the “characteristics of life” is that organisms adapt to their environment as it changes
from year to year e.g. Some species of plant adapts to dryer conditions in one part of its range
and wet conditions in another
Current concepts in evolution

Understanding biological evolution is fundamental to modern biology and provides a

comprehensive framework for studying the diversity of life on Earth. These concepts are
interconnected and continue to be refined with advancements in technology, such as genomics,
molecular biology, and computational methods, allowing scientists to delve deeper into
understanding the mechanisms and patterns of evolution.

Biological evolution refers to the change in inherited traits of a population of organisms over
successive generations. The theory of evolution, most famously articulated by Charles Darwin
in his work "On the Origin of Species" (1859), is a foundational concept in biology. Here are
key points and aspects of biological evolution. Evolutionary biology is an ever-evolving field,
but some current concepts include:

1. Genetic Variation: Understanding the extent and sources of genetic variation within
populations is crucial. This includes studying mutations, gene flow, and genetic drift.
2. Natural Selection: This remains a fundamental concept. Organisms with advantageous traits are
more likely to survive and reproduce, passing these traits to the next generation.
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3. Adaptation: The process by which organisms become better suited to their environment
through the accumulation of advantageous traits.
4. Gene Expression and Regulation: Exploring how genes are activated or suppressed under
different conditions and how this impacts an organism's traits and responses.
5. Evolutionary Developmental Biology (Evo-Devo): Investigating how changes in developmental
processes contribute to evolutionary change, studying the role of genes in development and
their influence on evolution.
6. Phylogenetic: Using genetic data to study evolutionary relationships between different species,
populations, or genes, often visualized through evolutionary trees.
7. Gene Editing and CRISPR: The development of gene-editing technologies, particularly CRISPR-
Cas9, has opened new possibilities for studying and manipulating genes. Researchers are
exploring how these tools can be used to understand the genetic basis of evolutionary changes
and even potentially influence evolution itself.
8. Epigenetics: Epigenetic changes, modifications to the expression of genes without altering the
underlying DNA sequence, have been recognized as important factors in evolution. These
changes can be influenced by environmental factors and can be passed down to subsequent
generations.
9. Evolution in Response to Human Activities: As humans continue to impact the environment,
there is growing interest in how various species are evolving in response to factors like climate
change, pollution, and habitat destruction.
10. Coevolution and Symbiosis: The study of how different species evolve in response to each
other (coevolution) and the ways in which organisms form mutually beneficial relationships
(symbiosis) are ongoing areas of research.
11. Evolution of Aging: Understanding the evolutionary reasons for aging and the mechanisms
behind it is a topic of interest. Some researchers investigate whether there are genetic factors
that influence the aging process.

Evidence of evolution
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1. Fossil Record: Examining fossils provides a timeline of species and reveals transitional forms,
showing how species have changed over time.

2. Comparative Anatomy: Similarities in the structures of different species indicate shared

ancestry. Homologous structures (similar in origin, different in functbhion) suggest common
evolutionary origins.

3. Embryology: The study of embryos reveals similarities among species during early
developmental stages.

4. Molecular Biology: DNA and protein sequences can be compared among different species,
providing insights into their evolutionary relationships.

5. Adaptation and Fitness: Adaptive Evolution: Populations may evolve in response to changes
in their environment, leading to better adaptation and increased fitness (the ability to survive
and reproduce). Selective Pressure: Environmental factors, such as climate change or the
presence of predators, can exert selective pressure, influencing the traits that become more or
less common in a population.

6. Speciation: Formation of new Species: Over time, populations can diverge to the point where
they are considered separate species. This process is called speciation and can occur through
various mechanisms, including geographic isolation or gradual accumulation of genetic
differences.

7. Genetic Drift and Mutation:

-Genetic Drift: Random events can lead to changes in gene frequencies in a population,
particularly in small populations where chance plays a larger role.

-Mutation: Random mutations in DNA provide the raw material for evolution. While most
mutations are neutral or harmful, some provide advantages and contribute to the diversity of
traits.

8. Modern Understanding:
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-Modern Synthesis: The integration of Darwinian natural selection with Mendelian genetics
resulted in the modern synthesis of evolutionary biology, providing a comprehensive
framework for understanding how genetic variation and natural selection operate.

Ongoing Evolutionary Processes

Microevolution: Small-scale changes within populations, such as changes in allele frequencies,

occur over shorter time scales.

Macroevolution: Larger-scale changes, leading to the formation of new species or higher

taxonomic groups, happen over longer time scales.

Additional evidence supporting evolutionary theory

1. Today the layers of rock can be accurately dated by strata and by radioactive decay methods.
We can see that species have been altered over geologic time. The fossil record shows clearly
that all organisms did not appear at the same time many that once existed have become extinct.
99% of all life that ever existed on earth is now extinct. The fossil record also shows there has
been an orderly sequence species change and replacement over billions of years from the
simplest forms of live to the most complex:
3.5 BY Bacteria
1.5 BY Eukaryotes
500 MY animals
400 MY plants
190 MY 1st flowering plants
65 MY modern plants, primates
15 MY hominids
2. Also, we have found fossils of many “Intermediate forms” between major groups in the
fossil record:
E.g. Between fish and amphibians
E.g. Between dinosaurs and birds
E.g. Evolutionary stages of the horse, elephant, etc.
E.g. human ancestors
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In a few cases we have essentially every major step in the evolutionary process from one species
to another e.g. 1 snail species into 2 in So American Lake sediment (year by year evolution)
3. We have learned the science of genetics and can explain how mutations occur and how
they are passed on (this process was completely unknown to Darwin)
4. In modern times we have added a massive amount of molecular evidence that supports
evolutionary theory similarities and differences in biochemistry correlates with assumed
evolutionary relationships the more closely related an animal is the more similar its
biochemistry:
E.g. DNA
E.g. antibodies
E.g. protein structure
E.g. nematode worm shares 40% of its DNA with us
E.g. chimpanzees and humans share 98% of their DNA
E.g. all humans share 99% of our DNA
E.g. closer relatives 99.5%
We can even quantify the degree of difference and the evolutionary timelines for virtually all
forms of life virtually everything we know about the natural world. Biology, geology, chemistry,
physics, astronomy contribute to our current understanding of the process of evolution

Geologic Time Scale

Geologic eras are divisions of time used by geologists to categorize Earth’s history based on
significant events and changes. Geologic eras are large units of time that represent major
intervals in Earth's geological history. These eras are further divided into periods, epochs, and
ages characterized by specific geological, biological and climatic conditions/ understanding
geologic eras helps us comprehend the vast timeline of Earth’s formation and the evolution of
life.

As a result of studying strata, scientists have divided Earth’s history into eras, and then periods
and epochs. The largest divisions are Eons. To 19th Century geologists, the rocks could be
broken up into 2 divisions
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1) Those containing visible signs of life (e.g., fossils) and

2. Those devoid of life (e.g., pre-fossils).;

The Phanerozoic (“visible life; 544 Million years to the present) and the Proterozoic (before
life; up to 544 Million years). Some Proterozoic rocks did in fact contain primitive life (bacteria
and later on soft-tissue organisms), but not beasties that produced skeletal remains. The
Proterozoic is now defined as a specific interval of time (2.5 billion years to 544 million years).
Two additional Eras have been added to the Geological Time Scale; the Archean (4.0 to 2.5
billion years) and the Hadean (4.5 to 4.0 billion years).

The Phanerozoic Eon, is the most recent eon and is divided into three eras: the Paleozoic,
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. These divisions are based on a combination of fossil evidence,
stratigraphy, and other geological markers. Keep in mind that the geological timescale may be
updated as new research emerges.

Precambrian Era: - The Precambrian era is the longest and oldest geologic era, spanning
approximately 4.6 billion years. It begins with the formation of Earth and end with the
emergence of complex life forms. During this era, Earth experienced intense volcanic activity,
the formation of oceans, and the development of the atmosphere.
1. Paleozoic Era (544 million years ago - 252 million years ago): The Paleozoic era follows the
Precambrian era and lasted around 290 million years. It witnessed the emergence and
diversification of various life forms, including fish, plants, insects, and early reptiles. Key events
during this era include colonization of land by plants, the evolution of amphibians, and the
rise of marine life, such as trilobites.
 Cambrian Period (541-485 million years ago): Characterized by the rapid diversification of
multicellular life, including the appearance of many major animal phyla.
 Ordovician Period (485-443 million years ago): Marked by a radiation of marine life,
including the first jawed fishes.
 Silurian Period (443-419 million years ago): Notable for the colonization of land by plants
and the development of jawed fish.
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 Devonian Period (419-359 million years ago): Known as the "Age of Fishes," with the
diversification of fish and the first appearance of amphibians.
 Carboniferous Period (359-299 million years ago): Characterized by extensive coal swamps
and the evolution of early reptiles.
 Permian Period (299-252 million years ago): Marked by the diversification of reptiles and
the end of the era with the largest mass extinction in Earth's history.
2. Mesozoic Era (252 million years ago - 66 million years ago): The Mesozoic era, also known as
the “age of reptiles,” took place approximately 252 million to 66 million years ago. It is
characterized by the dominance of reptiles, including dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and marine reptiles.
This era witnessed major geological events like the breakup of the supercontinent Pangea and
the emergence of flowering plants.
 Triassic Period (252-201 million years ago): Witnessed the early diversification of
dinosaurs and the first mammals.
 Jurassic Period (201-145 million years ago): Characterized by the dominance of
dinosaurs, including the large and iconic sauropods and theropods.
 Cretaceous Period (145-66 million years ago): Ended with the mass extinction event that
led to the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs. Also marked the rise of mammals.
3. Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago - Present):
 Paleogene Period (66-23 million years ago): Saw the diversification of mammals,
including the evolution of primates and early hominids.
 Neogene Period (23-2.6 million years ago): Witnessed the evolution of hominids,
including early humans.
 Quaternary Period (2.6 million years ago - Present): Characterized by the appearance
of Homo sapiens (modern humans) and significant glacial-interglacial cycles.
Geologic eras provide a framework for understanding the vast timeline of earth’s history. By
studying these eras, we gain insights into significant geological events, the evolution of life,
and the changing environments that have shaped our planet. Exploring geologic ears deepens
our appreciation for the dynamic nature of Earth and the remarkable journey of life’s evolution.
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Figure 1. Geologic time scale showing different Eons, Eras and Epochs

Natural selection

Natural selection is the process by which genetic mutations that enhance reproduction become
and remain, more common in successive generations of a population. It has often been called
a "self-evident" mechanism because it necessarily follows from three simple facts:

 Heritable variation exists within populations of organisms.

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 Organisms produce more offspring than can survive.

 These offspring vary in their ability to survive and reproduce.

These conditions produce competition between organisms for survival and reproduction.
Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors pass
these advantageous traits on, while traits that do not confer an advantage are not passed on
to the next generation.

Natural selection is based on a concept of evolutionary fitness. This fitness is measured by an

organism's ability to survive and reproduce, which determines the size of its genetic
contribution to the next generation. A good example is if an organism could survive well and
reproduces rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism
would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.

Organisms do not perform any behavior that is for the good of their species. An individual
organism competes primarily with others of its own species for its reproductive success.
Natural selection favors selfish behavior because any truly altruistic act increases the recipient's
reproductive success while lowering the donors.

The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

The theory of evolution by Natural selection at its core is a relatively simple idea:

a) All living things consist of a unique combination of chemicals organized in unique ways.
variations occur in every species (no two individuals of a species are alike)
b) Species’ populations are able to adapt to gradually changing environments the same
species in different parts of the world have different tolerances and slightly different
characteristics to survive the local conditions in which it lives e.g. Live Neem tree in
Katsina, vs live Neem tree in Mumbai India. Still they are the same species: they
interbreed naturally where they come into contact.
c) Most of these variations have a genetic basis they can be passed on to their
offspring. Darwin was not aware of Mendel’s work, He didn’t know HOW traits
were passed on, just observed that some were took another 50-60 years before
hereditary information was added to Darwin’s original theory made it even more
powerful
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d) Each species produces more offspring than will survive into maturity e.g. if not, 1
bacterial cell in 36 hours would cover earth 3-4 ft. deep e.g. fruit fly in 7 months would
produce enough offspring to equal the mass of the earth
e) Those individuals whose variations best fit their environment will be more likely to
survive and reproduce.
Fitness is the ability of an organism to reproduce. Organisms with less favorable
variations will be less likely to survive There is a “struggle for existence” with “survival
of the fittest”
f) By a process of natural selection, evolution sorts through these numerous variations
within a population and “chooses” the must fit combination as the environment slowly
changes and certain. Variations are selected over 100’s or 1000’s of generations new
forms will arise.
Adaptation
Over a period of time, species modify their phenotypes in certain ways that allow them to
succeed in their environment. Adaptation is a process that ensures organisms are better suited
to their habitat.
 Adaptation may also refer to a trait that is key to an organism's survival. A good
example is the adaptation of horses' teeth to the grinding of grass.
 By using the term adaptation for the evolutionary process and adaptive trait for the
product the two senses of the word may be distinguished. Adaptations are produced
by natural selection.
 Theodosius Dobzhansky brought about the following definitions;
1. Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better
able to live in its habitat or habitats.
2. Adaptedness is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is
able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.
3. An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism
which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and
reproducing.
Adaptation may cause either the loss of an ancestral feature or the gain of a new feature. An
example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to antibiotic selection, with
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genetic changes causing antibiotic resistance by either modifying the target of the drug, or
increasing the activity of transporters that pump the drug out of the cell. A controversial but
interesting idea is that some adaptations might increase the ability of organisms to generate
genetic diversity and adapt by natural selection

During evolution, some structures may lose their original function and become vestigial
structures. Such structures may have little or no function in a current species, yet have a clear
function in ancestral species, or other closely related species. Examples include pseudogenes,
the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish, wings in flightless birds, and the
presence of hip bones in whales and snakes. Examples of vestigial structures in humans include
wisdom teeth, the coccyx, the vermiform appendix, and other behavioral vestiges such as goose
bumps and primitive reflexes.

Isolation Mechanism
Morphological species concept:
Baobab trees look like Baobab trees, tigers look like tigers. Morphology refers to the form
and structure of an organism or any of its parts. The morphological species concept supports
the widely held view that "members of a species are individuals that look similar to one another."
This school of thought was the basis for Linneaus' original classification, which is still broadly
accepted and applicable today.
The morphological species concept was replaced by another viewpoint that puts more emphasis
on the biological differences between species.
Biological species concept: This concept states that "a species is a group of actually or
potentially interbreeding individuals who are reproductively isolated from other such groups."
This definition was attractive to biologists and became widely adopted by the 1940's. It
suggested a critical test of species-hood: two individuals belong to the same species if their
gametes can unite with each other under natural conditions to produce fertile offspring. This
concept also emphasized that a species is an evolutionary unit. Members share genes with other
members of their species, and not with members of other species.
Most scientists feel that the biological species concept should be kept, but with some
qualifications. It can only be used with living species, and cannot always be applied to species
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that do not live in the same place. The real test applies to species that have the potential to
interbreed.
Most importantly, the biological species concept helps us ask how species are formed, because
it focuses our attention on the question of how reproductive isolation comes about. Let us
first examine types of reproductive isolation, because there are quite a few.
There are many barriers to reproduction. Each species may have its own courtship displays, or
breeding season, so that members of the two species do not have the opportunity to
interbreed. Or, the two species may be unable to interbreed successfully because of failure of
the egg to become fertilized or to develop.
This suggests a simple and useful dichotomy, between pre-mating or prezygotic (i.e., prezygote
formation) reproductive isolating mechanisms, and post-mating or postzygotic isolating
mechanisms. Remember that a zygote is the cell formed by the union of two gametes and is
the basis of a developing individual.
Despite our increasing ability to understand the finest details of organisms, there is still debate
about what constitutes a species. Definitions of species tend to fall into two main camps, the
morphological and the biological species concepts.
Two isolation mechanisms
Prezygotic isolation mechanisms are in place before fertilization, and thus reproduction is never
attempted.
Postzygotic isolation mechanisms are in place after fertilization, so reproduction may take place,
but it does not produce fertile offspring.
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
Isolation Mechanism example
Prezygotic
Habitat isolation Species at same locale occupy different habitats
Temporal isolation Species reproduce at different seasons or different times
of day
Behavioral isolation In animals, courtship behavior differs, or they respond to
different songs, calls, pheromones, or other signals
Mechanical isolation Genitalia unsuitable for one another
Postzygotic
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Gamete isolation Sperm cannot reach or fertilize egg

Zygote mortality Fertilization occurs, but zygote does not survive
Hybrid sterility Hybrid survives but is sterile and cannot reproduce
F2 fitness Hybrid is sterile, but F2 hybrid has reduced fitness

Origin of life
The planet earth came into existence 4 and 5 billion years ago. Life evolved on planet earth
about 3.5 billion years ago. At that time it was extremely hot. The existence of life in any form
at that high temperature was not possible.
So, in life, two questions arise pertaining to
1. How did life originated on earth?
2. How did primitive organisms evolve into new forms resulting in the evolution of a
variety of organism on earth?
Origin of life means the appearance of simplest primordial life from non-living matter.

Figure 2. The origin of life

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Probable stages in the origin of life

First stage (the primitive earth)

Theorized early primitive atmosphere consisted mostly of water vapor, nitrogen and carbon
dioxide with small amounts of hydrogen and carbon monoxide with little if any, of free oxygen.
Second stage (evolution of small organic molecules)
 A particular mix of inorganic chemicals could have reacted with one another to produce
small organic molecules (or compound) such as glucose, amino acids and nucleotides.
Most chemical reactions take place in water and the first proto cell undoubtedly arose
in the ocean.
 In 1953, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey performed an experiment known as the (Miller-
Urey experiment) that supports the hypothesis that small organic molecules were
formed at the ocean’s surface.
 The formation of small organic molecules is thought to be the first step toward the
origin
Third stage (macromolecules)
 Once formed, the first small organic molecules gave rise to still larger molecules. Then
these would have polymerized into macromolecules. There are three primary hypotheses
concerning this stage in the origin of life.
 RNA first- hypothesis: this hypothesis suggests that only the macromolecule RNA
(ribonucleic acid) was needed at this time to progress toward formation of the first cell
or cell(s).
 Such RNA molecules are called ribozymes since we know that ribozymes exist. Chemical
reactions likely produced the macromolecules we associate with living things.
Fourth stage (the protocell)
 After macromolecules formed, something akin to a modern plasma membrane was
needed to separate them from the environment. Thus before the first true cell arose,
there would likely have been a protocell, which could carry on metabolism but not
reproduce, formed when lipids and microspheres formed a lipid – protein membrane.
It has been suggested that the protocell likely was a heterotrophy, an organism that
takes in preformed food.
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 The Heterotroph Hypothesis has been suggested that the protocell likely was a
heterotroph, an organism that takes in performed food.
 During the early evolution of life, the ocean contained abundant nutrition in the form
of small organic molecules. This suggests that heterotrophs preceded autotrophs,
organisms that make their own food.
 Once the protocell was capable of reproduction, it became a true cell, and biological
evolution began.
Fifth stage (The true cell)
 A true cell is a membrane-bounded structure that can carry on protein synthesis to
produce the enzymes that allow DNA to replicate.
 The central concept of genetics states that DNA directs protein synthesis and that
information flows from DNA to RNA to protein.
 It is possible that this sequence developed in stages. Once the protocells acquired genes
that could replicate, they became cells capable of reproducing, and biological evolution
began.
 The hypothesis that the origin of life followed a transition from small organic molecules
to macromolecules to protocells to true cells is currently widely favored by scientists.