Exclusive-OR Gate Exclusive-OR (XOR) gate has a graphic symbol similar to that of OR gate, except for the additional curved line on the input side. It produces a1 output only when the two inputs are at different logic levels. Its output expression is The truth table for XOR gate for two variables is shown in Fig.1.9. 1.3.2 Truth Table Atruth table represents a Boolean function or digital logic circuit in table form, It shows how a logic circuit's output or Boolean expression responds to all the possible combinations of the inputs using logic’t'for trueand logic’0'for false. Ithas the following properties. © Truth table consists of rows and columns. © It shows relationship between inputs and output from a Boolean function or digital logic circuit. © Itshows output for all the possible combinations of inputs using 0 for LOW and 1 for HIGH © All the combinations of inputs are listed in columns on the left, working in the middle and output | x | y [2] #] | tv) | teva) | + ox.2) + Gy) isshownintherightmostcolumn. [>]o)o/a}1| © | © | o 5 ©The input columns are/ololi|ifo| o | o | o ° constructed in the order of binary 574} lili} 0 |e 1a counting with a number of bits ; ofaj+fafo| o | o fa 1 equal to the number of inputs, tjofofo{s| © | o | o ° Example: Truth Table fortheBoolean FF} 5 pf 5 function isshown in Table 1.1: F=te-y.Z)+bxaMQhG 9) afafofols] 1 | o fo 1 =(x.y-Z)+(x.y-z)4 &. » 4 % a}a)t}olo o 4 o 1 1,3,3 Boolean Identities Boolean identities are mathematical expressions or equations that are always true, regardless of the values of the variables involved. In the context of Boolean algebra, which deals with binary variables and logic operations (AND, OR, NOT), these identities are fundamental for simplifying and analyzing logical expressions. These Boolean identities are essential for simplifying Boolean expressions and analyzing digital circuits. Table 1.2 shows some commonly used Boolean identities. 1renee a Eeruleonecg Identity Law (OR) A+0=A Identity Law (AND) AT =A Domination Law (OR) A+t=4 Domination Law (AND) A-0=0 Complement Law (OR) A= Complement Law (AND) A R=0 Double Negation Law R=A Idernpotent Law (OR) A+A=A Idempotent Law (AND) A-A=A Associative Law (OR) (A= B) =C=A+(8+C) Associative Law (AND) {A-B)-C=A-(B-C) Distributive Law (AND over OR) As (B+C)=(A: B)= (AC) Distributive Law (AND over OR) A+ (> C)=(A+B) (A+O) Absorption Law (OR) Ax (A> B)=A Absorption Law (AND) A> (A+B)=A Negation Law (De Morgan's Theorem) RrB=4-B Negation Law (De Morgan's Theorem) K-B=K+B 1.3.4 Boolean Function and its Conversion to Logic Circuit A Boolean function is an expression formed with binary variables, the logical operators (OR, AND and NOT), parenthesis and equal sign. A binary variable can take the value of 0 or 1. For a given value of the variables, the function can be either 0 or 1. ‘As an example, consider the following Boolean function. Fexty The function F is equal to 0, if x=0 and y=0. For all the other combinations of xand y, the function will be equal to 1. ABoolean function can be transformed froman algebraic expression into a logic circuit composed 12of AND, OR and NOT gates. Thisis explained by the following four examples. Example 1; Conversion of Boolean function Fi=xyz to logic circuit To convert this function to logic circuit, a single AND gate is required for the term xyz. ANOT gate is also required to convert z to, before it i input to the AND gate as shown in Fig.1.10, Example 2: Conversion of Boolean function F2=x+yz to logic circuit To create the logic circuit of this function, one AND gates is required for the termyz, one NOT gateto convert y to y and an OR gate to perform OR operation on the terms x and yz. The logic circuit of this function is shown in Fig.1.11. Example 3: Conversion of Boolean function F4=xy+xz to logic circuit To create the logic circuit of this function, two AND gates are required for the terms xy and Xz, two NOT gates to convert x to Xandy toy and anOR gate to perform: the OR operation on the outputs of two AND gates as shown in Fig. 1.12. Example 4: Conversion of Boolean function FaKy z+ Ky z+xy to logic circuit. This function has three terms. Therefore, three AND gates are required for these terms. Two NOT gates are required to obtain x and y. The output of AND gates is to be input into an OR gate to perform the OR operation between all the three terms. The logic circuit of this function is shown in Fig. 1.13. 13,1.3.5 Simplification of Boolean Function using Karnaugh Map (K-Map) Karnaugh Map (K- Map) Karnaugh Map (K-Map) was introduced by Maurice Karnaugh in 1953. It provides a simple method for simplifying Boolean functions. When a simplified Boolean function is converted into a logic circuit, itrequires less number of gates and hence costs less. K-map is a pictorial form of a truth table. It consists of square boxes called cells. All the possible combinations of variables involved in a Boolean function are written inside the cells in their respective positions. A two-variable K-map contains 27=4 cells, three-variable 2°=8 cells and so forth. Simplification of Two-Variable Boolean Function Using K - Map Atwo-variable K-map for variables A and B is shown in Fig.1.14. It consists of four cells having two rows and two columns. Suppose the two variables are A and B. Each row and column is labelled with a variable and its complement. Complement of a variable is also called prime, Each cell contains a product term of variables A and 8 in its respected cell. For example, the term AB is placed in cell that is in rowAand column B. Simplification of a two-variable Boolean function will be explained with the following example. Example 1: Simplify the Boolean function F1=AB+AB+ABusing K-map. © The first step to simplify the Boolean function is to plot the terms of the function on the Karnaugh map. This function has three terms, for each term, a1 will be placed in the corresponding cell. This is shown in Fig. 1.19. © The next step is grouping cells for simplification. Grouping means combining cells in adjacent cells. The K-map contains pair of 1s that is horizontally adjacent and another pair of 1s that is vertically adjacent as shown in boxes in Fig. 1.16. © Combine two terms by eliminating the variable that is in both normal and complemented form. In the horizontal group, 8 appears in both normal and complemented form. Therefore, B will be eliminated in this group and only Ais left. Similarly, in the vertical group, A appears ‘in both normal and complemented form. Therefore, A will be eliminated in this group and only Bwillis left © Finally, the result is written as the sum of variables as: FIZAsB 14The following are the rules for simplifying a two-variable Boolean function. © Foreach term of the function, place 1 in the corresponding cell in Kanaugh map. © Make groups of two cells that contain 1. Groups may be horizontal or vertical but not diagonal. © Groups may overlap. © Eliminate the variable that is in normal and complemented form in the group. © Write the simplified function in the form of sum of variables that were not eliminated in groups. © If a K-map contains two 1s in diagonal cells then group cannot be formed which means the function cannot be simplified. Simplification of Three-Variable Boolean Function using K - Map Athree-variable K-map for variables A, 8 and Cis shown in Fig.1.17. It consists of eight cells having two rows and four columns. Rows are labelled with the complement and normal form of the variable A. Each column is labelled with two variables, B and C, in their normal or complemented form, Each cell contains a product term of variables A, B and C in its respected cell. For example, the term EBC is placed in cell thats in row and column BC, The following are the rules for simplifying a three-variable K-map. For each term of the function, place 1 inthe corresponding cell in Karnaugh map. © Form groups of four if possible otherwise groupsof two. © Groups can contain only 1s. © Groups can be horizontal or vertical © Groups can overlap and wrap around the side of the K-map. © If possible include each 1 in at least one group. © Eliminate the variables that are in normal and complemented form in a group and create a term foreach group. © Write the simplified function in the form of sum of terms. If a cell containing a 1 cannot be ‘included in any group then write the full term with threevariables. Example 2: Simplify the Boolean function FIsKBC+ABC+ABC+ ABC © The first step to simplify the Boolean function is to plot all the terms of the function on the three variable Karnaugh map. This function has four terms, foreach term, a1 will be placed in the corresponding cell. This is shown in Fig. 1.18. 15© Make two horizontal groups of two 1s as shown in Fig.1.19. © Combine two terms by eliminating the variable that is in both normal and complemented form in a group. In the group that is on the top, the variable € appears in both normal and complemented form. Therefore, C will be eliminated from this group and the combined term becomes AB. Similarly, in the bottom group also, appears in both normal and complemented form. Therefore, C will be eliminated from this group also and the combined term becomes AB © The simplified function can be written as the sum of the resulting terms after eliminating the variable C from both groupsas given. F2=A&+AB. Example 3: Simplify the following Boolean function F3eABC+ABT+ABC+ABT ‘The map for this function is shown in Fig.1.20. There are four squares marked with 1s, one for each term of the function. Two adjacent squares are combined in the third column to give two variable term BC because Ais dropped. The remaining two squares with 1s are also adjacent. The map is considered to wrap around the sides to form adjacent squares. Therefore, these two squares are combined to give two variable term AC because here 8 is dropped. Thus the simplified function becomes: F3=BC+AT Example 4: Simplify the following Boolean function F4=ABC+AB C+HABC+ABC+ABC The map to simplify this function is shown in Fig.1.21. The function in this example has five 16terms, as indicated by the five squares marked with 1s. It is simplified by combining four squares in the center to give the single term C becauseA and B are eliminated. The remaining single square marked with a 1 is combined with an adjacent square that has already been used once. This is allowed because the combination of the two squares gives the simplified two variable term AB. The simplified function is: F4=C+AB Example 5: Simplify the Boolean function F5eABC+ABC+ABCT+ABC+ABT ‘The K-map of this function is shown in Fig.1-22. It is simplified by combining four squares in the right and left columns to give the single variable termT because A and B. are eliminated. The remaining single square marked with a 1 is combined with the adjacent square on the left that has already been used once. The combination of the two squares gives the term AB. From the map we obtain the simplified function: F5=C+AB. 1.3.7 Principle of Duality In Boolean Algebra The Principle of Duality in Boolean algebra states that for any given Boolean expression/function, a dual expression can earl obtained by interchanging the AND (.) and OR o (+) operators while complementing (negating) 1-0 the variables oso De Duality in Boolean’ algebra refers to a Last ve fundamental property where certain aiat Toho operations and rules can be interchanged while still preserving the logic and truth of Also AsO=t expressions. In other words, it highlights the 1.A=0 t+Aqt symmetry between two pairs of operations: cae hei AND (conjunction) and OR (disjunction), as ‘well as0 (false) and 4 (true). ABH BA A+ Be Bed Some examples ta illustrate the Principle of | 2)" KYY | X+ +2)" XV +2 Duality are shown Table 1.3. A(A*B)=A AtAB=A XY +¥ + ZX¥=0 K+YV)YZ+X+¥=1 171.3.8 Uses of Logic Gates Logic gates are essential components in digital electronics and computing. They are used in numerous applications in various fields. The following are some important usages of logic gates. ‘Memory Circuits: Flip-flops and latches, which are built using logic gates, are used to store binary data in memory circuits. A flip-flop is a digital circuit that stores binary information and is widely used in digital electronics for building memory elements and sequential logic circuits. A latch is another type of digital circuit that stores binary information. Latches are often used in memory storage elements and data path circuits. Clock Synchronization: Logic gates help in clock synchronization and signal processing in digital systems. Data Encoding and Decoding: Logic gates are used to encode and decode data for transmission and reception in communication systems. Multiplication and Division: Complex mathematical operations like multiplication and division can be performed using a combination of logic gates. Digital Signal Processing (DSP): Logic gates are used in DSP circuits for filtering, modulation, and demodulation. Data Encryption and Decryption: Cryptographic algorithms use logic gates for data encryption and decryption. Calculator Circuits: Basiccalculatorsuse logic gates to perform arithmetic calculations. Traffic Light Control: Logic gates are used in traffic light control systems to manage traffic flow. Robotics: Logic gates playa crucial role in controlling the movementand decision-making of robots. Security Systems: Logic gates are used in security systems to controlaccess, alarms, and surveillance. Automotive Electronics: In vehicles, logic gates are used for engine control, airbag deployment, and anti-lock brake systems (ABS). Home Automation: Logic gates are employed in smart home systems to automate tasks like lighting and temperature control. Medical Devices: Medical equipment uses logic gates for monitoring and controlling various functions. Aerospace Applications: Logic gates are used in navigation systems, autopilots, and guidance systems for aircraft and spacecraft. 18