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Chapter 2 Textbook

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__neroduetion and the First Law of Tharmodyramice ~ 113. BS 1041 Temperatire Messirement HMSO; Section 2.11985 Guide to Selection ‘and Use of Liudi-glass Thermometers; Part 3 1989 Gude to Selection and Use of Indust Ressance Thermometers; Part 4 196 Thermocouples; Part 5 1972 Radiation Prometers; Part 71988 Guide to Selection and Use of Temperatre-tine Records |LA_ nooERS Gc and wavnew vx 192 Enginering Thermodynamics, Work and Hect Tronfer sth eda Longman 24 2 The Working Fluid In section 13 the matter contained within the boundaries ofa sysem is defined ‘28 the working uid, and itis stated that when two independent propertice of the fluid are known then the thermodynamic state ofthe fluid is defined. In ‘thermodynamic systems the working Quid can be in the liquid, vapour, ot {gaseous phase. All substances can exist in aay one of these phases, but we tend to identity all substances with the phase in which they are in equilibrium at atmospheric pressure and temperature. For instance, substances such a oxygen and nitrogen are thought of as gases; HO is thought of as quid or vapour (Gs. water or steam); mercury is thought of as a liquid, All these substances ‘an exist in diferent phases: oxygen and nitrogen can be liquefied; HO can become a gas at very high temperatures; mercury ean be vaporized and will act a a gas if the temperature is rized Liquid, vapor (Consider a p-» diagram for any substance, The solid phase is not important in engineering thermodynamigy, being more the province of the metllurgist or physicist. When a liguid js heated at any one constant pressure there is one fixed temperature at which bubbles of vapour form in the Hguid; this ‘Phenomenon is known as boiling. The higher the presrure ofthe liquid then ‘the higher the temperature at which boiling occur, It ig also found that the ‘Yolume occupied by 1 kg of a boiling liquid at a higher pressure is slightly larger than the volume occupied by 1 kg ofthe same liquid when itis boiling at a low pressure. A series of boilingpoints plotted on a p-v diagram will appear as a sloping line as shown in Fig. 21. The points P,Q, and R seprevent the boiling-points ofa liquid at prssure pp, po, and py respectively ‘When @ liquid at boiling-point is heated further at constant pressure the ‘additional heat supplied changes the phase of the substance from liquid to vapour; during this change of phase the pressure and temperature remain constant. The heat supplied is called the specie enchalpy of vaporization. I is found that the higher the pressure then the smaller is the amount of heat ‘required. There i a definite value of specific volume ofthe vapout at any one and gas |The Working Fluid Fig. 21 Boling points plotted on 2 po diagam Fig. 22. Point of ‘complete vaporization plotted on be diagram pressure, atthe point at which vaporization is complete; hence a series of points such as P,Q, R’ canbe ploted and joined to form a line as shown i Fig. 22. ‘When the two curves already drawn are extended to higher pressures they form a continuous curve, thus forming a loop (see Fig. 23). The pressure at which the turning point occurs is calle the critical pressure and the turning point itself scaled the critical point (point C on Fig. 23). It can be seen that atthe critical point the specific enthalpy of vaporization is ero, The substance crxisting ata state point inside the loop consists of a mixture of liquid and dry vapour and is known as a wet vapour. A saturation state is defined asa state twhich «change of phase may oceur without change of pressure or temperature. Hence the boling-points P, Q, and R are saturation sate, and a series of such bolling-points joined vp ie called the saturated liquid lie. Siilaly the points P., Q, and R’, at which the liquid is completely changed into vapour, are saturation stats, and a series of such points joined up is called the saruated ‘apour line. The word ‘saturation’ as used here refers to energy saturation. For cxample, a slight addition of eat toa boiling liquid changes some of i into a vapour, and itis no longer a liquid but is now a wet vapour. Similarly when 2 substance just on the saturated vapour line is cooled slighty, droplets of liquid will begin to form, and the saturated vapour becomes & wet vapour. A saturated vapour is usually callehdry saturated to emphasize the fact that no liquid is present in the vapour inthis state Lines of constant temperature, called isothermal, can be plotted on a p- siagram as shoven in Fig. 24, The temperature lines bocome horizontal between Fig. 23 Wet loop ploted on 8 pre diagram Fig. 24. sothormals fora vapoor ploted on ape diagram the saturated liquid line and the saturated vapour ine (eg. between P and P’, Qand Q, R and R’). Thus there is « corresponding satration temperature for cach saturation presse. Kt pressure pp the saturation temperature is T;, at pressure Pg the saturation temperature is T, and at prestire p the saturation temperature is T;. The critical temperature Eine Te just touches the top of the Joop atthe eitical point C. ‘When a dry saturated vapour is heated at constant pressure its temperature rises and it besomes superheated. The diflerence between the actual temperature of the superheated vapour and the saturation temperature at the pressure of the vapour is called the degree of superheat. For example, the vapour at point S (Fig. 24) is superheated at pq and Ts, and the degree of superheat is 7, ~ T, {In section 1.5 it is stated that two independent properties are sufficient {9 define the state of a substance. Now between P and P,Q and Q, Rand R’ the temperature and pressure are not independent since they remain constant for a range of values of v. For example, a substance at py and 7; (Fis. 24) could be a saturated liquid, a wet vapour, or a dry saturated vapour. The state cannot be defined until one other property (eg. specific volume) i given. The condition or quality of a wet vapour is most frequently defined by its deyness “The Working Fluid fraction, and when this is known as well asthe pressure of temperature then. the state of the wet vapour is fully defined. Dryness fraction, x = the mass of dry vapour in I kg of the mixture (Sometimes a wetness fraction is defined as the mass of liquid in 1 kg of the mixture, ie. wetness fraction = 1 ~ x.) [Note that for a dry saturated vapour x = 1, and that fora saturated liquid ‘The distinction between agus and a superheated vapours not rigid, However, at very high degrees of superheat an isothermal line on the pr diagram tends to become a hyperbola (ie. pv= constant). For example the isothermal T, on Fig 24 is almost « hyperbola. An idealized substance called a perfect gas is assumed to have an equation of state po/T' = constant. It can be seen that when a line of constant temperature follows « hyperbolic law then the equation po/T = constant is satisfied. All substances tend to obey the equation oT = constant at very high degrees of superheat. Substances which are thought of as gases (e.g. oxygen nitrogen, hydrogen, etc) are highly superheated, at normal atmospheric conditions. For example, the critical temperatures of oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen are approximately ~119, ~147, and ~240°C. respectively. Substances normally existing as vapours must be raised to high temperatures before they begin to act as a perfect gas. For example, the rtcal tempe-atures of ammonia, sulphur dioxide, and water vapour are 130, 157, and 374.15°C respectively, ‘The working Nuid in practical engineering problems is cither a substance which is approximately a perfect gas, or a substance which exists mainly a liquid and vapour, such as steam and the refigerant vapours. For the substances ‘which approximate to perfect gases certain laws relating the propertos can be ‘assumed. Forthe substances inthe liquid and vapour phases the properties are rot related by definite laws, and values of the properties are determined ‘empirically ard tabulated in a convenient form. ‘The use of vapour tables ‘Tables are avilable for a wide variety of substances which normally exist in ‘the vapour phise. The tables which will be usd inthis book ate those arranged by Rogers anc Mayhew (ret 2.1, which ae suitable for student use. For more ‘comprehensive tables for steam, ref 22 should be consulted. The tables of Rogers and Mayhew are mainly concerned with steam, but some properties of refrigerants are also given. Saturation state properties s ‘The saturation pressures and corresponding saturation temperatures of steam are tabulated n paralle! columns in the fist table, for pressures ranging from (0006 112 bar tothe critical pressure of 2212 ba. The specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy are also tabulated for the dry saturated vapour Table 21 Extract fom tables of properties of Fig. 28. Poiats ‘denied on pe dagram for stam 22 The use of vapour tabs ee (d_CO)_ (m/e) (Ew) Oe) (ans®) 04469 sano ah 09m) TTS at each pressure and corresponding saturation temperature. The sufi gis used to denote the dry saturated stage. A specimen row from the tables is shown in Table 2.1. For example at 0.34 bar the saturation temperature ia 72°C. the specific volume of dry saturated vapour, oat thi preseure is 4649 m?/kg, the internal energy of dry saturated vapour, uy, 8 2472 KI/kg, and the enthalpy of dry saturated vapour, hy is 2630 kI/kg The steam is in the sate represented bby point A on Fig. 25, At point B dry saturated steam at a presture of 100 bar ‘and saturation temperature 311°C has a specific volume, oof 101802 m/e, internal energy, of 2545 i /kg and enthalpy, hy. of 2725 KS kg, 1 — ‘ona 68 Speie wolme/(m"/eg) Te specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, and specie entropy of saturated liquid are also tabulated, the suffix f being used for thie state. For cxample at 4 bar and the corresponding saturation temperature 143,6°C, saturated water has a specific internal energy wy, of 605 kJ/kg, and a specific. enthalpy, hy of 60SKI/kg. This state corresponds to point C ot Fig. 25. The specific volume of saturated water, t, is tabulated ina separate table, but it ‘usually negligibly small in comparison with the specif volume of the dry saturated vapour, and its variation with temperature is very small the saturated liquid line on a p~v diagram is very nearly coincident with the pressure exis {in comparison withthe width of the wet loop (see Fig. 25) As sen from the table, values of vary from about 0001 m? kg at 0.01 °Cto about 2.0011 m' ‘t 100°C, ws the pressure approaches the ercal value, the increase of is ‘more marked, and at the critical temperature of 374.15°C the value of fis (0.00317 mks. ‘The change in specific enthalpy from h, to hy i given the symbol hy. Whee saturated water is changed to dry saturated vapour, from equation (1), 0+ Wau ym a ‘re Worting Fl [Also —W is represented by the area under the horizontal line on the po diagram, ie We ty, opp therefore (pte) + Pe, ~ lat Pm) ~ (H+ Bod) From equation (1.9) spo therefore Om hy hem hag ‘The heat required to change a saturated liqud to a dry saturated vapo called the specfc enthalpy of vaporization, hy. In the case of steam tables, the specific internal energy of saturated liquid is taken to be zero at the triple point (ie. at 001°C and 0006112 bar). Then since, from equation (1.9), A= w+ pe, we have 2006 112» 10° x 0.001 0002 08 Jat 001°C and 0.006 112 bar where » at 001°C is 0001 0002 m/e, teh 6112 x 10-* kg ‘This sneglgiblysmall and hence the zero for enthalpy may be taken at 01°C. "Note that at the other end of the pressure range tabulated in the fist table the pressure of 221.2bar is the critical pressure, 374.15°C is the critical temperature, and the specific enthalpy of vaporization, by is 22r0. Properties of wet vapour For a wet vapoar the total volume of the mixture is given by the volume of liquid present plus the volume of dry vapour present. Therefore the specific volume is given by ‘Yolume ofliquid + volume ofdry vapour Ttotalmassofwet vapour [Now for 1 kg of wet vapour there are x kg of dry vapour and (1 —x)kg of Tiquid, where x i the dryness fraction as defined earlier. Hence, peel x) + ‘The volume ofthe liquid is usually negligibly small compared to the volume of dry saturated vapour, hence for most practical problems vax, en Example 2.1 Solution Example 2.2 Solution 22 Tho use of vepour tables ‘The enthay ofa wt vapor given bythe sm ofthe ethyl Plus the enthalpy of the éry vapour, ” Shatey othe Hae ie = x)hg + shy therefore hah, + x(h,— by) je hah tathy (2) Siilcty, the internal eneay of wet vapour i given by the internal ener of the ig pete intern encrey of he dry vapour, wn™! SED is 1 mu @3) +xlu—4) ea) uation (24) can be xpreid in a form snr to equation (22 equation (23) ad (24s moe coment Se anda ic te fence y=, 0 auld 2 teat the speci cums, specific ethalpy, and specif iaternal ene ‘wet steam at 18 bar, dryness fraction 0.9. panes wer From equation (21) * oxy therefore 2 = 09 x 0.1104 = 0.0994 m?/kg From equation (22) hehe tahy therefore = 885 + (09 x 1912) = 26053 ka /kg From equation (23) we (L—x)ue ty, therefore = (1 — 09)883 + (09 x 2598) = 24265 ki/kg Calculate the dryness fraction, specific volume and specific internal energy of| stcam at 7 bar and spectic enthalpy 2600 k3/kg. At 7 bash = 2964 eg. sne the cual ental gen 2400 tentamhobeinewerapoureats Momequas hie hook ie, 2600 = 697 + 32067 ‘The Working Fi Table 22 Extract from tables of properties of ‘Saperbeated seam at Dar (saturation, {enperatue 2128°C) therefore 200-697 72067 ‘Then from equation (2:1) 0921 x 02728 = 02515 m>/ke From equation (23) =o921 wal au tam therefore 1u-= (1 = 09219696 + (0921 x 2573) = 55 + 2365 in we 220K 7k Properties of superheated vapour For steam in the superbeat region, temperature and pressure are independent properties. When the temperature and pressure are given for superheated steam then the state i defined and all the other properties can be found. For example, seam at 2 bar and 200°C is superheated since the saturation temperature at 2bar is 120.2°C, which is less than the actual temperature. The steam inthis ttate has a degree of superheat of 200 — 1202 = 79.8 K. The tables of properties ‘of superheated steam (ef. 21) range i pressure from 0.006 112 bar tothe critical presture of 2.2 bar, and there is an additional table of supercritical pressures ‘up to 1000 ba. At each pressure there is a range of temperatures up to high degrees of superhest, and the values of specific volume, internal energy enthelpy, and entropy are tabulated at each pressure and temperature for pressures up to and includiag 70 bar; above this pressure the specific internal energy is not tabulated, Forzeference the saturation temperatures inserted in brackets under teach pressure in the superheat tables and values of ty, uy, hy and 5, are also fiven. A specimen row of values is shown in Table 22" For example, from Superheat tables at 20 bar and 400°C the specific volume is 0.1511 m#/leg and the enthalpy is 3248 ke. For presures above 70 bar the internal energy can be found when required ‘using equatior (19). For example, steam at 80 bar, 400°C has an enthalpy, h, “Temperature /C) ee ee ee ee ee) siimyke) eats 0125s Wise Gust 016s oT36 0399s Su 27k” GI 2043010 STIG 3291, biss Sauk 33577390 aos7 74267283 Fath 3901 22 The wee of vapour tables of 3139 1 /kg and a specific volume, o, of 3.428 x 10°? m?/ke, therefore 80 x 10° x 0034 28, 10° 3139 ~ 2742 = 28648 kg = ea 3139~ coe 23 St ihr tt te es 0 ae Species eg Snten Feu may tee noe Tr cat fo. ma Sie ee Tersmenmes rae vec a Bee ad 3 f From the superheat tables at 110 bar, the specif volume is 2.0196 m?/kg ata temperature of 390°C. Hence this s the isothermal which pases through point A as shown. The degree of superheat in this case is 350-318 = 32K. From tables the enthalpy, h is 2889 KI /kg. Then using equation (19), we have 10 x 10° x 00195 0 TB kg hap 2889 — 2156 = Example 2.4 Steam at 130bar has a specific enthalpy of 3309 ki/kg. Calculate the temperature, the specific volume, and the specific internal energy. ‘At 190 bar hy = 2611 KI/k, which eles than the actual entha an the actual enthalpy 03309 kd /kg, and ence the steam is superheated. From superheat tables at 150 ban ‘n= 3309 Ki/kg at a temperature of 500°C. The specife volume is = 002078 m#/kg. Using equation (19) 150 x 10° x ” SOOT 29973 KI/kg Solution = po = 3309) ‘Toe Working Fluls 22 The wet vapour tables Interpolation therfore Foe wih we ot sect heals i my ‘interpolate between the values tabulated, For example, to find the temperature, 7 05226 + 04(0.5701 — 0.5226) scream tly ca ene eae Sa 056 0019s ng "tect fone Snes hs tea . a soar yusans (28=2) x at0bu) (a9 be) ‘ 04016069) = 3065 412 ve nosieeauas et tisasunee nr eevee 2, : Is meas de inline ay For tame oad de cay ofspeated nen ib Str HC acto tae ie geses(%8=2) cae 150 iStrin aris meena nd ern en WO ne ee 's also necessary. A tabular presentation i usually better in such cases (Table 23). Fist find the enthalpy at 15 bar and 432°C, Fig 27 oterplation : hm 3256 + 22(3364 3256) = 3256 + 0.64» 108 ean @ so 7 ie. A= 3325.1 kI/kg 9) a hon io 2) Te ee ea) * Amerpalaton (can) » 2 6 _ i 150 Ayes 356 OT 364 sa ie mS MD ; ‘eapnein mo Mule) 8 Tn for te rise-sannasei-c Now find the enthalpy at 20 bar, 432°C, 328 + 0643357 — 3208 sixty, ie h=RITB Ag 4 98 bar = (ya 9 bat) +08 x (ya 1Obar— hy a 9 bar) Now interpolate beeen hat 15 ban 422°C, leat 98bar= 274408 x(2718—274) Cond hat 18S ban 432°C = 2744 08 x 42277121 : sas Soi sna ‘Noo, at 28 bar 2581 + 08(2584— 2581 Ho, uy at 98 bar = 2581 + 08 2581) (Note the negative sign in this case since h at 15 bar, 432°C is larger than h at = 2581 + (08 x3) = 2583.4 kI/kg 20 bar, 432°C.) Then AAs another example consider stam at S bar and 320°C. The stam is feat 185 bar, 432°C = 33281 ~ (07 x 73) = 3320kI kg superheated sinc the saturation temperature at Sar ie 1518°C, but to find See the specie volume and enthalpy an interpolation a neesary, speci yg ol Example 2.6 Sketch a pressure-volume diagram for steam and mark on it the following = (0a Sbar and 300°C) ie Points labeling clearly the pressure, specifi volume and temperature ofeace aint. + Been start 30°C at start 070) (2) p= 20bar,¢ = 250°C ‘The Working Fluid (b) = 2124°C, 0 = 0.09957 m?/kg (©) p= 10 bar, b= 2650 ki/kg (@) p= 6 bar, t= 316i kg Sofution Poin (a): At 20 bar the saturation temperature is 212.4°C, hence the steam is Wig. 28 Solution for Brample 25 superheated at 250°C. Then from tables,» = 0.1115 m/kg. Point (b): At 212.4°C the saturation pressure it 20 bar and vi 0.09957 m?/kg, ‘Therefore the steam is just dry saturated since v= o,- Point (c): At 10 bat, hy is 2778 kI/kg, therefore the steam is wet since ‘k= 2650kI/kg, Since the steam is wet, the temperature is the saturation, femperature at 10 bar, ic. = 1799°C. The dryness fraction can be found from ‘equation (22), eh t shy therefore 2650-763 _ 1887 2015" 2015 ‘Then from equation (2.1) = 0937 x 0.1944 = 0.182 m>/kg Foin (d): At 6 bar, is 2757 kI/kg, therefore the steam is superheated, since itis given that k= 3166 ki/kg. Hence from tables at 6 bar and f= 3166 kg ‘the temperature is 350°C, and the specific volume is 0.4743 m°/kg. ‘The points (a), (b), (c), and (4) can now be marked on a p-v diagram as shown in Fig 28. 09857 rg Specie vlume/im? kg) "Example 2. 5 Solution Example 2.7, ‘Solution 23 29 Tho portect gue Calculate the internal energy foreach ofthe four states given in Example25, (a) The steam is superheated at 20 bar, 250°C, ie, w= 2681 0 /kg (b) The steam is dry saturated at 20 bar, 4, = 2600 ky/ke (©) The steam is wet at 10’bat with x ~ 0937. Therefore = (1—3)u +2, from equation (23) ie we (1 0.937762 + (0937 x 2584) = 2470 KI /kg (4) The steam is superheated at 6 bar, 350°C, 2881 kg Using the properties of ammonia given in ref 2.1, ealeulate: (i) the enthalpy at 1.902 bar, dryness fraction 095; (i) the enthalpy at 8.57 bar, 60°C. (i) From equation (22) he hy hy Therefore, t 1.902 ba, = 895 + 095(t4200~ 898) = 135850/kg (Gi) At 8570 bar the saturation temperature is 20°C so the ammonia at 60°C 's superheated by (60 — 20) = 40K. Iti therefore necessary to interpolate to find the enthalpy, . te ess xcs 1405 = 15703 ki/kg The perfect gas ‘The characteristic equation of state ‘At tomperatures that are considerably in exces ofthe critical temperature of 4 fluid, and also at very low pressures, the vapour ofthe fluid tends to obey the equation be Pe constant = T “The Working Fld [No gases in pracice obey this law rigidly, but many gases tend towards it. An imaginary ideal gs which obeys te law is ealled a perfect gas, and the equation, po/T = R, is called the characteristic equation of state of a perfect gas. The constant, Ris ealed the specific gas constant. The units of Rare N m/kg K of ‘kg K. Each perfect gas has a diferent specific gas constant ‘The characteristic equation is uevally written po=RT @s) ‘or fora mass, m, occupying a volume, ¥, pV = mk es) ‘Another form ofthe characteristic equation can be derived using the amount of substance (sometimes called the mole). The amount of substance is defined by the 1971 General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM) as follows: ‘The amount of substance of a system is that quantity which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-I2: the clementary entites must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, clectrons, or other particles, or specific groups of such particles, ‘The normal unit symbol wsed for the amount of substance i ‘mol’ In ST it is convenient to use “kmol’. ‘The mass of any substance per amount of substance is known as the molar mass fi en winere m is the mass and n isthe amount of substance. The normal units used {or m and m are kg and kro, therefore the normal unit for #is kg/km. ‘Relative masses ofthe various elements are commonly used, and physicists ‘and chemists agreed in 1960 to give the value of 12 tothe isotope 12 of carbon (his led tothe definition ofthe amount of substance as above). A scale is thus obtained of relave atomic mass or relative molecular mass (eg, the relative ‘atomic mass of the element oxygen is approximately 16; the relative molecular ‘mass of oxygen gas, Oi approximately 32). “The relative rolecular mass is numerically equal to the molar mas, f, but is dimensionless, ‘Subaituting form from equ jon (2.7) i equation (26) gives pv =naRT or R= aT [Now Avogadro's hypothesis states that the volume of 1 mol of any gas the same asthe volume of | mol of any other gas, when the gases are atthe same temperature and pressure, Therefore V/m isthe same forall gases atthe same value ofp and T.That i, the qugatity pV /aT is a conetant for all gases. This constant is called the molar gas constant, and is given the symbol, Yor pVm nk (8) Solution Example 2.9 23 The perfect gut or since iR = R then R Rae 9) ‘The value of R has been shown to be 8314.5 N m/kmol K. From equation (2.9) the specific gas constant for any gas canbe found when ‘he molar mass is Known, eg fr oxygen of molar mas 32 g/mol, the specie as constant pak 84s 259.83 Nm os 83 Nm/kg K. A vessel of volume 02 m contains nitrogen at 1.013 bar and 15°C. 102 ke. of nitrogen is now pumped into the vessel, calculate the new pressure when ‘he vessel has returned to its initial temperature, The molar mass of nitrogen ‘is 28 kg/kmol, and it may be assumed to be periet gas From equation (29) R_ suas Sern B09 mike K From equation (26), for the intial conditions PAM =m RT therefore Specifc gas constant, ng BAMA 1013 108 0 "RT, 29695 x 288 where T, = 15-4273 = 288 K ‘The mass of nitrogen added is 0.2kg, hence m, ‘Then from equation (26), for the final conditions Pas = MRT, but =H, and T, = 7, therefore (0437 x 29695 x 288 10x02 = 0237 kg, A certain perfect gas of mass 001 kg occupies a volume of 0.003 m? at a ‘ressure of 7 bar and a temperature of 131°C. The gas i allowed to expand ‘until the pressure is 1 bar andthe final volume is 0.02 m*- Caleulate (i) the molar mass ofthe gas; (Gi) the final temperature ‘The Working Fuld Solution (0) From equation (26) PY = RT; 7x 108 x 0003 = 520Nm DOI a0e eek where Tj = 131 +273 = 404K. “Then from equation (29) R therefore nek BMS se tg/tma Ro ie, Molar mass = 16 kg/kmol (i) From equation (26) PAY = RT, therefore Pay _ 1% 10° x 002 mR 001 x S20 ie Final temperature = 384.5 — 273 = 111.5°C Specific heat capacity ‘The specific heat capacity ofa solid or liquid is usually defined as the heat required to raise unit mass through one depree temperature rise. We have 4Q = me a7, where m isthe mass, dT is the increase in temperature, and ¢ is the specific heat capacity, For a gas there are an infinite number of ways in ‘which heat may be added between two temperatures, and hence a gas could have an infinite number of specific heat capacities. However, only wo specific hat capacities for gases are defined; the specific heat capacity at vonstent volume, yy and the specific heat capacity at constant pressure, ‘The definition must be restricted to reversible noncfow processes, since lnrversbiliies eam cause temperature changes which are indstingobhave Pom those due to reversible heat and work quantities, Specific het eapacities can be introduced more rigorously as properties ofa Muid. We have inthe limit =-(@), oS), ‘A more rigorous treatment is given in re. 23, 23 Thopertect one We can write: 4 ‘mc, 4T fora reversible non-low process at constant pressure (210) 4Q=mc,AT for a reversible non-flow process at constant volume uy) For a perfect gas the values ofc, and c, are constant for any one gas at all pressures and temperatures. Hence integrating equations (210) and (211) we have for a reversible constant presoure process Q=me(T~ 7) (212) for a reversible constant volume process Q= me(T,~ 7) 213) For real gates, and c, vary with temperature, but for most practical purposes a suitable average value may be used, Joule’s law . Joule's law states that the internal energy ofa perfect gas is a fanction ofthe absolute temperature only, i. u= f(T). To evaluate this function let unit mass of a perfect gas be heated at constant volume. From the non-fow eacrgy ‘equation (1.5), 0-4 dW = du ‘Since the volume remains constant then no work is done, ie. dW = 0, therefore dQ= du ‘At constant volume for a perfect gas, from equation (2.11), for unit mass, do=car ‘Therefore, dQ = du uneT+K ‘where K isa constant, Joule’s law states that u = (7), hence it follows that the internal energy varies linearly with absolute temperature. Internal energy can be made zero at any arbitrary reerence temperature. Fora perfect gas itcan be assumed that =O when T= 0, hence the constant K is zero, © Specific internal energy, w= 6,7" fora perfect gas (214) OF for mass, m, of a perfect gas, Internal energy, U = me,T (215) AT, and integrating ‘The Working Fuld In any process for a perfect gas, between states 1 and 2, we have from equation 15, Gain in internal energy, U;~ Uy = me(Ts ~ T.) (216) ‘The gain of intemal energy fora perfect gas between two states is always given by equation (2.16), for any process, reversible of irreversible, Relationship between the specific heat capacities Let a perfect gas be heated at constant pressure fom T, to T;. From the on-low equation (1.4), Q + W=(U;~ Us). Alo, for a perfect gas, from equation (216), Uz — U, = me,(T,— T,) Hence, Q+W = meAT,~T) In a constant pressure procest the work done ie given by the pressure times the change in volume, ie. W'= -p(¥,~ V4). Then using equation (26), PY, = mRT, and p¥, = mRT,, we have We R(T — 7) ‘Therefore substituting Q— mT, ~ Ti) = mes(T: ~ 7) therefore Q= me, + RYT — 7) But for « constant pressure process fom equation (212) Qa me,(Ts ~ 7) eence by equating the two expressons forthe heat flow, 0, we have amley + RMT, 7) = moy(Ts — T) therefore et Rae, or gga 1 Specific enthalpy of a perfect gas From equation (19), specific exAhalpy, k= u + po. For a perfect gas, from equation 2:5), po = RT. Also for a perfect gus, from Joule's law, equation (214), w= cyT. Hence, substituting heat + RT =(e+ RIT 23 Tha perfect one But from equation (2.17) G- GER oF tae ‘Therefor, specific enthalpy, h, for perfect gas it given by hee? (218) For mass, m, of a perfect gat Heme,T (19) (Note that, since thas been assumed that w = 0 tT = 0 thea =0aT=0) Ratio of specific heat capacities ‘The ratio ofthe specific heat capacity at constaut pressure to the specific heat ‘capacity at constant volume is given the symbol) (gamma), (22) [Note that sine cj —¢, = R, from equation (217 itis clear that c, must be greater than c, for any perfect ga. It folloys therclore thatthe ratio, /, = >, is always greater than unity. In general, y's about 1 for diatomie gases such ‘as catbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H,), nitrogen (N,), and oxygen (O;)- For monoatomic gases such as argon (A), and helium (He), is about 1.6, and 22) 220, (222) + The Working Fla ~ Example 2.10 Solution Exemple 2.11 Solution A certsin perfect gas has specific heat capacities as follows: c= O8GKI/kgK and ¢, = 0657 kI/keK Calculate the gas constant and the molar mass of the gas. From equation (2.17) g-aeR i, R= 0846 — 0657 = 0.189 kI/kg K = 189 N m/kg K From eqvation (29) sos ina ES sates ’ 189 *s/kmol AA perfect gas has a molar mass of 26 kg/kmol and a value of y = 1.26 Calculate the heat rejected: (when unit mass of the gas is contained in a rigid vessel at 3bar and 315°C, and i then cooled until the pressure fas to 1.5 bar; (i) whoo Unit mass ow rate ofthe gas enters pipeline at 280°C, and flows : stexdily to the end of the pipe where the temperature is 20°C. Neglect changes in velocity ofthe gas inthe pipeline, From equation (29) R_ sus £8183 _ spn migK a” a From equation (221) R | _398 = 1229 /kgK acme ‘Ao rom gation (220) D Nee 1.26 % 1.229 1.548 deg K (i) The volume remains constant for the mass of gas present, and hence the specific volume remains constant. From equation (2:5), Pity RT and py0, = RT, a1 @® Problams ‘Therefore since vy = oy we have 15 T= Tm 508 x 13 204K a 3 where T, = 315 4273 = 588 K. ‘Then from equation (2.13) Heat supplied perkg ofgas = (7; — T,) = 1.229(294 ~ 588) = 1225 « 294 = = 361 ka/kg ie Heat rejected per kilogram of gat = +361 kJ/kg (ii) From the steady-fow energy equation, (1.10), (+2) c00m oa(i+8) {Im this case we are told that changes in velocity are negligible; also there is no work done. "Therefore we have ih, +O = hy For a perfect gas, from equation (218) = T= 1x1 548(70— 280) = 409 kW ‘ejected per kilogram per second. = +403 KW [Note that itis not necessary to convert f, = 280°C and ¢; = 20°C into degrees Kelvin, sine the temperature diference(¢, —r,) is numerically the same asthe temperature difference (T, ~ T,) ie, Hes [Note the answers to these problems have been evaluated using the tables of Rogers 4nd Mayhew (ref. 21). The values of Rey, te he a Degree of —— (ear) CC) Gwfeg) x supertent CK) Ceri) 2361 » 2199 5 oss 18 2100 M 08 a3 8s 2m fe ois 0 ans 250601 ma os 27 095 23 00 “a ‘The completed table given'onp. 50 a8 Tele 26 Steam at Tbar and 250°C ener a pipsine and flows aloog it st constant pressure, the steam rejects bet steady tothe surroundings, at whet temperate wll droplets of water begin to form in the vapour? Using the steady-low energy equation, and ogleting changes in velocity of the stam, calculate the beat rected per llogram of ‘cam flowing. (165°C; 191.3) (005k of seam at 15 bari contained in rigid vena of volume 00076 m?. What isthe temperature of th sem? I the vsal it cooled, at what temperate will the seam be jus dry saterated? Cooling is continued unt the pressure in the veel is tba enlelate the fal dtyacsn faction ofthe team, and the heat rejected betwe=n ‘he inland the nal states (250°C; 1914°C; 0887; 18515) ‘Using the tables for ammonis given in ret 21, calculate (0) the specie enthalpy and specif volume of armonia a 0.7177 bar, dryness fraction 09; (i) the specie enthalpy and speci volume of ammonia at 13°C saturated; (Gi) the specie enthalpy of ammonia at 7529 bar, 30°C. (1281 K/h, 1397 mg, 1487 ke, 0.1866 kg; 14965 Kk) Using the property valves for eiaMant HFA 13a gen in Tale 25, cael (0) thespcicatalpy and ecievlume of HPA Laat ~8°C, dyson 5; (3) the speci enthalpy of HA 4a a 57024 bar, 39°C. (25856, 00775; 3282515 hg) “Tle 28. Data foe Problem 26 Tuk ar Tut 2s Problems Swpetet ‘aloes depres tapers. Sarton vale a a (ou) lke) leg) (area) 10 2005100 a6o mess sone

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