APPENDIX 7
Solar geometry and radiation approximations
Useful relationships for calculating irradiance for Daylength
modelling purposes may be derived from spherical
geometry. These include the following (expressing all The daylength (N), that is the number of hours that the
angles in degrees): sun is above the horizon, may be obtained by solving
equation A7.1 for β ¼ 0.
This gives the hour angle of the sun, h, at sunrise or
Solar elevation sunset as:
The solar elevation at any site is given by: cos h ¼ −tan λ tan δ ðA7:2Þ
sin β ¼ cos θ ¼ sin λ sin δ þ cos λ cos δ cos h ðA7:1Þ so that the daylength in hours equals 2 h/15.
where β is the solar elevation above the horizontal,
θ is the zenith angle of the sun (the complement of β),
λ is the latitude of the observer, δ is the angle between
Angle between any surface and the sun
the sun’s rays and the equatorial plane of the Earth
This is given by:
(solar declination) and is a function only of the time
of year (see Table A7.1), h is the hour angle of the cos ξ ¼ ½ðsin λ cos hÞð−cos α sin χÞ − sin hðsin α sin χÞ
sun (the angular distance from the meridian of the þ ðcos λ cos hÞ cos χ cos δ þ ½cos λðcos α sin χÞ
observer) and is given by 15 (t – to) where t is the time þ sin λ cos χ sin δ
in hours and to is the time at solar noon. Unfortunately ðA7:3Þ
the time of solar noon varies during the year by an where ξ is the angle between the sun’s rays and the
amount that is given by ‘the equation of time’ (Table normal to the surface, χ is the zenith angle (¼ slope) of
A7.1). In the Western hemisphere, the standard time the surface, α is the azimuth or aspect of the surface
at local apparent noon ¼ 12.00 – (equation of time) – (measured east from north). This equation can be used
4 (longitude in degree). As an example of the to calculate irradiance at sloping sites or on leaves of
method of calculation, standard time at local apparent any orientation (see e.g. Figure 2.9).
noon at New York (74 W) on 1 February would be 07 h
12.3 min GMT (i.e. 12 h þ 17.3 – 296 min), which is
equal to a local time (Eastern Standard Time) of 12 h
An example of application
12.3 min because Eastern Standard Time is 5 h before
the Greenwich standard. A number of useful solar Estimate the direct irradiance on a horizontal surface
calculators are now available on the web (e.g. at www. at solar noon on 1 April at a site at sea level and 45 N
susdesign.com/sunangle). latitude.
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352 Appendices
Substituting in Eq. (A7.1) gives: Distance to the sun
sin β ¼ sin 45 sin 4:1 þ cos 45 cos 4:1 cos 0 ¼ 0:756
The value of the irradiance incident at the top of the
Using Eq. (2.11) with m ¼ 1/sin β (Eq. (2.10)), and atmosphere varies by up to about 3% as a result of
assuming an atmospheric transmittance of 0.7, gives: seasonal variation in the distance between the Earth
and the sun.
ISðdirÞ ¼ 1370 0:71:32 0:756 ¼ 646 W m−2
Table A7.1 Solar declination (δ, degree) and the equation of time (e, min) on the first day of each month.
Month δ e Month δ e
January −23.1 −3 July þ23.2 −4
February −17.3 −14 August þ18.3 −6
March −8.0 −13 September þ8.6 0
April þ4.1 −4 October −2.8 þ10
May þ14.8 þ3 November −14.1 þ16
June þ21.9 þ2 December −21.6 þ11
For simulation purposes δ may be obtained from:
δ ¼ −23:4 cos½360ðt d þ 10Þ=365
where td is the number of the day in the year.
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