PH505 – Introduction to Nuclear

and Particle Physics

v Basic Properties of Nucleus

1. Nuclear size (Nuclear Radius)

2. Binding Energy
3. Angular Momentum
4. Parity and Symmetry
5. Magnetic Dipole Moment => Structure of Nucleon
6. Electric Quadrupole Moment => Shape of the Nucleus
7. Energy of nucleon
8. Non-relativistic/Relativistic Mechanics
9. Classical/Quantum Mechanics
10. What is the force that binds the nucleons? => Nuclear Force

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v The Nuclear Radius
Ø Let us go back to 1911 – Rutherford’s 𝛼-particle scattering

1 2𝑍𝑒 "
𝐾=
4𝜋𝜖! 𝑟!
𝛼 𝑟!

°
2𝑍𝑒 "
180 scattering ⟹ 𝑟! =
4𝜋𝜖! 𝐾

Ø The maximum energy of 𝛼-particle is 7.7 MeV ⟹ 𝑟! = 30 fm

Ø Wavelength of the 𝛼-particle, 𝜆 ≈ 3.4 fm

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v The Nuclear Radius

Ø Increase the energy of the 𝛼-particle, the radius can be probed accurately

Ø How much more?

ØThere are difficulties with alpha-particle.

a) the projectile is itself an extended object (has a structure)

b) if we increase the K.E. of 𝛼-particle, the interaction between 𝛼-part
and the nucleus is no more electromagnetic. Strong interaction will
play an important role, which is not well understood.

Ø This leads to large uncertainty in the measurement.

Ø What is the solution?

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v The Nuclear Radius

Ø The solution is the electron beam.

ØAdvantages with electron beam:

a) electron does not have any structure => point particle

b) the interaction involved is electromagnetic

$
The coupling constant, 𝛼 = $%&
Higher order corrections have tiny effects.

Ø First let us look at the experimental data

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v The Nuclear Radius SLAC experiment
H.F. Ehrenberg et al.,
Ø First let us look at the experimental data Phys. Rev. 113, 666, (1959)

• Target: 16O, 12C

• Beam: 𝑒 #, E = 420 MeV, 360 MeV

Ø Rutherford Scattering:
𝑑𝜎 𝑧 " 𝛼 " ℏ𝑐 "
=
𝑑Ω $%&' 4𝐸 " sin( 𝜃E2

Ø This does not explain the dip

Ø Look at the analogy in Optics

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v The Nuclear Radius

Ø Analogy in Optics

Ø For circular aperture, the 1st minimum

occurs at
1.22 𝜆
sin 𝜃 =
𝐷

Ø Try to estimate the nuclear dimension from this

ℎ𝑐 1240 1.22×3
𝐸 = 420 MeV ⇒ 𝜆 = ≈ fm = 3fm 𝐷= fm = 5.2 fm
𝑝𝑐 420 sin 45°

Ø Nuclear radius, 𝑅 = 2.6 fm

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v The Nuclear Radius
Ø Let us see when will the next dip (second minimum) occur

• Target: 16O
• Beam: 𝑒 #, E = 420 MeV, 𝜆 = 3 𝑓𝑚

Ø Condition:
1.22 𝜆 1.22×3 𝑓𝑚
sin 𝜃 = = = 0.7
𝐷 5.2 𝑓𝑚

𝜃 = 135°

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v The Nuclear Radius
Ø Let us analyze this taking scattering theory of QM

𝜓+

! ./⃗
𝑒 *,
𝑒 *,./⃗
𝜓* N
Nuclear charge density 𝜌 𝑟 0

Ø Interaction responsible for this scattering is the electromagnetic interaction

1 𝜌 𝑟 0 −𝑒 1 0
Ø Interaction term can be written as 𝑉 𝑟⃗ = U 𝑑 𝑟
4𝜋𝜖! 𝑟⃗ − 𝑟 0

Ø Scattering amplitude: 𝑓 𝑘, 𝑘 0 = U 𝜓+∗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑉 𝑟⃗ 𝜓* 𝑟⃗ 𝑑 1 𝑟

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v The Nuclear Radius
Ø Scattering amplitude:
#* , ! #, ./⃗ 1 −𝑒 𝜌 𝑟 0 1 0 1
𝑓 𝑘, 𝑘 0 = U 𝜓+∗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑉 𝑟⃗ 𝜓* 𝑟⃗ 𝑑1𝑟 = U𝑒 U 𝑑 𝑟 𝑑 𝑟
4𝜋𝜖! 𝑟⃗ − 𝑟 0

𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝜎
Ø Differential cross section: = 𝐹 𝑞" "
𝑑Ω 345& 𝑑Ω 67&&

𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝜎 𝜃
Ø When the spin of electron is included: = 1 − 𝛽 " sin"
𝑑Ω 67&& 𝑑Ω $%&' 2

8 ; ;
Ø For relativistic particle, 𝛽 = → 1, 1 − 𝛽 " sin#: → cos "
9 " "

Ø For 𝜃 = 180° , scattering is not possible or cross section is zero

Ø This is because of helicity conservation

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v The Nuclear Radius

Ø Differential scattering cross section (object has a structure)

𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝜎
= 𝐹 𝑞" " 𝐹 𝑞" is the form factor.
𝑑Ω 345 𝑑Ω 67&&

(
⃗
𝐹 𝑞' = % 𝑒 ℏ*.- 𝜌 𝑟 𝑑%𝑟 𝜌 𝑟 is the Proton charge density

Ø This 𝜌 𝑟 gives the charge distribution of proton inside the nucleus.

Ø How do we get it?

Ø One has to do a kind of inverse

transformation to get 𝜌(𝑟)

Data from PRL 35 (1975), 910

Charge distribution for 58Ni

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v The Nuclear Radius

Experimental set-up at Stanford by Hofstader and his coworkers

Electron scattering from 197Au Target

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v The Nuclear Radius

Ø R. Hofstader et al. at Stanford University studied the nucleon density.

The experiment was the high energy electron scattering on Au target.

Ø Wiggles in the figure.

197Au
How do you explain?

• One can think up the nucleus as a crystal ball.

The electron beam is diffracted from the crystal
centres. The maxima are not pronounced because
the nucleus does not have a sharp boundary.

84 MeV

126 MeV

183 MeV 154 MeV

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v The Nuclear Radius
ØAssumption: The density of charge in the nucleus is distributed according to
𝜌.
𝜌 𝑟 = -01! /
1+𝑒 2"

𝜌! density at small distances

𝑅! value of 𝑟 when 𝜌 𝑟 = <"⁄"

𝑧: surface thickness

In these analysis, the radius 𝑅! and 𝑧: are treated as free parameters. The line
in the figure is coming from the best choice of 𝑅! and 𝑧: .

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v The Nuclear Radius

Ø Hofstader et al. defines the skin thickness 𝑡 as the distance between the points at
10% and 90% of maximum density, i.e., 𝑡 = 𝑟" − 𝑟:

The distance from the centre to the point at 50% of maximum density called
the mean electromagnetic radius 𝑅! of the nucleus.

Ø From data,
𝑅! Surface thickness: 𝑧: = 0.55 fm
Skin thickness: 𝑡 = 2.4 ± 0.3 fm

𝑟: 𝑟"

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v The Nuclear Radius

Ø Woods-Saxon Charge Distribution for some nuclei

$4 𝑁
3𝑂3 : =1
𝑍
$$3 𝑁
5.𝑆𝑛43 : = 1.36
𝑍
$6& 𝑁
&6𝐴𝑢$$3 : = 1.49
𝑍

Ø This figure shows some important aspects of the nuclear charge distribution

1. Larger nuclei has larger mean diameter/radius

2. The edge region has a similar width in all nuclei
3. The charge density at the center is greater in light nuclei than in heavy nuclei

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v Mass distribution of the Nucleus
Ø Woods-Saxon Charge Distribution Ø Mass distribution
for some nuclei

Ø Assumption: Neutron to proton density

is same everywhere
𝜌 𝑟 = 𝜌5 𝑟 + 𝜌= 𝑟
𝜌= (𝑟) 𝑁
= 𝑁
𝜌5 (𝑟) 𝑍 ⇒ 𝜌 𝑟 = 𝜌5 (𝑟) 1 +
𝑍

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v Mass distribution of the Nucleus

Ø Woods-Saxon Charge Distribution for some nuclei

Ø Points to be noted: No change in 𝑅! and 𝑧:

Ø An analysis of the experimental results leads to the empirical expression

$
𝑅. = 1.2×𝐴%𝑓𝑚

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