Business Mathematics

Note
Unit 4: Logarithm

CONTENTS

Objectives
Introduction
4.1 Definition of Logarithm
4.2 Laws of Logarithm
4.3 Common Logarithm and Natural Logarithm
4.5 Antilogarithm
4.6 Summary
4.7 Keywords
4.8 Review Questions
4.9 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
1. Define Logarithm
2. Discuss laws of logarithm
3. Relate common logarithm and natural logarithm
4. Explain Antilogarithm with suitable examples

Introduction
In mathematics logarithms were developed for making complicated calculations
simple. For example, if a right circular cylinder has radius r = 0.375 meters and height
h = 0.2321 meters, then its volume is given by: V = A = πr2h = 3.146 × (0.375) 2 × 0.2321.
Use for logarithm tables makes such calculations quite easy. However, even
calculators have functions like multiplication; power etc. still, logarithmic and
exponential equations and functions are very common in mathematics.
In this unit, we will discuss .We will also focus on logarithm and laws of logarithm.
Further, we will focus on common logarithm and natural logarithm, Antilogarithm
with suitable examples.

4.1 Definition of Logarithm

f ax = M (M > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1), then x (i.e., index of the power) is called the logarithm of
the number M to the base a and is written as x = loga M.

Hence, if ax = M then x = loga M;

conversely, if x = loga M then ax = M.

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Note If ‘a’ is a positive real number (except 1), n is any real number and an = b, then n is
called the logarithm of b to the base a. It is written as loga b (read as log of b to the
base a). Thus,
an = b ⇔ loga b = n.
Did u know?
an is called the exponential form and log a b = n is called the logarithmic form.
For example:
 32 = 9 ⇔ log3 9 = 2
 54 = 625 ⇔ log5 625 = 4
 70 = 1 ⇔ log7 1 = 0
 2-3 = 1/8 ⇔ log2 (1/8) = -3
 10-2 = 0.01 ⇔ log10 0.01 = -2
 26 = 64 ⇔ log2 64 = 6
 3- 4 = 1/34 = 1/81 ⇔ log3 1/81 = -4
 10-2 = 1/100 = 0.01 ⇔ log10 0.01 = -2
Note
Logarithmic functions are important largely because of their relationship to
exponential functions. Logarithms can be used to solve exponential equations and
to explore the properties of exponential functions. They will also become extremely
valuable in calculus, where they will be used to calculate the slope of certain
functions and the area bounded by certain curves. In addition, they have practical
applications in economics too.

Basic Logarithm Facts

1. Since a > 0 (a ≠ 1), an > 0 for any rational n. Hence logarithm is defined only
positive real numbers.
From the definition it is clear that the logarithm of a number has no meaning if the
base is not mentioned.
2. The above examples shows that the logarithm of a (positive) real number may be
negative, zero or positive.
3. Logarithmic values of a given number are different for different bases.
4. Logarithms to the base a 10 are called common logarithms. Also, logarithm tables
assume base 10. If no base is given, the base is assumed to be 10.
For example: log 21 means log10 21.
5. Logarithm to the base ‘e’ (where e = 2.7183 approx.) is called natural logarithm,
and is usually written as ln. Thus ln x means loge x.
6. If ax = - M (a > 0, M > 0), then the value of x will be imaginary i.e., logarithmic
value of a negative number is imaginary.

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7. Logarithm of 1 to any finite non-zero base is zero. Note

Proof: We know, a0 = 1 (a ≠ 0). Therefore, from the definition, we have, log a 1 = 0.
8. Logarithm of a positive number to the same base is always 1.
Proof: Since a1 = a. Therefore, loga a = 1.
From 7 and 8 we say that, loga 1 = 0 and loga a = 1 for any positive real ‘a’ except
1.
9. If x = loga M then a log a M = a
Proof: x = loga M. Therefore, a x = M or, a logaM = M [Since, x = loga M].
Did U Know?
"Logarithm" is a word made up by Scottish mathematician John Napier (1550-
1617), from the Greek word logos meaning "proportion, ratio or word"
andarithmos meaning "number", ... which together makes "ratio-number" !

Logarithmic Functions
The logarithm of a positive number is defined as a power to which a base (> 1) must
be raised to get that number. Logarithmic functions are inverse to exponential
functions. The inverse of an exponential function y  b x can be written as x  log b y ,
where log is an abbreviation of logarithm. We note that domain of this function is (0,
) and the range is (, ). Since an inverse function is obtained by mere algebraic
manipulation, its geometrical properties are similar to the properties of an exponential
function.
Did u know?
Like an exponential function, a logarithmic function is also monotonic.
Following the convention of keeping x as independent variable and y as dependent
variable, we can write a logarithmic function as y  log a x , where a > 1 is a constant.
The graph of this function and that of y  a x are symmetric with respect to the line y =
x. Thus their graph will be mirror image of each other with reference to the line y = x
as shown in Fig.

15
Figure 4.1: Logarithmic Functions

Important features of a logarithmic function are:

(i) The domain of the function is and the range is .

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Note (ii) It is a monotonically increasing function.

(iii) Since the curve passes through the point , it implies that logarithm of unity is
(iv) always zero.
(v) The logarithm of a number lying between 0 and 1 is negative.
(vi) The logarithm of a negative number is not defined.
Task
Discuss in group, the applicability of logarithm in Coach and Player game.

Exponentials and Logarithms

Here, we will mainly discuss how to change the logarithm expression to Exponential
expression and conversely from Exponential expression to logarithm expression.
To discus about convert Exponentials and Logarithms we need to first recall about
logarithm and exponents.
The logarithm of any number to a given base is the index of the power to which the
base must be raised in order to equal the given number. Thus, if ax = N, x is called the
logarithm of N to the base a.

For example:
1. Since 34 = 81, the logarithm of 81 to base 3 is 4.
2. Since 101 = 10, 10 2 = 100, 103 = 1000, ………….
The natural number 1, 2, 3, …… are respectively the logarithms of 10, 100, 1000,
…… to base 10.
The logarithm of N to base a is usually written as loga N, so that the same
meaning is expressed by the two equations
ax = N; x = loga N

Examples on convert Exponentials and Logarithms

Convert the following exponential form to logarithmic form:
(i) 104 = 10000

Solution:
104 = 10000
⇒ log10 10000 = 4
(ii) 3-5 = x

Solution:
3-5 = x
⇒ log3 x = -5
(iii) (0.3) 3 = 0.027

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Solution: Note

(0.3)3 = 0.027
⇒ log0.3 0.027 = 3

Convert the following logarithmic form to exponential form:

(i) log3 81 = 4

Solution:
log3 81 = 4
⇒ 34 = 81, which is the required exponential form.
(ii) log8 32 = 5/3

Solution:
log8 32 = 5/3
⇒ 85/3 = 32
(iii) log10 0.1 = -1

Solution:
log10 0.1 = -1
⇒ 10-1 = 0.1.
By converting to exponential form, find the values of following:
(i) log2 16

Solution:
Let log2 16 = x
⇒ 2x = 16
⇒ 2 x = 24
⇒ x = 4,
Therefore, log2 16 = 4.
(ii) log3 (1/3)

Solution:
Let log3 (1/3) = x
⇒ 3x = 1/3
⇒ 3x = 3-1
⇒ x = -1,
Therefore, log3(1/3) = -1.
(iii) log5 0.008

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Note
Solution:
Let log5 0.008 = x
⇒ 5x = 0.008
⇒ 5x = 1/125
⇒ 5x = 5-3
⇒ x = -3,
Therefore, log5 0.008 = -3.

Solve the following for x:

(i) logx 243 = -5
Solution:
logx 243 = -5
⇒ x-5 = 243
⇒ x-5 = 35
⇒ x-5 = (1/3)-5
⇒ x = 1/3.
(ii) log√5 x = 4

Solution:
log√5 x = 4
⇒ x = (√5)4
⇒ x = (51/2)4
⇒ x = 52
⇒ x = 25.
(iii) log√x 8 = 6

Solution:
log√x 8 = 6
⇒ (√x)6 = 8
⇒ (x1/2)6 = 23
⇒ x3 = 23
⇒ x = 2.

Logarithmic Form Vs. Exponential Form

The logarithm function with base a has domain all positive real numbers and is
defined by
loga M = x ⇔ M = ax

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where M > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1 Note

Logarithmic Form Exponential Form
loga M = x ⇔ M = ax
Log7 49 = 2 ⇔ 72 = 49

Write the exponential equation in logarithmic form.

Exponential Form Logarithmic Form
M = ax ⇔ loga M = x
24 = 16 ⇔ log2 16 = 4
10-2 = 0.01 ⇔ log10 0.01 = -2
81/3 = 2 ⇔ log8 2 = 1/3
6-1 = 1/6 ⇔ log6 1/6 = -1

Write the logarithmic equation in exponential form.

Logarithmic Form Exponential Form
loga M = x ⇔ M = ax
log2 64 = 6 ⇔ 26 = 64
log4 32 = 5/2 ⇔ 45/2= 32
log1/82 = -1/3 ⇔ (1/8)-1/3 = 2
log3 81 = x ⇔ 3x = 81
log5 x = -2 ⇔ 5-2 = x
log x = 3 ⇔ 103 = x

Solve for x:
1. log5 x = 2
x = 52
= 25
2. log81 x = ½
x = 811/2
⇒ x= (92)1/2
⇒x=9
3. log9 x = -1/2
x = 9-1/2
⇒ x = (32)-1/2
⇒ x = 3-1
⇒ x= 1/3

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Note 4. log7 x = 0
x = 70
⇒x=1

4.2 Laws of Logarithm

There are following four logarithm formulas which explain laws of logrithm :

Product Rule Law:

loga (MN) = loga M + loga N

Quotient Rule Law:

loga (M/N) = loga M - loga N

Power Rule Law:

IogaMn = n Ioga M

Change of base Rule Law:

loga M = logb M × loga b
Let’s observe the detailed step-by-step explanation of mathematical proof of
logarithm rules or log rules.

1. Proof of Product Rule Law:

loga (MN) = loga M + loga N
Let loga M = x ⇒ a sup>x = M
and Ioga N= y ⇒ ay = N
Now ax ∙ ay = MN or, ax + y = MN
Therefore from definition, we have,
loga (MN) = x + y = loga M + loga N [putting the values of x and y]
Corollary: The law is true for more than two positive factors i.e.,
loga (MNP) = loga M + loga N + loga P
since, loga (MNP) = 1oga (MN) + loga P = loga M+ loga N+ loga P
Therefore in general, loga (MNP ….... )= loga M + loga N + loga P + ……. .
Hence, the logarithm of the product of two or more positive factors to any
positive base other than 1 is equal to the sum of the logarithms of the factors to the
same base.
2. Proof of Quotient Rule Law:
loga (M/N) = loga M - loga N
Let loga M = x ⇒ ax = M
and loga N = y ⇒ ay = N

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Now ax/ay = M/N or, ax - y = M/N Note

Therefore from definition we have,
loga (M/N) = x - y = loga M- loga N [putting the values of x and y]
Corollary: loga [(M × N × P)/R × S × T)] = log a (M × N × P) - loga (R × S × T)
= loga M + Ioga N + loga P - (loga R + loga S + loga T)
The formula of quotient rule [loga (M/N) = loga M - loga N] is stated as follows: The
logarithm of the quotient of two factors to any positive base other than I is equal
to the difference of the logarithms of the factors to the same base.
3. Proof of Power Rule Law:
IogaMn = n Ioga M
Let loga Mn = x ⇒ ax = Mn
and loga M = y ⇒ ay = M
Now, ax = Mn = (ay)n = any
Therefore, x = ny or, loga Mn = n loga M [putting the values of x and y].
4. Proof of Change of base Rule Law:
loga M = logb M × loga b
Let Ioga M = x ⇒ ax = M,
logb M = y ⇒ by = M,
and loga b = z ⇒ az = b.
Now, ax = M= by - (az)y = ayz
Therefore x = yz or, log a M = Iogb M × loga b [putting the values of x, y, and z].

Corollary:
(i) Putting M = a on both sides of the change of base rule formula [loga M = logb M ×
loga b] we get,
loga a = logb a × loga b or, logb a × loga b = 1 [since, loga a = 1]
or, logb a = 1/loga b
i.e., the logarithm of a positive number a with respect to a positive base b (≠ 1) is
equal to the reciprocal of logarithm of b with respect to the base a.
(ii) From the log change of base rule formula we get,
logb M = loga M/loga b
i.e., the logarithm of a positive number M with respect to a positive base b (≠ 1) is
equal to the quotient of the logarithm of the number M and the logarithm of the
number b both with respect to any positive base a (≠ 1).

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Note
Note:
(i) The logarithm formula loga M = logb M × loga b is called the formula for the
change of base.
(ii) If bases are not stated in the logarithms of a problem, assume same bases for all
the logarithms.

Summarisation of logarithm rules or log rules:

If M > 0, N > 0, a > 0, b > 0 and a ≠ 1, b ≠ 1 and n is any real number, then
(i) loga 1 = 0
(ii) loga a = 1
(iii) a Ioga M = M
(iv) loga (MN) = loga M + loga N
(v) loga (M/N) = loga M - loga N
(vi) loga Mn = n loga M
(vii) loga M = loga M × loga b
(viii) logb a × loga b = 1
(ix) 10gb a = 1/loga b
(x) logb M = 1oga M/loga b
1. Find the logarithms of:
(i) 1728 to the base 2√3

Solution:
Let x denote the required logarithm.
Therefore, log2√3 1728 = x
or, (2√3)x = 1728 = 26 ∙ 33 = 26 ∙ (√3)6
or, (2√3)x = (2√3)6
Therefore, x = 6.
(ii) 0.000001 to the base 0.01.

Solution:
Let y be the required logarithm.
Therefore, log0.01 0.000001 = y
or, (0.01 y = 0.000001 = (0.01)3
Therefore, y = 3.
2. Proof that, log2 log2 log2 16 = 1.

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Solution: Note

L. H. S. = log2 log2 log2 24

= log2 log2 4 log2 2
= log2 log2 22 [since log2 2 = 1]
= log2 2 log2 2
=1∙1
= 1. Proved.
3. If logarithm of 5832 be 6, find the base.

Solution:
Let x be the required base.
Therefore, logx 5832 = 6
or, x6 = 5832 = 3 6 ∙ 23 = 36 ∙ (√2)6 = (3 √2)6
Therefore, x = 3√2
Therefore, the required base is 3√2
4. If 3 + log10 x = 2 log10 y, find x in terms of y.

Solution:
3 + log10 x = 2 log10 y
or, 3 log10 10 + log10 x= 1og10 y2 [since log10 10 = 1]
or. log10 103 + log10 x = log10 y2
or, log10 (103 ∙ x) = log10 y2
or, 103 x = y2
or, x = y2/1000, which gives x in terms y.
5. Prove that, 7 log (10/9) + 3 log (81/80) = 2log (25/24) + log 2.

Solution:
Since,7 log (10/9) + 3 log (81/80) — 2 log (25/24)
= 7(log 10 – log 9)+ 3(1og 81 - log 80)- 2(1og 25 - 1og 24)
= 7[log(2 ∙ 5) - log32] + 3[1og34 - log(5 ∙ 24)] - 2[log52 - log(3 ∙ 23)]
= 7[log 2 + log 5 – 2 log 3] + 3[4 log 3 - log 5 - 4 log 2] - 2[2 log 5 – log 3 – 3 log 2]
= 7 log 2+ 7 log 5 - 14 log 3 + 12 log 3 – 3 log 5 – 12 log 2 – 4 log 5 + 2 log 3 + 6 log 2
= 13 log 2 – 12 log 2 + 7 log 5 – 7 log 5 – 14 log 3 + 14 log 3 = log 2
Therefore 7 log(10/9) +3 log (81/80) = 2 log (25/24) + log 2. Proved.
6. If log10 2 = 0.30103, log10 3 = 0.47712 and log 10 7 = 0.84510, find the values of
(i) log10 45

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Note (ii) log10 105.

(i) log10 45

Solution:
log10 45= log10 (5 × 9)
= log10 5 + log10 9
= log10 (10/2) + log10 32
= log10 10 - log10 2 + 2 log10 3
= 1 - 0.30103 + 2 × 0.47712
= 1.65321.
(ii) log10 105

Solution:
log10 105
= log10 (7 x 5 x 3)
= log10 7 + log10 5 + log10 3
= log10 7 + log10 10/2 + log10 3
= log10 7 + log10 10 - log10 2 + log10 3
= 0.845l0 + 1 - 0.30103 + 0.47712
= 2.02119.
7. Prove that, logb a × logc b × logd c = logd a.

Solution:
L. H. S. = logb a × logc b × logd C
= logc a × logd c [since logb M × loga b = loga M]
= logd a. (using the same formula)

Alternative Method:
Let, logb a = x Since, bx = a,
logc b = y Therefore, cy = b
and logd c = z Therefore, dz = c.
Now, a = bx = (cy)x = cxy = (dz)xy = dxyz
Therefore logd a = xyz = logb a × logc b × logd c. (putting the value of x, y, z)
8. Show that, log4 2 × log2 3= log4 5 × log5 3.

Solution:
L. H. S. = log4 2 × log2 3
= log4 3

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= log5 3 × log4 5. Proved. Note

9. Show that, log2 10 - log8 125 = 1.

Solution:
We have, log8 125 = log8 53 = 3 log8 5
= 3 ∙ (1/log5 8) = 3 ∙ (1/log5 23) = 3 ∙ (1/3 log5 2) = log2 5
Therefore, L.H. S. = log 2 10 - log8 125 = log2 10 - log2 5
= log2 (10/5) = log2 2 = 1. Proved.
10. If log x/(y - z) = log y/(z - x) = log z/(x – y)
show that, xx yy zz = 1

Solution:
Let, log x/(y - z) = log y/(z - x) = log z/(x – y) = k
Therefore, log x = k(y - z) ⇔ x log x = kx(y - z )
or, log xx = kx(y - z) ... (1)
Similarly, log yy = ky (z - x) ... (2)
and log zz = kz(x - y) ... (3)
Now, adding (1), (2) and (3) we get,
log xx + log yy + log zz = k (xy - xz + yz - xy + zx - yz)
or, log (xx yy zz) = k × 0 = 0 = log 1
Therefore, xx yy zz = 1 Proved.
11. If a2 - x ∙ b5x = ax + 3 ∙ b3x show that, x log (b/a) = (1/2) log a.

Solution:
a2 - x ∙ b5x = ax + 3 ∙ b3x
Therefore, b5x/b 3x = ax + 3/a 2-x

or, b5x - 3x = ax + 3 – 2 + x
or, b 2x = a2x + 1 or, b 2x =a 2x ∙a
or, (b/a)2x = a
or, log (b/a)2x = log a (taking logarithm both sides)
or, 2x log (b/a) =log a
or, x log (b/a) = (1/2) log a Proved.
12. Show that, aloga2 x × blog b2 y × clog c2 z = √xyz

Solution:
Let, p = alog a2 x
Now, taking logarithm to the base a of both sides we get,

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Note loga p = loga alog a2 x

⇒ loga p = loga2 x ∙ loga a
⇒ loga p = loga2 x [since, loga a = 1]
⇒ loga p = 1/(logx a2) [since, logn m = 1/(logm n)]
⇒ loga p = 1/(2 logx a)
⇒ loga p = (1/2) loga x
⇒ loga p = loga x ½
⇒ loga p = loga √x
Therefore, p = √x or, aloga2 x = √x
Similarly, blogb2 y = √y and clogc2 z = √z
L.H.S = √x ∙ √y ∙ √z = √xyz Proved.
13. If y = a1/(1 – loga x) and z = a1/(1 – loga y) show that, x = a1/(1 – loga z)

Solution:
Let, loga x = p, loga y = q and loga z = r
Then, by problem, y = a 1/(1 - p) ...……….. (1)
and z = a1/(1 - q) .............. (2)
Now, taking logarithm to the base a of both sides of (1) we get,
loga y = loga a1/(1 - p)
or, q = 1/(1 – p), [since loga a = 1]
Again, taking logarithm to the base a of both sides of (2) we get,
loga z = loga a1/(1 - q)
or, r = 1/(1 – q)
or, 1 - q = 1/r
or, 1 - 1/(1 – p) = 1/r
or, 1 - 1/r = 1/(1 – p)
or, (r – 1)/r = 1/(1 – p)
or, 1 - p = r/(r – 1)
or, p = 1- r/(r – 1) = 1/(1 – r)
or, loga x = 1/(1-loga z)
or, x = a1/(1 – loga z) Proved.
14. If x, y,z are in G. P., prove that, log a x+ loga z = 2/(logy a )[x, y, z, a > 0).

Solution:
By problem, x, y, z are in G. P.

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Therefore, y/x = z/y or, zx = y 2 Note

Now, taking logarithm to the base a (> 0) of both sides we get,
loga zx = loga y2 [since x, y, z > 0]
or, loga x + loga z = 2 loga y
= 2/(logy a) [since loga y × logy a = 1] Proved.
15. Solve logx 2 ∙ logx/16 2 = logx/64 2.

Solution:
Let, log2 x = a ; then, logx 2 = 1/ (log2 x) = 1/a and
logx/16 2 = 1/ [log2 (x/16)] = 1/(log2 x — log2 16) = 1/(log 2 x — log2 24)
= 1/(a – 4) [since, log2 2 = 1]
Similarly, logx/64 2 = 1/[log2 (x/64)] = 1/(log2 x – log2 64)
= 1/(a - log2 26) = 1/(a – 6)
Therefore, the given equation becomes,
1/a ∙ 1/(a - 4) = 1/(a – 6)
or, a2 - 4a = a - 6
or, a2 - 5a + 6 = 0
or, a2 - 2a - 3a + 6 = 0
or, a(a - 2) - 3(a - 2) = 0
or, (a - 2)(a - 3) = 0
Therefore, either, a - 2 = 0 i.e., a = 2
or, a - 3 = 0 i.e., a = 3
When a = 2 then, log2 x = 2 therefore, x = 2 2 = 4
Again, when a = 3 then, log2 x = 3 , therefore x = 2 3 = 8
Therefore the required solutions are x = 4, x = 8.

Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. In mathematics …………………. were developed for making complicated
calculations simple
2. A right circular cylinder has volume, that is given by formula : V = ………………
3. an is called the …………………. form
4. loga b = n is called the …………………. form.
5. 10-2 = ………………….
6. The logarithm of a positive number is defined as a power to which a base
…………………. must be raised to get that number.

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Note 7. Logarithmic functions are …………………. to exponential functions

8. loga (MN) = ………………….
9. loga (M/N) = ………………….
10. IogaMn = ………………….
11. loga M = ………………….

4.3 Common Logarithm and Natural Logarithm

In Logarithm we have already seen and discussed that the logarithmic value of a
positive number depends not only on the number but also on the base; a given
positive number will have different logarithmic values for different bases.
In practice, however, following two types of logarithms are used:
(i) Natural or Napierian logarithm
(ii) Common logarithm
The logarithm of a number to the base e is known as Napierian or Natural logarithm
after the name of John Napier; here the number e is an incommensurable number and
is equal to the infinite series:
1 + 1/1! + 1/2! + 1/3! + ………… ∞
Did u Know?
Natural logarithms are very useful in analytical work. Natural logarithm of a
number is often written without indication of the base. For example, log e u is often
written as logu or lnu. When e is taken as base of an exponential function, it is
termed as natural exponential function.

The logarithm of a number to the base 10 is known as common logarithm.

This system was first introduced by Henry Briggs. This type is used for numerical
calculations. The base 10 in common logarithm is usually omitted.
For example, log10 2 is written as log 2.
The rest of the part deals with the method of determining common logarithms of
positive numbers.

Characteristic and Mantissa:

Now, consider a number (say 6.72) between 1 and 10. Clearly,

1 < 6.72 < 10
Therefore, log 1 < log 6.72 < log 10

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or, 0 < log 6.72 < 1 [ Since log 1 = 0 and log 10 = 1] Note
Therefore, the logarithm of a number between 1 and 10 lies between 0 and 1. That is,
log 6.72 = 0 + a positive decimal part = 0∙ …………..
We now consider a number (say 58.34) between 10 and 100. Clearly,
10 < 58.34 < 100
Therefore, log 10 < log 58.34 < log 100
or, 1 < log 58.34 < 2 [Since log 10 = 1 and log 100 = 2 ]
Therefore, the logarithm of a number between 10 and 100 lies between 1 and 2. That
is,
log 58.34 = 1 + a positive decimal part = 1∙ ......
Similarly, the logarithm of a number (say 463) between 100 and 1000 lies between 2
and 3 (since log 100 = 2 and log 1000 = 3). That is,
log 463 = 2 + a positive decimal part = 2∙ …….
In like manner the logarithm of a number between 1000 and 10000 lies between 3 and
4 and so on.

Now, consider a number (say .54) between 1 and .1. Clearly,

.1 < .54 < 1
Therefore, log .1 < log .54 < log 1
or, - 1 < log .54 < 0, [Since log 1 = 0 and log .1 = - 1]
Therefore, the logarithm of a number between .1 and 1 lies between - 1 and 0. That is,
log .54 = -0∙ ……. = - 1 + a positive decimal part.
We now consider a number (say .0252 ) between .1 and ∙01. Clearly,
.01 < .0252 < .1
log 0.1 < log .0252 < log .1
or, -2 < log .0252 < - 1 [since log .1 = - 1 and log .01 = -2]
Therefore, the logarithm of a number between .01 and .1 lies between -2 and - 1 . That
is,
log .0252 = - 1∙ ..... = - 2+ a positive decimal part.
Similarly, the logarithm of a number between .001 and .01 lies between - 3 and -2 and
so on.

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Note
Note
The common logarithm of a positive number consists of two parts. One part is
integral which may be zero or any integer (positive or negative) and the other part
is non-negative decimal.

The integral part of a common logarithm is called the characteristic and the
non-negative decimal part is called the mantissa.
Suppose, log 39.2 = 1.5933, then 1 is the characteristic and 5933 is the mantissa of the
logarithm.
If log .009423 = - 3 + .9742, then - 3 is the characteristic and .9742 is the mantissa of the
logarithm.
Since log 3 = 0.4771 and log 10 = 1, so the characteristic of log 3 is 0 and the mantissa
of log 10 is 0.

Determination of Characteristic and Mantissa:

The characteristic of the logarithm of a number is determined by inspection and the
mantissa by logarithmic table.
(i) To find the characteristic of the logarithm of a number greater than 1:
Since, log 1 = 0 and log 10 = 1 , hence the common logarithm of a number between 1
and 10 (i.e., whose integral part consists of one digit only) lies between 0 and 1.
For example, each of the numbers 5, 8.5, 9.64 lies between 1 and 10 (see that the
integral part of each of them consists of one digit only); hence their logarithms lie
between 0 and 1 i.e.,
log 5 = 0 + a positive decimal part = 0∙ ……
log 8.5 = 0 + a positive decimal part = 0∙ …..
log 9.64 = 0 + a positive decimal part = 0∙ …..
Therefore, the characteristic of each of log 5, log 8.5 or log 9.64 is 0.
Again, the common logarithm of a number whose integral part consists of two digits
only (i.e., of a number between 10 and 100) lies between 1 and 2 (log 10 = 1 and log
100 = 2).
For example, the integral part of each of the numbers 36, 86.2, 90.46 consists of two
digits; hence their logarithms lie between 1 and 2, i.e.,
log 36 = 1 + a positive decimal part = 1∙ ……
log 86.2 = 1 + a positive decimal part = 1∙ ……
log 90.46 = 1 + a positive decimal part = 1∙ ……
Therefore, the characteristic of each of log 36, log 86.2 or log 90.46 is 1.
Similarly, the characteristic of the logarithm of a number whose integral part consists
of 3 digits is 2. In general, the characteristic of the logarithm of a number whose
integral part consists of n digits is n - 1. Accordingly, we have the following rule:

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The characteristic of the logarithm of a number greater than 1 is positive and is one Note
less than the number of digits in the integral part of the number.

Example:

(ii) To find the characteristic of the logarithm of a number lying between 0 and 1:
Since, log .1 = -1 and log 1 = 0, hence the common logarithm of a number between .1
and 1 lies between -1 and 0. For example, each of .5, .62 or .976 lies between .1 and 1;
hence their logarithms lie between -1 and 0, i.e.,
log .5 = -0∙ ..... = -1 + a positive decimal part = 1∙ …..
log .62 = -0∙ …. = -1 + a positive decimal part = 1∙ …..
log .976 = -0∙ ….. = - 1 + a positive decimal part = 1∙ …..
[See that a number between (- 1) and 0 is of the form (-0∙ …… ), such as (-0.246),
(-0.594) etc. But (- 0.246) can be expressed as follows:
- 0.246 = -1 + 1 -0.246 = -1 + 0.754 = -1+ a positive decimal part.
It is the convension to represent the mantissa of the logarithm of a number as positive.
For this reason a number lying between (- 1) and 0 is expressed in the above form.
Again, (-1) + .754 is written as 1.754. Clearly, the integral part in1.754 is negative [i.e.,
(- 1)] but the decimal part is positive. 1.754 is read as bar 1 point 7, 5, 4. Note that, ( -
1.754) and (1.754) are not the same. 1.754 = - 1 + .754 but (-1.754) = - 1 - .754]
Therefore, the characteristic of each of log .5, log .62 or log .976 is ( - 1).
Again, a number having one zero between the decimal sign and the first significant
figure lies between .0l and .1. Hence, its logarithm will lie between (-2) and (- 1) [Since,
log .01 = - 2 and log .1 = - 1].
For example, each of .04, .056, .0934 lies between .01 and .1 (see that there is one zero
between the decimal sign and the first significant digit in all the numbers) hence, their
logarithms will lie between (-2) and (- 1), i.e.,
log .04 = - 1∙ ……. = -2 + a positive decimal part = 2∙ ………….
log .056 = -1∙ ……. = -2 + a positive decimal part = 2∙ …………..
1og.0934= -1∙ ……. = -2 + a positive decimal part = 2∙ …………..
Similarly, the characteristic of the logarithm of a number having two zeroes between
the decimal sign and the first significant figure is (- 3). In general, the characteristic of
the logarithm of a number having n zeroes between the decimal sign and the first
significant figure is - (n + 1).
Accordingly, we have the following rule:

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Note The characteristic of the logarithm of a positive number less than 1 is negative and is
numerically greater by 1 than the number of zeroes between the decimal sign and the
first significant figure of the number.

Example:

(iii) To find the mantissa [using log-table]:

After determining the characteristic of the logarithm of a positive number by
inspection, its mantissa is determined by the logarithmic table. At the end of the book
both four-figure and five-figure tables are given. A four-figure table gives the value of
mantissa correct to 4 decimal places.
Similarly, a five-figure or a nine-figure log-table gives the value of mantissa correct to
five or nine decimal places. Using any one of them we can find the mantissa f the
common logarithm of a number lying between 1 to 9999, If the number contains more
than 4 significant digits then to find the mantissa by the table either we can
approximate it upto 4 significant figures for rough calculations or else we can utilize
the principle of proportional parts for more precise calculations. In tables mantissa
correct to certain places of decimals are given without the decimal point. It should be
remembered that the mantissa of common logarithm of a number is independent of
the position of the decimal point in the number.
Caution!
The decimal point of the number is discarded when the mantissa is determined by
the log-table.
For example, the mantissa of each of the numbers 6254, 625.4, 6.254 or, 0.006254 is the
same.
Observing the log-table given at the end of the book we see that it is divided into
following four parts:
(a) n the extreme left-hand column numbers ranging from 10 to 99;
(b) umbers ranging from 0 to 9 in the top-most row;
(c our-digit numbers (in a four-figure log-table) below each figure of the top-most
row;
(d) ean difference column.
Suppose we are to find the mantissa of (i) log 6 (ii) log 0.048 (iii) log 39.2 and (iv) log
523.4 by log-table.
(i) log 6

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Since mantissa of log 6 and log 600 are same, we shall have to see the mantissa of log Note
600. Now we find the figure 60 in the column of part (a) of the table; next we move
horizontally to the right to the column headed by 0 of part (b) and read the number
7782 in part (c) of the table (see four-figure log-table). Thus the mantissa of log 6 is
.7782.
(ii) log 0.048
Since the mantissa of common logarithm is independent of the position of the decimal
point, hence to find the mantissa of log 0.048 we shall find the mantissa of log 480. As
in (i) we first-find the figure 48 in the column of part (a) of the table ; next we move
horizontally to the right to the column headed by 0 of part (b) and read the number
6812 in part (c) of the table. Thus the mantissa of log 0.048 is .6812.
(iii) log 39.2
Similarly, to find the mantissa of log 39.2 we shall find the mantissa of log 392. As in
(i), we find the figure 39 in the column of part (a); next we move horizontally to the
right to the column headed by 2 of part (b) and read the number 5933 in part (c) of the
table. Thus the mantissa of log 39.2 is .5933
(iv) log 523.4
In like manner we first discard the decimal point in 523.4. Now we find the figure 52
in the column of part (a); next we move horizontally to the right to the column headed
by 3 of part (b) and read the number 7185 in part (c) of the table. Again we move
along the same horizontal line further right to the column headed by 4 of mean
difference and read the number 3 there. If this 3 be added with 7185, then we shall get
the mantissa of log 523.4. Thus the mantissa of log 523.4 is .7188.
Clearly, the characteristics of log 6, log 0.048, log 39.2 and log 523.4 are 0, (-2), 1 and 2
respectively.
Hence, we have,
log 6 = 0.7782,
log 0.048 = 2.68l2,
log 39.2 = 1.5933 and
log 523.4 = 2.7188.

Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
12. The logarithm of a number to the base e is known as Napierian or Natural
logarithm
13. The number e is an incommensurable number and is equal to the infinite series
14. The logarithm of a number to the base 10 is known as common logarithm.
common logarithm was first introduced by Henry Briggs.
15. log10 2 is written as 10log 2

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Note 16. The common logarithm of a positive number consists of two parts. One part is
integral which may be zero or any integer (positive or negative) and the other part
is non-negative decimal.
17. The integral part of a common logarithm is called the characteristic and the non-
negative decimal part is called the mantissa.
18. The characteristic of the logarithm of a number is determined by inspection and
the mantissa by logarithmic table.

4.5 Antilogarithm
If log M = x, then M is called the antilogarithm of x and is written as M = antilog x.
For example, if log 39.2 = 1.5933, then antilog 1.5933 = 39.2.
If the logarithmic value of a number be given then the number can be determined
from the antilog-table. Antilog-table is similar to log-table; only difference is in the
extreme left-hand column which ranges from .00 to .99.

Example
Find antilog 2.5463.

Solution:
Clearly, we are to find the number whose logarithm is 2.5463. For this consider the
mantissa .5463. Now find .54 in the extreme left-hand column of the antilog-table (see
four-figure antilog-table) and then move horizontally to the right to the column
headed by 6 of the top-most row and read the number 3516. Again we move along the
same horizontal line further right to the column headed by 3 of mean difference and
read the number 2 there. This 2 is now added to the previous number 3516 to give
3518. Since the characteristic is 2, there should be three digits in the integral part of the
required number.
Therefore, antilog 2.5463 = 351.8.

Example
If log x = -2.0258, find x.

Solution:
In order to find the value of x using antilog-table, the decimal part (i.e., the mantissa)
must be made positive. For this we proceed as follows:
log x = -2.0258 = - 3 + 3 - 2.0258
= - 3 + .9742 =3.9742
Therefore, x = antilog 3.9742.
Now, from antilog table we get the number corresponding to the mantissa
.9742 as (9419 + 4) = 9423.
Again the characteristic in log x is (- 3).

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Hence, there should be two zeroes between the decimal point and the first significant Note
digit in the value of x.
Therefore, x = .009423.

Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
19. If log M = x, then M is called the ……………… of x and is written as M = antilog x.
20. Antilog-table is similar to ………………
21. The only difference between log and antilog tables is in the extreme left-hand
column which ranges from

4.6 Summary
 If ‘a’ is a positive real number (except 1), n is any real number and an = b, then n is
called the logarithm of b to the base a. It is written as loga b (read as log of b to the
base a).
 Logarithmic values of a given number are different for different bases.
 Logarithmic functions are important largely because of their relationship to
exponential functions.
 Logarithms can be used to solve exponential equations and to explore the
properties of exponential functions.
 Two kinds of logarithms are often used: common logarithms and natural (or
Napierian) logarithms.
 The power to which a base of 10 must be raised to obtain a number is called the
common logarithm (log) of the number.
 The power to which the base e (e = 2.718281828.......) must be raised to obtain a
number is called the natural logarithm (ln) of the number.
 If log M = x, then M is called the antilogarithm of x and is written as M = antilog
x.

4.7 Keywords
Common Logarithmic Function: The function f (x) = log10 x , often written f (x) = log x .
Logarithmic Function: The inverse of the exponential function f (x) = a x . y = loga x
means a y = x , where a > 0 and a≠1 .
Natural Logarithmic Function: The function f (x) = loge x , often written f (x) = ln x .

4.8 Review Questions

1. Find the logarithm of 2025 to the base 3 5
2. The logarithm of a number to the base 2 is k. What is its logarithm to the base
2 2?

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Note

3. Show that
4. Show that logb a x logc b x loga c = 1.
3
5. Find the value of log2 [log2 {log3 (log3 27 )}].
6. If log2 x + log4 x + log16 x=21/4 then, find x

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

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Note

18.

19.

20
21. If log 3 = 0.4771, find the number of digits in 3 43.
22. Given log10 2 = 0.30103, find log 10 (1000/256)
23. Find the value of : (i) 0.8176 × 13.64, (ii) (789.45) 1/8
24. Find, from tables, the antilogarithm of – 2.7080
25. Find the number of zeros between the decimal point and the first significant
figures in:

26. Given log 8 = 0.931, log 9 = 0.9542 ; find the value of log 60 correct to 4 decimal 4
places.
27. Given log 2 = 0.30103, log 3 = 0.47712 ; find the value of : (i) log 4500 (ii) log 0.015
(iii) log 0.1875.
28. Using tables find the value of :

(i) 19.66 / 9.701 (ii) (iii) (iv)

29. Find the value of log 64 with base 4
30. Find the value of log 125 with base 5 5
31. Find the value of log 144 with base 2 3
32. Show that log (1 + 2 + 3) = log1 + log2 + log3
33 . Show that log2 log2 log2 16 = 1

34. Show that =1

35. If log x + log y = log (x + y) then express x in terms of y.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. logarithms 2. πr2h
3. exponential 4. logarithmic

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Note 5. -2 6. 1
7. Inverse 8. loga M + loga N
9. loga M - loga N 10. n Ioga M
11. logb M × loga b 12. True
13. True 14. True
15. False 16. True
17. True 18. True
19. antilogarithm 20. log-table
21. .00 to .99.

4.9 Further Readings

Books
Kenneth Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 7/e, 2012, McGraw-Hill.
Bathul, Shahnaz, Mathematical Foundations of Computer Science, PHI Learning.
Lambourne, Robert, Basic Mathematics for the Physical Sciences,2008, John Wiley &
Sons.
Bari, Ruth A.; Frank Harary. Graphs and Combinatorics, Springer.
F. Ernest Jerome, Connect for Jerome, Business Mathematics in Canada, 7e, Canadian
Edition.
S Rajagopalan and R Sattanathan, Business Mathematics, 2 edition, 2009, Tata
McGraw Hill Education.
Garrett H.E. (1956), Elementary Statistics, Longmans, Green & Co., New York.
Guilford J.P. (1965), Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education, Mc Graw
Hill Book Company, New York.
Hannagan T.J. (1982), Mastering Statistics, The Macmillan Press Ltd., Surrey.
Lindgren B.W (1975), Basic Ideas of Statistics, Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc.,
New York.
Selvaraj R., Loganathan C., Quantitative Methods in Management.
Sharma J.K., Business Statistics, Pearson Education Asia
Walker H.M. and J. Lev, (1965), Elementary Statistical Methods, Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co., Calcutta.
Wine R.L. (1976), Beginning Statistics, Winthrop Publishers Inc., Massachusetts.

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Note

Online links
www.girishgovindan.com/uploads/mt/Log_Antilog.pdf
ww.chem.tamu.edu/class/fyp/mathrev/mr-log.html
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithm
www.math-only-math.com/antilogarithm.html
www.vitutor.com/alg/log/antilogarithm.html

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